29:
875:
1440:, so the extra water vapor will condense into ice on the surface of the particle. These ice particles end up as the nuclei of larger ice crystals. This process only happens at temperatures between 0 °C (32 °F) and −40 °C (−40 °F). Below −40 °C (−40 °F), liquid water will spontaneously nucleate, and freeze. The surface tension of the water allows the droplet to stay liquid well below its normal freezing point. When this happens, it is now
1992:. This leads to at least some degree of adiabatic warming of the air which can result in the cloud droplets or crystals turning back into invisible water vapor. Stronger forces such as wind shear and downdrafts can impact a cloud, but these are largely confined to the troposphere where nearly all the Earth's weather takes place. A typical cumulus cloud weighs about 500 metric tons, or 1.1 million pounds, the weight of 100 elephants.
1988:
together may act to keep the cloud from breaking up. However, this speculation has a logical flaw in that the water droplets in the cloud are not in contact with each other and therefore not satisfying the condition required for the intermolecular forces of cohesion to act. Dissolution of the cloud can occur when the process of adiabatic cooling ceases and upward lift of the air is replaced by
1298:
1409:
Eventually, the droplets become large enough that they fall to the earth as precipitation. The collision-coalescence process does not make up a significant part of cloud formation, as water droplets have a relatively high surface tension. In addition, the occurrence of collision-coalescence is closely related to entrainment-mixing processes.
1053:
1268:
convective lifting agents. As with non-frontal convective lift, increasing instability promotes upward vertical cloud growth and raises the potential for severe weather. On comparatively rare occasions, convective lift can be powerful enough to penetrate the tropopause and push the cloud top into the stratosphere.
1862:
The value of a certain parameter is more reliable the more satellites are measuring the said parameter. This is because the range of errors and neglected details varies from instrument to instrument. Thus, if the analysed parameter has similar values for different instruments, it is accepted that the
1448:
to form larger particles. If there are few ice nuclei compared to the amount of SLW, droplets will be unable to form. A process whereby scientists seed a cloud with artificial ice nuclei to encourage precipitation is known as cloud seeding. This can help cause precipitation in clouds that otherwise
1408:
One theory explaining how the behavior of individual droplets in a cloud leads to the formation of precipitation is the collision-coalescence process. Droplets suspended in the air will interact with each other, either by colliding and bouncing off each other or by combining to form a larger droplet.
1259:
Rain droplets that are carried well above the freezing level become supercooled at first then freeze into small hail. A frozen ice nucleus can pick up 0.5 inches (1.3 cm) in size traveling through one of these updrafts and can cycle through several updrafts and downdrafts before finally becoming
1226:
Another agent is the buoyant convective upward motion caused by significant daytime solar heating at surface level, or by relatively high absolute humidity. Incoming short-wave radiation generated by the sun is re-emitted as long-wave radiation when it reaches Earth's surface. This process warms the
1267:
Convective lift can occur in an unstable air mass well away from any fronts. However, very warm unstable air can also be present around fronts and low-pressure centers, often producing cumuliform and cumulonimbiform clouds in heavier and more active concentrations because of the combined frontal and
1083:
As water evaporates from an area of Earth's surface, the air over that area becomes moist. Moist air is lighter than the surrounding dry air, creating an unstable situation. When enough moist air has accumulated, all the moist air rises as a single packet, without mixing with the surrounding air.
943:
droplets of liquid water (warm clouds), tiny crystals of ice (cold clouds), or both (mixed phase clouds), along with microscopic particles of dust, smoke, or other matter, known as condensation nuclei. Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the
1568:
may form anywhere from near the surface to intermediate heights of around 3 kilometres. Of the vertically developed clouds, the cumulonimbus type is the tallest and can virtually span the entire troposphere from a few hundred metres above the ground up to the tropopause. It is the cloud responsible
1344:
from plants is another typical source of water vapor. Lastly, cool or dry air moving over warmer water will become more humid. As with daytime heating, the addition of moisture to the air increases its heat content and instability and helps set into motion those processes that lead to the formation
1339:
There are five main ways water vapor can be added to the air. Increased vapor content can result from wind convergence over water or moist ground into areas of upward motion. Precipitation or virga falling from above also enhances moisture content. Daytime heating causes water to evaporate from the
1127:
of the air. The water droplets in a cloud have a normal radius of about 0.002 mm (0.00008 in). The droplets may collide to form larger droplets, which remain aloft as long as the velocity of the rising air within the cloud is equal to or greater than the terminal velocity of the droplets.
1255:
buffer the falling droplets, and can keep them aloft much longer than they would otherwise. Violent updrafts can reach speeds of up to 180 miles per hour (290 km/h). The longer the rain droplets remain aloft, the more time they have to grow into larger droplets that eventually fall as heavy
971:
In warm clouds, larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity; because at a given velocity, the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets. The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops. When
1559:
Cumuliform and cumulonimbiform heaps and deep stratiform layers often occupy at least two tropospheric levels, and the largest or deepest of these can occupy all three levels. They may be classified as low or mid-level, but are also commonly classified or characterized as vertical or multi-level.
1389:
Water droplets commonly remain as liquid water and do not freeze, even well below 0 °C (32 °F). Ice nuclei that may be present in an atmospheric droplet become active for ice formation at specific temperatures in between 0 °C (32 °F) and −38 °C (−36 °F), depending on
2000:
There are two main model schemes that can represent cloud physics, the most common is bulk microphysics models that uses mean values to describe the cloud properties (e.g. rain water content, ice content), the properties can represent only the first order (concentration) or also the second order
1961:
Another vital property is the icing characteristic of various cloud genus types at various altitudes, which can have great impact on the safety of flying. The methodologies used to determine these characteristics include using CloudSat data for the analysis and retrieval of icing conditions, the
1038:
1318:
Along with adiabatic cooling that requires a lifting agent, there are three other main mechanisms for lowering the temperature of the air to its dew point, all of which occur near surface level and do not require any lifting of the air. Conductive, radiational, and evaporative cooling can cause
1987:
There are forces throughout the homosphere (which includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere) that can impact the structural integrity of a cloud. It has been speculated that as long as the air remains saturated, the natural force of cohesion that hold the molecules of a substance
1453:
adds excess artificial ice nuclei which shifts the balance so that there are many nuclei compared to the amount of super cooled liquid water. An over seeded cloud will form many particles, but each will be very small. This can be done as a preventative measure for areas that are at risk for
1431:
of water, or how much water vapor a given volume can contain, depends on what the vapor is interacting with. Specifically, the saturation vapor pressure with respect to ice is lower than the saturation vapor pressure with respect to water. Water vapor interacting with a water droplet may be
1155:
in the troposphere, the nuclei help transform the vapor into very small water droplets. Clouds that form just above the freezing level are composed mostly of supercooled liquid droplets, while those that condense out at higher altitudes where the air is much colder generally take the form of
1365:
Since the saturation vapor pressure is proportional to temperature, cold air has a lower saturation point than warm air. The difference between these values is the basis for the formation of clouds. When saturated air cools, it can no longer contain the same amount of water vapor. If the
1231:
from warm or hot at surface level to cold aloft. This causes it to rise and cool until temperature equilibrium is achieved with the surrounding air aloft. Moderate instability allows for the formation of cumuliform clouds of moderate size that can produce light showers if the airmass is
3030:
Stubenrauch, C. J; Rossow, W. B; Kinne, S; Ackerman, S; Cesana, G; Chepfer, H; Di
Girolamo, L; Getzewich, B; Guignard, A; Heidinger, A; Maddux, B. C; Menzel, W. P; Minnis, P; Pearl, C; Platnick, S; Poulsen, C; Riedi, J; Sun-Mack, S; Walther, A; Winker, D; Zeng, S; Zhao, G (2013).
