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pavements and foundations. Stabilization can be used to treat a wide range of sub-grade materials from expansive clays to granular materials. Stabilization can be achieved with a variety of chemical additives including lime, fly ash, and
Portland cement. Proper design and testing is an important component of any stabilization project. This allows for the establishment of design criteria, and determination of the proper chemical additive and admixture rate that achieves the desired engineering properties. Stabilization process benefits can include: Higher resistance (R) values, Reduction in plasticity, Lower permeability, Reduction of pavement thickness, Elimination of excavation – material hauling/handling – and base importation, Aids compaction, Provides "all-weather" access onto and within projects sites. Another form of soil treatment closely related to soil stabilization is soil modification, sometimes referred to as "mud drying" or soil conditioning. Although some stabilization inherently occurs in soil modification, the distinction is that soil modification is merely a means to reduce the moisture content of a soil to expedite construction, whereas stabilization can substantially increase the shear strength of a material such that it can be incorporated into the project's structural design. The determining factors associated with soil modification vs soil stabilization may be the existing moisture content, the end use of the soil structure and ultimately the cost benefit provided. Equipment for the stabilization and modification processes include: chemical additive spreaders, soil mixers (reclaimers), portable pneumatic storage containers, water trucks, deep lift compactors, motor graders.
2018:
New Delhi, as of 2015, only 60% of fly ash produced was being utilised. This has resulted in the latest notification in 2015 which has set
December 31, 2017, as the revised deadline to achieve 100% utilisation. Out of the approximately 55.7% fly ash utilised, bulk of it (42.3%) goes into cement production whereas only about 0.74% is used as an additive in concrete (See Table 5 ). Researchers in India are actively addressing this challenge by working on fly ash as an admixture for concrete and activated pozzolanic cement such as geopolymer to help achieve the target of 100% utilisation. The biggest scope clearly lies in the area of increasing the quantity of fly ash being incorporated in concrete. India produced 280 Million Tonnes of Cement in 2016 . With housing sector consuming 67% of the cement, there is a huge scope for incorporating fly ash in both the increasing share of PPC and low to moderate strength concrete. There is a misconception that the Indian codes IS 456:2000 for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete and IS 3812.1:2013 for Fly Ash restrict the use of Fly Ash to less than 35%. Similar misconceptions exists in countries like US but evidence to the contrary is the use of HVFA in many large projects where design mixes have been used under strict quality control. It is suggested that in order to make the most of the research results presented in the paper, Ultra High Volume Fly ash Concrete (UHVFA) concrete is urgently developed for widespread use in India using local fly ash. Urgent steps are also required to promote alkali activated pozzolan or geopolymer cement based concretes.
1143:
1082:), depending on the design requirements of the project in question. Flowable fill includes mixtures of Portland cement and filler material, and can contain mineral admixtures. Fly ash can replace either the Portland cement or fine aggregate (in most cases, river sand) as a filler material. High fly ash content mixes contain nearly all fly ash, with a small percentage of Portland cement and enough water to make the mix flowable. Low fly ash content mixes contain a high percentage of filler material, and a low percentage of fly ash, Portland cement, and water. Class F fly ash is best suited for high fly ash content mixes, whereas Class C fly ash is almost always used in low fly ash content mixes.
113:
1689:
1645:, or discharge from a coal ash pond. Fish can be contaminated a couple of different ways. When the water is contaminated by fly ash, the fish can absorb the toxins through their gills. The sediment in the water can also become contaminated. The contaminated sediment can contaminate the food sources for the fish, the fish can then become contaminated from consuming those food sources. This can then lead to contamination of organisms that consume these fish, such as, birds, bear, and even humans. Once exposed to fly ash contaminating the water, aquatic organisms have had increased levels of
1394:. Federal design standards for ash ponds were strengthened in 2015. Following litigation challenges to various provisions of the 2015 regulations, EPA issued two final rules in 2020, labeled as the "CCR Part A" and "CCR Part B" rules. The rules require some facilities to retrofit their impoundments with liners, while other facilities may propose alternative designs and request additional time to achieve compliance. In March 2023 published a proposed rule that would strengthen wastewater limits for discharges to surface waters.
1553:; arsenic has been found to cause several types of cancer. At 10 of the sites, lithium, which causes neurological disease, was found in the groundwater at concentrations more than 1,000 micrograms per liter, which is 25 times the maximum acceptable level. The report concludes that the fossil fuel industry in Texas has failed to comply with federal regulations on coal ash processing, and state regulators have failed to protect the groundwater.
1509:, into groundwater, rivers and lakes. The hazardous toxic chemicals dumped into the water in Illinois by these coal ash dumpsites include more than 300,000 pounds of aluminum, 600 pounds of arsenic, nearly 300,000 pounds of boron, over 200 pounds of cadmium, over 15,000 pounds of manganese, roughly 1,500 pounds of selenium, roughly 500,000 pounds of nitrogen, and nearly 40 million pounds of sulfate, according to a report by the
1328:
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communities in contaminated soil have shown reductions in respiration and nitrification. These contaminated soils can be detrimental or beneficial to plant development. Fly ash typically has beneficial outcomes when it corrects nutrient deficiencies in the soil. Most detrimental effects were observed when boron phytotoxicity was observed. Plants absorb elements elevated by the fly ash from the soil. Arsenic,
52:
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1992:
In response to the court remand, EPA published its "CCR Part A" final rule on August 28, 2020, requiring all unlined ash ponds to retrofit with liners or close by April 11, 2021. Some facilities may apply to obtain additional time—up to 2028—to find alternatives for managing ash wastes before closing
1020:
per ton of fly ash. Since the worldwide production of
Portland cement is expected to reach nearly 2 billion tons by 2010, replacement of any large portion of this cement by fly ash could significantly reduce carbon emissions associated with construction, as long as the comparison takes the production
1000:
Fly ash can significantly improve the workability of concrete. Recently, techniques have been developed to replace partial cement with high-volume fly ash (50% cement replacement). For roller-compacted concrete (RCC), replacement values of 70% have been achieved with processed fly ash at the
Ghatghar
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Use of fly ash as a partial replacement for
Portland cement is particularly suitable but not limited to Class C fly ashes. Class "F" fly ashes can have volatile effects on the entrained air content of concrete, causing reduced resistance to freeze/thaw damage. Fly ash often replaces up to 30% by mass
792:
About 52 percent of CCPs in the U.S. were recycled for "beneficial uses" in 2019, according to the
American Coal Ash Association. In Australia about 47% of coal ash was recycled in 2020. The chief benefit of recycling is to stabilize the environmentally harmful components of the CCPs such as arsenic,
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and dispersed into the atmosphere. This created environmental and health concerns that prompted laws in heavily industrialized countries like the United States that have reduced fly ash emissions to less than 1% of ash produced. Worldwide, more than 65% of fly ash produced from coal power stations is
685:
Class "C": Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash hardens and gets stronger over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than 20%
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content, measured by the loss on ignition (LOI), of less than 4%. In the US, LOI must be under 6%. The particle size distribution of raw fly ash tends to fluctuate constantly, due to changing performance of the coal mills and the boiler performance. This makes it necessary that, if fly ash is used in
2000:
rule that reverses some provisions of its 2015 regulation, which had tightened requirements on toxic metals in wastewater discharged from ash ponds and other power plant wastestreams. The 2020 rule has also been challenged in litigation. In March 2023 EPA published a proposed rule that would reverse
1903:
defined coal ash as a "special waste" that would not be regulated under the stringent hazardous waste permitting requirements of RCRA. In its amendments to RCRA, Congress directed EPA to study the special waste issue and make a determination as to whether stricter permit regulation was necessary. In
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Ash that is stored or deposited outdoors can eventually leach toxic compounds into underground water aquifers. For this reason, much of the current debate around fly ash disposal revolves around creating specially lined landfills that prevent the chemical compounds from being leached into the ground
643:
Not all fly ashes meet ASTM C618 requirements, although depending on the application, this may not be necessary. Fly ash used as a cement replacement must meet strict construction standards, but no standard environmental regulations have been established in the United States. Seventy-five percent of
71:
or as clinker for
Portland cement production. Cements blended with fly ash are becoming more common. Building material applications range from grouts and masonry products to cellular concrete and roofing tiles. Many asphaltic concrete pavements contain fly ash. Geotechnical applications include soil
2017:
first published a gazette notification in 1999 specifying use of fly ash and mandating a target date for all thermal power plants to comply by ensuring 100% utilisation. Subsequent amendments in 2003 and 2009 shifted the deadline for compliance to 2014. As reported by
Central Electricity Authority,
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In India, fly ash bricks are used for construction. Leading manufacturers use an industrial standard known as "Pulverized fuel ash for lime-Pozzolana mixture" using over 75% post-industrial recycled waste, and a compression process. This produces a strong product with good insulation properties and
710:
C 216 for conventional clay brick. It is also within the allowable shrinkage limits for concrete brick in ASTM C 55, Standard
Specification for Concrete Building Brick. It is estimated that the production method used in fly ash bricks will reduce the embodied energy of masonry construction by up to
1215:
Fly ash particles have proved their potential as good reinforcement with aluminum alloys and show the improvement of physical and mechanical properties. In particular, the compression strength, tensile strength, and hardness increase when the percentage of fly ash content is increased, whereas the
740:
Since coal was the dominant energy source in the United States for many decades, power companies often located their coal plants near metropolitan areas. Compounding the environmental issues, the coal plants need significant amounts of water to operate their boilers, leading coal plants (and later
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This approach has the principal benefit of reducing the amount of clay required. Another type of fly ash brick is made by mixing soil, plaster of Paris, fly ash and water, and allowing the mixture to dry. Because no heat is required, this technique reduces air pollution. More modern manufacturing
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around 252 million years ago, large amounts of char very similar to modern fly ash were released into the oceans, which is preserved in the geologic record in marine deposits located in the
Canadian High Arctic. It has been hypothesised that the fly ash could have resulted in toxic environmental
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is a composite material consisting of an asphalt binder and mineral aggregate commonly used to surface roads. Both Class F and Class C fly ash can typically be used as a mineral filler to fill the voids and provide contact points between larger aggregate particles in asphalt concrete mixes. This
1993:
their surface impoundments. EPA published its "CCR Part B" rule on November 12, 2020, which allows certain facilities to use an alternative liner, based on a demonstration that human health and the environment will not be affected. Further litigation on the CCR regulation is pending as of 2021.
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Soils contaminated by fly ash showed an increase in bulk density and water capacity, but a decrease in hydraulic conductivity and cohesiveness. The effect of fly ash on soils and microorganisms in the soils are influenced by the pH of the ash and trace metal concentrations in the ash. Microbial
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streams. FGD comprises 24 percent of all coal combustion waste. Residues vary, but the most common are FGD gypsum (or "synthetic" gypsum) and spray dryer absorbents. FGD gypsum is used in almost thirty percent of the gypsum panel products manufactured in the U.S. It is also used in agricultural
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Studies by the USGS and others of radioactive elements in coal ash have concluded that fly ash compares with common soils or rocks and should not be the source of alarm. However, community and environmental organizations have documented numerous environmental contamination and damage concerns.
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Soil stabilization is the permanent physical and chemical alteration of soils to enhance their physical properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and/or control the shrink-swell properties of a soil, thus improving the load-bearing capacity of a sub-grade to support
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methods like mechanical air classification. But if fly ash is used as a filler to replace sand in concrete production, unbeneficiated fly ash with higher LOI can be also used. Especially important is the ongoing quality verification. This is mainly expressed by quality control seals like the
102:
can be used as a raw feed for manufacturing portland cement clinker, as well as for skid control on icy roads. The two materials comprise 12 and 4 percent of coal combustion waste respectively. These materials are also suitable for geotechnical applications such as structural fills and land
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their fly ash storage basins) to be located near metropolitan areas and near rivers and lakes which are often used as drinking supplies by nearby cities. Many of those fly ash basins were unlined and also at great risk of spilling and flooding from nearby rivers and lakes. For example,
1959:
Material Safety Data Sheets recommend a number of safety precautions be taken when handling or working with fly ash. These include wearing protective goggles, respirators and disposable clothing and avoiding agitating the fly ash in order to minimize the amount which becomes airborne.