1361:
is 100%. At this equilibrium there are equal numbers of molecules evaporating from the water as there are condensing back into the water. If the relative humidity becomes greater than 100%, it is called supersaturated. Supersaturation occurs in the absence of condensation nuclei.
1206:
associated with extratropical cyclones tend to generate mostly cirriform and stratiform clouds over a wide area unless the approaching warm airmass is unstable, in which case cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus clouds will usually be embedded in the main precipitating cloud layer.
1327:, either by the air or by the surface underneath. This type of cooling is common during the night when the sky is clear. Evaporative cooling happens when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its
1814:
Satellites are used to gather data about cloud properties and other information such as Cloud Amount, height, IR emissivity, visible optical depth, icing, effective particle size for both liquid and ice, and cloud top temperature and pressure.
2001:(mass). The second option is to use bin microphysics scheme that keep the moments (mass or concentration) in different for different size of particles. The bulk microphysics models are much faster than the bin models but are less accurate.
1366:
conditions are right, the excess water will condense out of the air until the lower saturation point is reached. Another possibility is that the water stays in vapor form, even though it is beyond the saturation point, resulting in
1488:
clouds are non-convective and appear as extensive sheet-like layers, ranging from thin to very thick with considerable vertical development. They are mostly the product of large-scale lifting of stable air. Unstable free-convective
1373:
Supersaturation of more than 1–2% relative to water is rarely seen in the atmosphere, since cloud condensation nuclei are usually present. Much higher degrees of supersaturation are possible in clean air, and are the basis of the
1323:. Conductive cooling takes place when air from a relatively mild source area comes into contact with a colder surface, as when mild marine air moves across a colder land area. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of
1043:
1042:
1039:
1512:
types which can be subdivided into species and lesser types. High-level clouds form at altitudes of 5 to 12 kilometers. All cirriform clouds are classified as high-level and therefore constitute a single cloud genus
1044:
3094:
960:, which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface. At small radii, the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large, that it does not happen naturally.
1962:
location of clouds using cloud geometric and reflectivity data, the identification of cloud types using cloud classification data, and finding vertical temperature distribution along the CloudSat track (GFS).
1211:
are usually faster moving and generate a narrower line of clouds which are mostly stratocumuliform, cumuliform, or cumulonimbiform depending on the stability of the warm air mass just ahead of the front.
988:
of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood, but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets. Advances in
1041:
972:
the drops become large enough that their downward velocity (relative to the surrounding air) is greater than the upward velocity (relative to the ground) of the surrounding air, the drops can fall as
1850:
The method of detection is based on the fact that the clouds tend to appear brighter and colder than the land surface. Because of this, difficulties rise in detecting clouds above bright (highly
1805:
Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and several additional major types above the troposphere. The cumulus genus includes four species that indicate vertical size and structure.
1353:
The amount of water that can exist as vapor in a given volume increases with the temperature. When the amount of water vapor is in equilibrium above a flat surface of water the level of
1160:. An absence of sufficient condensation particles at and above the condensation level causes the rising air to become supersaturated and the formation of cloud tends to be inhibited.
1436:, when interacting with a water droplet, but the same amount of water vapor would be supersaturated when interacting with an ice particle. The water vapor will attempt to return to
2559:
1260:
so heavy that it falls to the ground as large hail. Cutting a hailstone in half shows onion-like layers of ice, indicating distinct times when it passed through a layer of
3282:
Khain, A. P; Beheng, K. D; Heymsfield, A; Korolev, A; Krichak, S. O; Levin, Z; Pinsky, M; Phillips, V; Prabhakaran, T; Teller, A; Van Den Heever, S. C; Yano, J.-I (2015).
1870:
uses the following quantities in order to compare data quality from different satellites in order to establish a reliable quantification of the properties of the clouds:
1580:
clouds occasionally form at high latitudes at an altitude range of 76 to 85 kilometers. These polar clouds show some of the same forms as seen lower in the troposphere.
2496:
1290:). If the air is generally stable, nothing more than lenticular cap clouds will form. However, if the air becomes sufficiently moist and unstable, orographic showers or
2682:
2239:
1243:
If air near the surface becomes extremely warm and unstable, its upward motion can become quite explosive, resulting in towering cumulonimbiform clouds that can cause
3037:
2661:
2325:
3572:
228:
1040:
3342:
1824:
2477:
2177:"Why do clouds always appear to form in distinct clumps? Why isn't there a uniform fog of condensation, especially on windy days when one would expect mixing?"
2409:
3661:
968:
in a solution. At high concentrations, when the cloud droplets are small, the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus.
1476:, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth, are classified according to the height at which they are found, and their shape or appearance. There are five
814:
2010:
1497:
clouds of limited convection show a mix of cumuliform and stratiform characteristics which appear in the form of rolls or ripples. Highly convective
1394:
droplets (as well as any extremely pure liquid water) can exist down to about −38 °C (−36 °F), at which point spontaneous freezing occurs.
1867:
919:
is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation, growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds. These aerosols are found in the
1544:
Low level clouds have no height-related prefixes, so stratiform and stratocumuliform clouds based around 2 kilometres or lower are known simply as
3245:
Khain, A; Ovtchinnikov, M; Pinsky, M; Pokrovsky, A; Krugliak, H (2000). "Notes on the state-of-the-art numerical modeling of cloud microphysics".
1978:
High-level cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus generally cause no icing because they are made mostly of ice crystals colder than -25 °C.
3540:
28:
1084:
As more moist air forms along the surface, the process repeats, resulting in a series of discrete packets of moist air rising to form clouds.
984:, when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake, and aggregation, when two solid snowflakes collide and combine. The precise
2740:
2637:
2379:
2159:
2089:
1564:
clouds are stratiform layers with sufficient vertical extent to produce significant precipitation. Towering cumulus (species congestus), and
2757:
2590:
2697:
2820:
2567:
1247:. As tiny water particles that make up the cloud group together to form droplets of rain, they are pulled down to earth by the force of
804:
2294:
2798:
2321:
861:
809:
221:
192:
3335:
2972:
2054:
1836:
903:
2976:
2525:
791:
3284:"Representation of microphysical processes in cloud-resolving models: Spectral (bin) microphysics versus bulk parameterization"
2563:
2234:
1115:
and causes the air to cool, which makes water vapor condense into cloud. Water vapor in saturated air is normally attracted to
2500:
3682:
3488:
2447:
134:
60:
1135:(LCL), which roughly determines the height of the cloud base. Free convective clouds generally form at the altitude of the
1965:
The range of temperatures that can give rise to icing conditions is defined according to cloud types and altitude levels:
1484:
clouds are high, thin and wispy, and are seen most extensively along the leading edges of organized weather disturbances.
1136:
689:
214:
48:
1437:
3328:
2859:"A method for distinguishing and linking turbulent entrainment mixing and collision-coalescence in stratocumulus clouds"
3625:
973:
1572:
Some clouds can form at very high to extreme levels above the troposphere, mostly above the polar regions of Earth.
3206:"A New Double-Moment Microphysics Parameterization for Application in Cloud and Climate Models. Part I: Description"
3003:
2481:
3456:
3429:
851:
202:
102:
43:
3033:"Assessment of Global Cloud Datasets from Satellites: Project and Database Initiated by the GEWEX Radiation Panel"
1677:
1666:
1655:
1573:
1428:
1403:
1140:
1132:
1116:
953:
856:
197:
2842:
2815:
3562:
2863:
2761:
2653:
2213:
1989:
1975:
Vertical or multi-level cumulus, cumulonimbus, and nimbostatus, create icing at a range of 0 to -25 °C.
1625:
1191:
1148:
1124:
846:
187:
144:
2346:
3646:
3508:
1221:
1009:
715:
1236:
upcurrents may allow the droplets to grow to a radius of about 0.015 millimetres (0.0006 in) before
3651:
3620:
3483:
3404:
3288:
1169:
896:
710:
468:
392:
149:
55:
2176:
1087:
This process occurs when one or more of three possible lifting agents—cyclonic/frontal, convective, or
3610:
3434:
3394:
3297:
3256:
3247:
3217:
3046:
2872:
2829:
2418:
2114:
1851:
1556:
clouds with little vertical development (species humilis) are also commonly classified as low level.
1501:
clouds have complex structures often including cirriform tops and stratocumuliform accessory clouds.
1328:
1108:
1104:
828:
426:
3585:
3444:
3439:
3424:
3399:
3376:
3352:
2181:
1743:
1549:
1467:
1017:
874:
823:
720:
659:
485:
38:
20:
2405:"Linear relation between convective cloud drop number concentration and depth for rain initiation"
1843:
of the clouds, from which the relevant parameters can be retrieved. This is usually done by using
3641:
3518:
3513:
3466:
3177:
3128:
3118:
3072:
2765:
2130:
1796:
1764:
1701:
1691:
1565:
1561:
1526:
1522:
1441:
1240:
as showers. The equivalent diameter of these droplets is about 0.03 millimetres (0.001 in).
495:
473:
380:
341:
2601:
2704:
2203:
1969:
Low-level stratocumulus and stratus can cause icing at a temperature range of 0 to -10 °C.
1529:. Similar clouds found in the middle level (altitude range 2 to 7 kilometers) carry the prefix
1517:. Stratiform and stratocumuliform clouds in the high level of the troposphere have the prefix
3656:
3605:
3550:
3530:
3416:
2906:
2794:
2793:. International Series in Natural Philosophy. Vol. 113 (3rd ed.). Elsevier Science.
2736:
2676:
2633:
2385:
2375:
2369:
2155:
2085:
2060:
2050:
1791:
1773:
1722:
1715:
1629:
1538:
1534:
1433:
1358:
1324:
1199:
1078:
1005:
1004:
The modern cloud physics began in the 19th century and was described in several publications.
993:
725:
2730:
2627:
3595:
3535:
3461:
3305:
3264:
3225:
3062:
3054:
2880:
2837:
2426:
2298:
2122:
1671:
1418:
1131:
For non-convective cloud, the altitude at which condensation begins to happen is called the
977:
949:
889:
603:
490:
402:
245:
127:
97:
85:
1227:
air closest to ground and increases air mass instability by creating a steeper temperature
3615:
3525:
3471:
3371:
3155:
3140:
2529:
1844:
1367:
1287:
1277:
1021:
945:
796:
571:
274:
3032:
1282:
A third source of lift is wind circulation forcing air over a physical barrier such as a
961:
3301:
3260:
3221:
3050:
2980:
2876:
2833:
2522:
2422:
2118:
1444:
water. The
Bergeron process relies on super cooled liquid water (SLW) interacting with
3545:
3500:
3478:
3366:
2657:
2029:
1354:
1244:
1195:
1152:
879:
786:
620:
139:
90:
3268:
2455:
3676:
2267:
2134:
1934:
1748:
1736:
1553:
1545:
1450:
1375:
1341:
1237:
1181:
989:
957:
696:
642:
591:
478:
3076:
2244:
1928:, the cloud amount weighted by the cloud IR emissivity, with a global average of 0.5
1576:
are seen but rarely in winter at altitudes of 18 to 30 kilometers, while in summer,
976:. The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the
3580:
3182:
2208:
1696:
1660:
1514:
1424:
1391:
1291:
1261:
1157:
1065:
924:
632:
556:
387:
2923:
1251:. The droplets would normally evaporate below the condensation level, but strong
1194:
air, which has been subjected to little or no surface heating, is forced aloft at
2942:
2788:
2149:
2079:
2044:
1264:
water. Hailstones have been found with diameters of up to 7 inches (18 cm).
2901:
1876:
1648:
1577:
1473:
1100:
1092:
940:
920:
781:
669:
664:
627:
576:
507:
453:
409:
397:
346:
113:
71:
1016:
to examine droplets under the microscope. These observations were confirmed by
3600:
3590:
3058:
2885:
2858:
1917:
1445:
1297:
1233:
1208:
1203:
1177:
1173:
1103:
at which the air becomes saturated. The main mechanism behind this process is
1013:
932:
928:
776:
759:
701:
649:
512:
448:
443:
436:
363:
358:
316:
304:
1111:
decreases with altitude, so the rising air expands in a process that expends
3451:
3320:
3067:
3008:
2389:
2105:
Pouncy, Frances J. (February 2003). "A history of cloud codes and symbols".