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The regulation was designed to prevent pond failures and protect groundwater. Enhanced inspection, record keeping and monitoring is required. Procedures for closure are also included and include capping, liners, and dewatering. The CCR regulation has since been subject to litigation.
804:
There is no US governmental registration or labelling of fly ash utilization in the different sectors of the economy – industry, infrastructures and agriculture. Fly ash utilization survey data, acknowledged as incomplete, are published annually by the American Coal Ash Association.
674:(CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime—mixed with water to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively, adding a chemical activator such as
1988:
EPA published a proposed rule on August 14, 2019, that would use location-based criteria, rather than a numerical threshold (i.e. impoundment or landfill size) that would require an operator to demonstrate minimal environmental impact so that a site could remain in operation.
628:(ASTM) C618: Class F fly ash and Class C fly ash. The chief difference between these classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content of the coal burned (i.e.,
1980:
Following the 2008 Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill, EPA began developing regulations that would apply to all ash ponds nationwide. EPA published the CCR rule in 2015. Some of the provisions in the 2015 CCR regulation were challenged in litigation, and the
1880:. Approximately 10% of the mass of coals burned in the United States consists of unburnable mineral material that becomes ash, so the concentration of most trace elements in coal ash is approximately 10 times the concentration in the original coal. A 1997 analysis by the
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dams. Many dams in the US have been constructed with high fly ash contents. Fly ash lowers the heat of hydration allowing thicker placements to occur. Data for these can be found at the US Bureau of Reclamation. This has also been demonstrated in the
225:
The use of fly ash as a lightweight aggregate (LWA) offers a valuable opportunity to recycle one of the largest waste streams in the US. In addition, fly ash can offer many benefits, both economically and environmentally when utilized as a LWA.
1549:(EIP). Unsafe levels of arsenic, cobalt, lithium, and other contaminants were found in the groundwater near all the ash dump sites. At 12 of the 16 sites, the EIP analysis found levels of arsenic in the groundwater 10 times higher than the EPA
1203:, since the 1970s. There is, however, a problem with the bricks in that they tend to fail or produce unsightly pop-outs. This happens when the bricks come into contact with moisture and a chemical reaction occurs causing the bricks to expand.
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There are several techniques for manufacturing construction bricks from fly ash, producing a wide variety of products. One type of fly ash brick is manufactured by mixing fly ash with an equal amount of clay, then firing in a kiln at about
103:
reclamation. The physical characteristics of bottom ash and boiler slag lend themselves as replacements for aggregate in flowable fill and in concrete masonry products. Boiler slag is also used for roofing granules and as blasting grit.
1001:
dam project in Maharashtra, India. Due to the spherical shape of fly ash particles, it can increase workability of cement while reducing water demand. Proponents of fly ash claim that replacing Portland cement with fly ash reduces the
67:), electrostatic precipitators and other air pollution control devices. It comprises 60 percent of all coal combustion waste (labeled here as coal combustion products). It is most commonly used as a high-performance substitute for
1569:
in the waste product. This is due to the different chemical make-up of the coal based on the geology of the area the coal is found and the burning process of the coal in the power plant. When the coal is combusted, it creates an
1074:(also called controlled low strength material, or CLSM), which is used as self-leveling, self-compact backfill material in lieu of compacted earth or granular fill. The strength of flowable fill mixes can range from 50 to 1,200
4426:
EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals from Electric Utilities; Enhancing Public Access to Information; Reconsideration of Beneficial Use Criteria and Piles; Proposed Rule."
1098:. The hydrophobic nature of fly ash gives pavements better resistance to stripping. Fly ash has also been shown to increase the stiffness of the asphalt matrix, improving rutting resistance and increasing mix durability.