2064:
1887:
1823:
Data sets regarding cloud properties are gathered using satellites, such as
1381:
There are no instruments to take measurements of supersaturation in clouds.
1096:
1088:
1057:
985:
981:
771:
766:
561:
551:
463:
431:
414:
375:
353:
309:
2371:
A World of
Weather: Fundamentals of Meteorology: A Text / Laboratory Manual
996:
technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale.
3310:
3283:
2431:
2404:
1972:
For mid-level altocumulus and altostratus, the range is 0 to -20 °C.
1914:
1840:
1674:
1663:
1302:
1283:
1228:
1187:
1064:. Nearly black color of base indicates main cloud in foreground probably
566:
169:
160:
1584:
Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels
1423:
The primary mechanism for the formation of ice clouds was discovered by
1008:
originated the idea that clouds were composed of water bubbles. In 1847
2126:
1832:
1752:
1306:
1252:
1248:
1061:
732:
610:
598:
546:
529:
500:
458:
421:
368:
297:
253:
122:
80:
3230:
3205:
2288:
2286:
2284:
3555:
1828:
1112:
965:
534:
522:
517:
284:
279:
269:
262:
2151:
From
Raindrops to Volcanoes: Adventures with Sea Surface Meteorology
1052:
1863:
true value lies in the range given by the corresponding data sets.
2495:
Long, Michael J.; Hanks, Howard H.; Beebe, Robert G. (June 1965).
2046:
A history of the theories of rain and other forms of precipitation
1652:
1296:
1051:
936:
737:
674:
336:
329:
2374:(3 ed.). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. pp. 207–212.
980:
dominates. Other important processes that form precipitation are
2946:
2597:
1455:
1144:
1120:
754:
654:
637:
615:
541:
3324:
1921:, with values between 0 and 1, with a global average around 0.7
964:
describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of
2545:
1899:
1320:
749:
1139:(CCL). Water vapor in saturated air is normally attracted to
1945:
for the liquid and solid (ice) phases of the cloud particles
1319:
condensation at surface level resulting in the formation of
2843:
10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<2957:sowvic>2.0.co;2
1147:
particles that are small enough to be held aloft by normal
1123:
particles that are small enough to be held aloft by normal
3004:"Strange clouds spotted at the edge of Earth's atmosphere"
956:
are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the
2943:"The identification of cloud types in LANDSAT MSS images"
1151:
of the air. If the condensation process occurs below the
1908:, measured above sea level, ranging from 0 to 20 km
3088:
3086:
3204:
Morrison, H; Curry, J. A; Khvorostyanov, V. I (2005).
1504:
These forms are cross-classified by altitude range or
1480:
based on physical structure and process of formation.
1390:
nucleus geometry and composition. Without ice nuclei,
931:, which collectively make up the greatest part of the
16:
Study of the physical processes in atmospheric clouds
3093:
3634:
3571:
3499:
3415:
3387:
3359:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3019:
2857:Lu, Chunsong; Liu, Yangang; Niu, Shengjie (2012).
2324:. Department of Atmospheric Sciences (DAS) at the
1305:enhanced by the Sun's angle, can visually mimic a
1952:for both liquid and ice, ranging from 0 to 200 μm
2497:"TROPOPAUSE PENETRATIONS BY CUMULONIMBUS CLOUDS"
2240:Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences
3154:UCAR Center for Science Education, ed. (2011).
3038:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
2698:"Global maps of Local Land-Atmosphere coupling"
2662:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1493:clouds are formed mostly into localized heaps.
1190:lift occur in their purest manifestations when
3123:. Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. 1841. p. 43.
2967:
2965:
2963:
1073:Adiabatic cooling: rising packets of moist air
1028:Cloud formation: how the air becomes saturated
3336:
2078:Pruppacher, Hans R.; Klett, James D. (1997).
1340:surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land.
948:of air exceeds a critical value according to
897:
222:
8:
2729:Reiley, H. Edward; Shry, Carroll L. (2002).
2681:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2410:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
19:
1331:, or sometimes to the point of saturation.
3343:
3329:
3321:
2816:"Supersaturation of Water Vapor in Clouds"
2326:University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
904:
890:
240:
229:
215:
18:
3309:
3229:
3066:
2884:
2841:
2814:Korolev, Alexei V; Mazin, Ilia P (2003).
2696:Bart van den Hurk; Eleanor Blyth (2008).
2478:"Largest Hailstone in U.S. History Found"
2430:
2043:Middleton, William Edgar Knowles (1966).
2011:Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics
1521:added to their names yielding the genera
2977:"Definitions, International Cloud Atlas"
2081:Microphysics of clouds and precipitation
1868:Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment
1588:
1036:
2598:University of California in Los Angeles
2021:
1427:. The Bergeron process notes that the
252:
177:
159:
112:
70:
3541:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
3136:
3126:
2674:
2320:Elementary Meteorology Online (2013).
2293:Elementary Meteorology Online (2013).
3095:"Verification of WAFS Icing Products"
2902:"Cloud Physics: The Bergeron Process"
2295:"Humidity, Saturation, and Stability"
7:
2656:Office, Spokane, Washington (2009).
1854:) surfaces, such as oceans and ice.
3210:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
2821:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
2368:Lee M. Grenci; Jon M. Nese (2001).
2534:Fundamentals of Physical Geography
2322:"Lifting Along Frontal Boundaries"
1938:varies within a range of 4 and 10.
1048:Cloud evolution in under a minute.
193:Glossary of tropical cyclone terms
14:
2973:World Meteorological Organization
2941:E.C. Barrett; C.K. Grant (1976).
2175:Harvey Wichman (August 4, 1997).
1761:Multi-level or moderate vertical
1091:—causes air containing invisible
2924:"Cloud Physics: Types of Clouds"
2787:Rogers, R.R.; Yau, M.K. (1989).
2735:. Cengage Learning. p. 40.
2558:Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
873:
27:
3662:Timeline of physics discoveries
2790:A Short Course in Cloud Physics
2626:Pearce, Robert Penrose (2002).
2564:American Meteorological Society
2403:Freud, E; Rosenfeld, D (2012).
3178:"How Much Does a Cloud Weigh?"
3176:Soniak, Matt (April 4, 2013).
2632:. Academic Press. p. 66.
2446:O'Niell, Dan (9 August 1979).
1839:. The instruments measure the
1309:resulting from orographic lift
135:Climate variability and change
1:
3269:10.1016/S0169-8095(00)00064-8
2928:College of DuPage Weather Lab
2658:"Virga and Dry Thunderstorms"
2629:Meteorology at the Millennium
2148:Blanchard, Duncan C. (2004).
1950:cloud effective particle size
1533:resulting in the genus names
1357:is called saturation and the
1137:convective condensation level
3156:"The Troposphere – overview"
1635:Noctilucent billow or whirls
1232:sufficiently moist. Typical
1033:Cooling air to its dew point
3626:Quantum information science
2523:"Cloud Formation Processes"
1881:with values between 0 and 1
1810:Determination of properties
801:Severe weather terminology
263:Temperate and polar seasons
3699:
3457:Classical electromagnetism
3002:Hsu, Jeremy (2008-09-03).
2591:"Approaches to saturation"
2266:Horstmeyer, Steve (2008).
2084:(2nd ed.). Springer.
1574:Polar stratospheric clouds
1465:
1416:
1401:
1335:Adding moisture to the air
1275:
1219:
1167:
1076:
203:Glossary of climate change
3059:10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00117.1
2886:10.1007/s11434-012-5556-6
2732:Introductory horticulture
2297:. vsc.edu. Archived from
2268:"Cloud Drops, Rain Drops"
1891:ranging from 150 to 340 K
1429:saturation vapor pressure
1404:Coalescence (meteorology)
1164:Frontal and cyclonic lift
1133:lifted condensation level
954:Cloud condensation nuclei
198:Glossary of tornado terms
3563:Condensed matter physics
2864:Chinese Science Bulletin
2762:National Weather Service
2654:National Weather Service
2214:Georgia State University
1983:Cohesion and dissolution
1095:to rise and cool to its
1000:History of cloud physics
2589:Fovell, Robert (2004).
188:Glossary of meteorology
3647:Nobel Prize in Physics
3509:Relativistic mechanics
3120:Constitution of Matter
2703:. KNMI. Archived from
2480:. 2003. Archived from
1926:effective cloud amount
1310:
1222:Atmospheric convection
1198:and around centers of
1069:
1049:
862:Tropical cyclone terms
3683:Cloud and fog physics
3652:Philosophy of physics
3289:Reviews of Geophysics
2560:"Radiational cooling"
2521:Pidwirny, M. (2006).
2454:. 328. Archived from
1896:cloud pressure at top
1886:cloud temperature at
1602:mostly non-convective
1398:Collision-coalescence
1314:Non-adiabatic cooling
1300:
1170:Extratropical cyclone
1055:
1047:
469:Extratropical cyclone
393:Air-mass thunderstorm
56:Atmospheric chemistry
3611:Mathematical physics
3311:10.1002/2014RG000468
3248:Atmospheric Research
2452:Alaska Science Forum
2432:10.1029/2011JD016457
1462:Cloud classification
1329:wet-bulb temperature
1109:Atmospheric pressure
829:Weather modification
427:Anticyclonic tornado
44:Atmospheric dynamics
21:Atmospheric sciences
3586:Atmospheric physics
3425:Classical mechanics
3353:branches of physics
3302:2015RvGeo..53..247K
3261:2000AtmRe..55..159K
3222:2005JAtS...62.1665M
3051:2013BAMS...94.1031S
2877:2013ChSBu..58..545L
2834:2003JAtS...60.2957K
2768:on 24 December 2008
2710:on 25 February 2009
2607:on 25 February 2009
2423:2012JGRD..117.2207F
2204:"Adiabatic Process"
2182:Scientific American
2119:2003Wthr...58...69P
1569:for thunderstorms.
1468:List of cloud types
1432:saturated, at 100%
1141:condensation nuclei
1117:condensation nuclei
1018:William Henry Dines
824:Weather forecasting
660:Rain and snow mixed
486:Subtropical cyclone
39:Atmospheric physics
23:
3642:History of physics
2756:JetStream (2008).
2528:2008-12-20 at the
2484:on August 7, 2003.
2127:10.1256/wea.219.02
2030:"What Are Clouds?"
1782:Towering vertical
1617:strong-convective
1607:limited-convective
1442:supercooled liquid
1325:infrared radiation
1311:
1070:
1050:
880:Weather portal
496:Atlantic hurricane
474:European windstorm
381:Volcanic lightning
342:Cumulonimbus cloud
3670:
3669:
3657:Physics education
3606:Materials science
3573:Interdisciplinary
3531:Quantum mechanics
3231:10.1175/JAS3446.1
2907:College of DuPage
2742:978-0-7668-1567-4
2639:978-0-12-548035-2
2381:978-0-7872-7716-1
2247:on March 16, 2015
2202:Nave, R. (2013).
2161:978-0-486-43487-2
2154:. Courier Dover.
2091:978-0-7923-4211-3
1802:
1801:
1792:Cumulus congestus
1774:Cumulus mediocris
1638:Noctilucent bands
1605:Stratocumuliform
1434:relative humidity
1392:supercooled water
1359:relative humidity
1345:of cloud or fog.
1119:such as dust and
1105:adiabatic cooling
1079:Adiabatic process
1045:
1006:Otto von Guericke
914:
913:
239:
238:
3690:
3596:Chemical physics
3536:Particle physics
3462:Classical optics
3345:
3338:
3331:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3255:(3–4): 159–224.
3242:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3138:
3134:
3132:
3124:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3099:
3090:
3081:
3080:
3070:
3068:2060/20120014334
3027:
3014:
3013:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2983:on 27 March 2017
2979:. Archived from
2969:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2854:
2848:
2847:
2845:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2764:. Archived from
2753:
2747:
2746:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2709:
2702:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2680:
2672:
2670:
2668:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2623:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2606:
2600:. Archived from
2595:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2566:. Archived from
2555:
2549:
2543:
2537:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2499:. Archived from
2492:
2486:
2485:
2474:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2448:"Hail Formation"
2443:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2349:. Weather Online
2343:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2332:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2290:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2243:. Archived from
2231:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2102:
2096:
2095:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2026:
1943:cloud water path
1933:cloud (visible)
1645:Very high level
1615:Cumulonimbiform
1592:Forms and levels
1589:
1495:Stratocumuliform
1419:Bergeron process
1413:Bergeron process
1046:
978:Bergeron process
906:
899:
892:
878:
877:
491:Tropical cyclone
403:Dry thunderstorm
298:Tropical seasons
241:
231:
224:
217:
98:Tropical cyclone
31:
24:
3698:
3697:
3693:
3692:
3691:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3673:
3672:
3671:
3666:
3630:
3616:Medical physics
3567:
3526:Nuclear physics
3495:
3489:Non-equilibrium
3411:
3383:
3355:
3349:
3319:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3244:
3243:
3239:
3203:
3202:
3198:
3188:
3186:
3175:
3174:
3170:
3160:
3158:
3153:
3152:
3148:
3135:
3125:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3092:
3091:
3084:
3029:
3028:
3017:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2986:
2984:
2971:
2970:
2961:
2951:
2949:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2921:
2920:
2916:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2871:(4–5): 545–51.
2856:
2855:
2851:
2828:(24): 2957–74.
2813:
2812:
2808:
2801:
2786:
2785:
2781:
2771:
2769:
2755:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2728:
2727:
2723:
2713:
2711:
2707:
2700:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2673:
2666:
2664:
2652:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2625:
2624:
2620:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2593:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2573:
2571:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2544:
2540:
2532:, chapter 8 in
2530:Wayback Machine
2520:
2516:
2506:
2504:
2503:on 3 March 2016
2494:
2493:
2489:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2461:
2459:
2458:on 11 June 2007
2445:
2444:
2440:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2382:
2367:
2366:
2362:
2352:
2350:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2330:
2328:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2304:
2302:
2292:
2291:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2250:
2248:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2218:
2216:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2187:
2185:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2162:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2092:
2077:
2076:
2072:
2057:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2032:. 2 March 2017.
2028:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2007:
1998:
1985:
1959:
1879:or cloud amount
1860:
1821:
1812:
1749:Cumulus humilis
1616:
1612:free-convective
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1499:cumulonimbiform
1470:
1464:
1449:may not rain.
1421:
1415:
1406:
1400:
1387:
1368:supersaturation
1351:
1349:Supersaturation
1337:
1316:
1288:orographic lift
1280:
1278:Orographic lift
1274:
1272:Orographic lift
1224:
1218:
1216:Convective lift
1184:
1166:
1081:
1075:
1037:
1035:
1030:
1022:Richard Assmann
1010:Augustus Waller
1002:
946:supersaturation
910:
872:
867:
866:
842:
834:
833:
692:
682:
681:
594:
584:
583:
572:Ground blizzard
332:
322:
321:
300:
290:
289:
265:
235:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3696:
3694:
3686:
3685:
3675:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3577:
3575:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3565:
3560:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3516:
3505:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3491:
3486:
3479:Thermodynamics
3476:
3475:
3474:
3469:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3421:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3407:
3397:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3380:
3379:
3369:
3363:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3350:
3348:
3347:
3340:
3333:
3325:
3318:
3317:
3296:(2): 247–322.
3274:
3237:
3216:(6): 1665–77.
3196:
3168:
3146:
3110:
3082:
3045:(7): 1031–49.
3015:
2994:
2975:, ed. (2017).
2959:
2933:
2914:
2892:
2849:
2806:
2800:978-0750632157
2799:
2779:
2748:
2741:
2721:
2688:
2645:
2638:
2618:
2581:
2570:on 12 May 2011
2550:
2538:
2514:
2487:
2469:
2438:
2417:(D2): D02207.
2395:
2380:
2360:
2347:"Mackerel sky"
2338:
2312:
2280:
2258:
2226:
2194:
2167:
2160:
2140:
2097:
2090:
2070:
2055:
2035:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2006:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1946:
1939:
1929:
1922:
1909:
1902:
1892:
1882:
1859:
1856:
1845:inverse theory
1820:
1817:
1811:
1808:
1800:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1757:
1755:
1746:
1741:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1729:
1727:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1669:
1658:
1646:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1633:
1623:
1622:Extreme level
1619:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1597:non-convective
1593:
1472:Clouds in the
1466:Main article:
1463:
1460:
1417:Main article:
1414:
1411:
1402:Main article:
1399:
1396:
1386:
1383:
1355:vapor pressure
1350:
1347:
1336:
1333:
1315:
1312:
1301:Windy evening
1276:Main article:
1273:
1270:
1245:severe weather
1217:
1214:
1196:weather fronts
1165:
1162:
1153:freezing level
1074:
1071:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1001:
998:
912:
911:
909:
908:
901:
894:
886:
883:
882:
869:
868:
865:
864:
859:
854:
852:Climate change
849:
843:
840:
839:
836:
835:
832:
831:
826:
821:
820:
819:
818:
817:
812:
807:
799:
794:
787:Severe weather
784:
779:
774:
769:
764:
763:
762:
757:
747:
746:
745:
735:
730:
729:
728:
723:
718:
713:
705:
704:
699:
693:
688:
687:
684:
683:
680:
679:
678:
677:
672:
667:
662:
652:
647:
646:
645:
635:
630:
625:
624:
623:
621:Megacryometeor
613:
608:
607:
606:
595:
590:
589:
586:
585:
582:
581:
580:
579:
574:
569:
564:
554:
549:
544:
539:
538:
537:
527:
526:
525:
520:
510:
505:
504:
503:
498:
488:
483:
482:
481:
476:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
440:
439:
434:
429:
419:
418:
417:
407:
406:
405:
400:
395:
385:
384:
383:
373:
372:
371:
366:
361:
351:
350:
349:
344:
333:
328:
327:
324:
323:
320:
319:
314:
313:
312:
301:
296:
295:
292:
291:
288:
287:
282:
277:
272:
266:
261:
260:
257:
256:
250:
249:
237:
236:
234:
233:
226:
219:
211:
208:
207:
206:
205:
200:
195:
190:
182:
181:
175:
174:
173:
172:
164:
163:
157:
156:
155:
154:
153:
152:
147:
140:Climate change
137:
132:
131:
130:
117:
116:
110:
109:
108:
107:
106:
105:
95:
94:
93:
88:
75:
74:
68:
67:
66:
65:
64:
63:
53:
52:
51:
41:
33:
32:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3695:
3684:
3681:
3680:
3678:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3621:Ocean physics
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3557:
3556:Modern optics
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3464:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3406:
3405:Computational
3403:
3402:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3386:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3346:
3341:
3339:
3334:
3332:
3327:
3326:
3323:
3312:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3278:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3249:
3241:
3238:
3232:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3200:
3197:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3172:
3169:
3157:
3150:
3147:
3142:
3130:
3122:
3121:
3114:
3111:
3096:
3089:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3039:
3034:
3026:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3011:
3010:
3005:
2998:
2995:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2948:
2944:
2937:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2922:Sirvatka, P.
2918:
2915:
2910:
2908:
2903:
2900:Sirvatka, P.
2896:
2893:
2887:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2865:
2860:
2853:
2850:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2810:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2783:
2780:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2749:
2744:
2738:
2734:
2733:
2725:
2722:
2706:
2699:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2678:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2641:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2622:
2619:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2585:
2582:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2554:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2488:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2470:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2439:
2433:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2411:
2406:
2399:
2396:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2377:
2373:
2372:
2364:
2361:
2348:
2342:
2339:
2327:
2323:
2316:
2313:
2301:on 2 May 2014
2300:
2296:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2269:
2262:
2259:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2230:
2227:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2198:
2195:
2184:
2183:
2178:
2171:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2144:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2098:
2093:
2087:
2083:
2082:
2074:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2056:9780226524979
2052:
2049:. Oldbourne.
2048:
2047:
2039:
2036:
2031:
2025:
2022:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2004:
2002:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1982:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1935:optical depth
1930:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1916:
1910:
1907:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1864:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1818:
1816:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1744:Stratocumulus
1742:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1550:stratocumulus
1547:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1452:
1451:Cloud seeding
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1405:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1376:cloud chamber
1371:
1369:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1342:Transpiration
1334:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1293:
1292:thunderstorms
1289:
1285:
1279:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1239:
1238:precipitating
1235:
1230:
1223:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1182:Precipitation
1179:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1032:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
999:
997:
995:
991:
990:weather radar
987:
983:
979:
975:
974:precipitation
969:
967:
963:
959:
958:Kelvin effect
955:
951:
950:Köhler theory
947:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
917:Cloud physics
907:
902:
900:
895:
893:
888:
887:
885:
884:
881:
876:
871:
870:
863:
860:
858:
857:Tornado terms
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
844:
838:
837:
830:
827:
825:
822:
816:
815:United States
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
802:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
789:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
761:
758:
756:
753:
752:
751:
748:
744:
741:
740:
739:
736:
734:
731:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
708:
707:
706:
703:
700:
698:
697:Air pollution
695:
694:
691:
686:
685:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
657:
656:
653:
651:
648:
644:
641:
640:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
622:
619:
618:
617:
614:
612:
609:
605:
602:
601:
600:
597:
596:
593:
592:Precipitation
588:
587:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
559:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
536:
533:
532:
531:
528:
524:
521:
519:
516:
515:
514:
511:
509:
506:
502:
499:
497:
494:
493:
492:
489:
487:
484:
480:
477:
475:
472:
471:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
424:
423:
420:
416:
413:
412:
411:
408:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
390:
389:
386:
382:
379:
378:
377:
374:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
356:
355:
352:
348:
345:
343:
340:
339:
338:
335:
334:
331:
326:
325:
318:
315:
311:
308:
307:
306:
303:
302:
299:
294:
293:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
267:
264:
259:
258:
255:
251:
247:
243:
242:
232:
227:
225:
220:
218:
213:
212:
210:
209:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
185:
184:
183:
180:
176:
171:
168:
167:
166:
165:
162:
158:
151:
148:
146:
143:
142:
141:
138:
136:
133:
129:
126:
125:
124:
121:
120:
119:
118:
115:
111:
104:
101:
100:
99:
96:
92:
89:
87:
84:
83:
82:
79:
78:
77:
76:
73:
69:
62:
59:
58:
57:
54:
50:
47:
46:
45:
42:
40:
37:
36:
35:
34:
30:
26:
25:
22:
3581:Astrophysics
3395:Experimental
3293:
3287:
3277:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3213:
3209:
3199:
3187:. Retrieved
3183:Mental Floss
3181:
3171:
3159:. Retrieved
3149:
3119:
3113:
3101:. Retrieved
3042:
3036:
3007:
2997:
2985:. Retrieved
2981:the original
2950:. Retrieved
2936:
2927:
2917:
2905:
2895:
2868:
2862:
2852:
2825:
2819:
2809:
2789:
2782:
2770:. Retrieved
2766:the original
2758:"Air Masses"
2751:
2731:
2724:
2712:. Retrieved
2705:the original
2691:
2665:. Retrieved
2648:
2628:
2621:
2609:. Retrieved
2602:the original
2584:
2572:. Retrieved
2568:the original
2553:
2541:
2533:
2517:
2505:. Retrieved
2501:the original
2490:
2482:the original
2472:
2460:. Retrieved
2456:the original
2451:
2441:
2414:
2408:
2398:
2370:
2363:
2351:. Retrieved
2341:
2329:. Retrieved
2315:
2303:. Retrieved
2299:the original
2271:. Retrieved
2261:
2249:. Retrieved
2245:the original
2238:
2235:"Bad Clouds"
2229:
2217:. Retrieved
2209:HyperPhysics
2207:
2197:
2186:. Retrieved
2180:
2170:
2150:
2143:
2113:(2): 69–80.
2110:
2106:
2100:
2080:
2073:
2045:
2038:
2024:
1999:
1986:
1964:
1960:
1949:
1942:
1932:
1925:
1912:
1906:cloud height
1905:
1895:
1885:
1875:
1865:
1861:
1849:
1822:
1813:
1804:
1803:
1797:Cumulonimbus
1765:Nimbostratus
1702:Cirrocumulus
1692:Cirrostratus
1583:
1582:
1571:
1566:cumulonimbus
1562:Nimbostratus
1558:
1543:
1530:
1527:cirrocumulus
1523:cirrostratus
1518:
1509:
1505:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1471:
1425:Tor Bergeron
1422:
1407:
1388:
1385:Supercooling
1380:
1372:
1364:
1352:
1338:
1317:
1294:may appear.
1281:
1266:
1262:super-cooled
1258:
1242:
1225:
1200:low pressure
1186:Frontal and
1185:
1158:ice crystals
1130:
1086:
1082:
1066:cumulonimbus
1056:Late-summer
1020:in 1880 and
1003:
970:
962:Raoult's law
925:stratosphere
916:
915:
742:
633:Diamond dust
557:Winter storm
388:Thunderstorm
178:
3484:Statistical
3400:Theoretical
3377:Engineering
3189:February 5,
3137:|work=
3103:11 November
2909:Weather Lab
2574:27 December
2353:21 November
2331:February 5,
2305:18 November
2251:February 5,
2219:February 5,
1898:1013 - 100
1877:cloud cover
1723:Altocumulus
1716:Altostratus
1688:High-level
1649:Nitric acid
1630:Noctilucent
1610:Cumuliform
1595:Stratiform
1578:noctilucent
1539:altocumulus
1535:altostratus
1474:troposphere
1438:equilibrium
1209:Cold fronts
1204:Warm fronts
1149:circulation
1125:circulation
1101:temperature
1093:water vapor
941:microscopic
939:consist of
921:troposphere
847:Meteorology
782:Meteorology
670:Snow roller
665:Snow grains
628:Ice pellets
577:Snow squall
508:Storm surge
454:Anticyclone
410:Mesocyclone
398:Thundersnow
347:Arcus cloud
114:Climatology
72:Meteorology
3601:Geophysics
3591:Biophysics
3435:Analytical
3388:Approaches
3161:15 January
2611:7 February
2507:9 November
2188:2016-03-19
2017:References
1990:subsidence
1918:emissivity
1858:Parameters
1852:reflective
1733:Low-level
1712:Mid-level
1672:Lenticular
1600:Cirriform
1491:cumuliform
1486:Stratiform
1446:ice nuclei
1234:convection
1220:See also:
1178:Cold front
1174:Warm front
1168:See also:
1089:orographic
1077:See also:
1014:spider web
933:homosphere
929:mesosphere
841:Glossaries
777:Jet stream
716:Convection
702:Atmosphere
650:Cloudburst
513:Dust storm
479:Nor'easter
449:Fire whirl
444:Dust devil
437:Waterspout
364:Heat burst
359:Microburst
317:Wet season
305:Dry season
179:Glossaries
3551:Molecular
3452:Acoustics
3445:Continuum
3440:Celestial
3430:Newtonian
3417:Classical
3360:Divisions
3139:ignored (
3129:cite book
3009:USA Today
2952:22 August
2772:2 January
2714:2 January
2667:2 January
2536:, 2nd ed.
2135:122081455
1888:cloud top
1841:radiances
1819:Detection
1661:Cirriform
1552:. Small
1508:into ten
1482:Cirriform
1256:showers.
1097:dew point
1058:rainstorm
1024:in 1884.
994:satellite
986:mechanics
772:Heat wave
767:Cold wave
711:Chemistry
562:Ice storm
552:Firestorm
464:Polar low
432:Landspout
415:Supercell
376:Lightning
354:Downburst
310:Harmattan
244:Part of
3677:Category
3077:12145499
2987:30 March
2677:cite web
2548:, p. 109
2546:Ackerman
2526:Archived
2390:51160155
2273:19 March
2065:12250134
2005:See also
1675:nacreous
1664:nacreous
1458:storms.
1303:twilight
1284:mountain
1253:updrafts
1229:gradient
1188:cyclonic
1143:such as
643:Freezing
604:Freezing
567:Blizzard
246:a series
170:Aeronomy
161:Aeronomy
145:category
128:category
103:category
86:category
61:category
49:category
3635:Related
3519:General
3514:Special
3372:Applied
3298:Bibcode
3257:Bibcode
3218:Bibcode
3047:Bibcode
2873:Bibcode
2830:Bibcode
2419:Bibcode
2115:Bibcode
2107:Weather
1833:CALIPSO
1753:fractus
1737:Stratus
1554:cumulus
1546:stratus
1307:tornado
1249:gravity
1062:Denmark
797:Extreme
743:Physics
733:Climate
721:Physics
611:Graupel
599:Drizzle
547:Sirocco
530:Monsoon
501:Typhoon
459:Cyclone
422:Tornado
369:Derecho
254:Weather
123:Climate
81:Weather
3546:Atomic
3501:Modern
3351:Major
3075:
2797:
2739:
2636:
2462:23 May
2388:
2378:
2158:
2133:
2088:
2063:
2053:
1996:Models
1913:cloud
1829:POLDER
1697:Cirrus
1651:&
1519:cirro-
1515:cirrus
1192:stable
1180:, and
1113:energy
1099:, the
982:riming
966:solute
937:Clouds
927:, and
805:Canada
760:Season
690:Topics
535:Amihan
523:Haboob
518:Simoom
330:Storms
285:Autumn
280:Summer
275:Spring
270:Winter
150:portal
91:portal
3098:(PDF)
3073:S2CID
2708:(PDF)
2701:(PDF)
2605:(PDF)
2594:(PDF)
2131:S2CID
1957:Icing
1825:MODIS
1653:water
1632:veils
1531:alto-
1510:genus
1506:level
1478:forms
1012:used
810:Japan
738:Cloud
726:River
675:Slush
337:Cloud
3472:Wave
3367:Pure
3191:2018
3163:2015
3141:help
3105:2014
2989:2017
2954:2012
2947:NASA
2795:ISBN
2774:2009
2737:ISBN
2716:2009
2683:link
2669:2009
2634:ISBN
2613:2009
2576:2008
2509:2014
2464:2007
2386:OCLC
2376:ISBN
2355:2013
2333:2018
2307:2013
2275:2012
2253:2018
2221:2018
2156:ISBN
2086:ISBN
2061:OCLC
2051:ISBN
1948:the
1941:the
1931:the
1924:the
1911:the
1904:the
1894:the
1884:the
1874:the
1866:The
1837:ATSR
1548:and
1537:and
1525:and
1456:hail
1145:salt
1121:salt
992:and
792:List
755:Mist
655:Snow
638:Rain
616:Hail
542:Gale
3467:Ray
3306:doi
3265:doi
3226:doi
3063:hdl
3055:doi
2881:doi
2838:doi
2427:doi
2415:117
2123:doi
1900:hPa
1835:or
1751:or
1678:PSC
1667:PSC
1656:PSC
1626:PMC
1321:fog
1060:in
935:.
750:Fog
3679::
3304:.
3294:53
3292:.
3286:.
3263:.
3253:55
3251:.
3224:.
3214:62
3212:.
3208:.
3180:.
3133::
3131:}}
3127:{{
3085:^
3071:.
3061:.
3053:.
3043:94
3041:.
3035:.
3018:^
3006:.
2962:^
2945:.
2926:.
2904:.
2879:.
2869:58
2867:.
2861:.
2836:.
2826:60
2824:.
2818:.
2760:.
2679:}}
2675:{{
2660:.
2596:.
2562:.
2450:.
2425:.
2413:.
2407:.
2384:.
2283:^
2237:.
2212:.
2206:.
2179:.
2129:.
2121:.
2111:58
2109:.
2059:.
1915:IR
1847:.
1831:,
1827:,
1628::
1586:.
1541:.
1378:.
1370:.
1202:.
1176:,
1172:,
1107:.
952:.
923:,
248:on
3344:e
3337:t
3330:v
3314:.
3308::
3300::
3271:.
3267::
3259::
3234:.
3228::
3220::
3193:.
3165:.
3143:)
3107:.
3079:.
3065::
3057::
3049::
3012:.
2991:.
2956:.
2930:.
2911:.
2889:.
2883::
2875::
2846:.
2840::
2832::
2803:.
2776:.
2745:.
2718:.
2685:)
2671:.
2642:.
2615:.
2578:.
2511:.
2466:.
2435:.
2429::
2421::
2392:.
2357:.
2335:.
2309:.
2277:.
2255:.
2223:.
2191:.
2164:.
2137:.
2125::
2117::
2094:.
2067:.
1286:(
1068:.
905:e
898:t
891:v
230:e
223:t
216:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