953:, doors, window frames, scaffolding, sign posts, crypts, columns, railroad ties, vinyl flooring, paving stones, shower stalls, garage doors, park benches, landscape timbers, planters, pallet blocks, molding, mail boxes,
1291:
In addition, fly ash, mainly class C, may be used in the stabilization/solidification process of hazardous wastes and contaminated soils. For example, the Rhenipal process uses fly ash as an admixture to stabilize
1094:
application is used in conjunction, or as a replacement for, other binders (such as Portland cement or hydrated lime). For use in asphalt pavement, the fly ash must meet mineral filler specifications outlined in
1982:
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Prior to the creation of the reserve the land was part of the neighbouring coal-fired Uskmouth Power Station and was an ash-covered wasteland. In 2008, the reserve was designated as a National Nature Reserve.
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Goyal, A., & Karade, S. R. (2020). Steel Corrosion and Control in Concrete Made with Seawater. Innovations in Corrosion and Materials Science (Formerly Recent Patents on Corrosion Science), 10(1), 58–67.
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1442:), many of which are highly toxic to humans and other life. Therefore, fly ash obtained after combustion of this coal contains enhanced concentrations of these elements and the potential of the ash to cause
1389:
from unlined ash ponds has been a continuing environmental problem in the United States. Additionally some of these ponds have had structural failures, causing massive ash spills into rivers, such as the
4200:
Walker, T.R. (2005) Comparison of anthropogenic metal deposition rates with excess soil loading from coal, oil and gas industries in the Usa Basin, NW Russia. Polish Polar Research. 26(4): 299–314.
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of Portland cement, but can be used in higher dosages in certain applications. In some cases, fly ash can add to the concrete's final strength and increase its chemical resistance and durability.
4609:
Mehta A, and Siddique R., Properties of low-calcium fly ash based geopolymer concrete incorporating OPC as partial replacement of fly ash. Construction and Building Materials 150 (2017) 792–807.
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EPA (2020-11-12). "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of CCR; A Holistic Approach to Closure Part B: Alternate Demonstration for Unlined Surface Impoundments." Final rule. 85
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Central Electricity Authority, New Delhi. Report on fly ash generation at coal/lignite based thermal power stations and its utilization in the country for the year 2014-15, Annex II. Oct 2015.
1497:
has many coal ash dumpsites with coal ash generated by coal-burning electric power plants. Of the state's 24 coal ash dumpsites with available data, 22 have released toxic pollutants including
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EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities; A Holistic Approach to Closure Part A: Deadline To Initiate Closure." 85
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EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System: Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities; A Holistic Approach to Closure Part A: Deadline To Initiate Closure." 85
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and occasionally CaO are the main chemical components present in fly ashes. The mineralogy of fly ashes is very diverse. The main phases encountered are a glass phase, together with
4161:
616:, but is generally included in the range 0.01–1 ppm for bituminous coal. The concentrations of other trace elements vary as well according to the kind of coal combusted to form it.
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EPA, 2009. Technology performance review: selecting and using solidification/stabilization treatment for site remediation. NRMRL, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH
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Helle, Sonia; Gordon, Alfredo; Alfaro, Guillermo; GarcĂa, Ximena; Ulloa, Claudia (2003). "Coal blend combustion: link between unburnt carbon in fly ashes and maceral composition".
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Walker, T.R., Young, S.D., Crittenden, P.D., Zhang, H. (2003) Anthropogenic metal enrichment of snow and soil in Northeastern European Russia. Environmental Pollution. 121: 11–21.
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is significant. In the US there are documented cases of groundwater pollution that followed ash disposal or utilization without the necessary protection having been put in place.
1029:
Fly ash properties are unusual among engineering materials. Unlike soils typically used for embankment construction, fly ash has a large uniformity coefficient and it consists of
1933:
along with toxic chemicals represent exposure risks to human health and the environment. Fly ash contains crystalline silica which is known to cause lung disease, in particular
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to 300 ÎĽm. The major consequence of the rapid cooling is that few minerals have time to crystallize, and that mainly amorphous, quenched glass remains. Nevertheless, some
3621:
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2010:
977:. The use of fly ash as a pozzolanic ingredient was recognized as early as 1914, although the earliest noteworthy study of its use was in 1937. Roman structures such as
1338:
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from a closed North Carolina coal-fired power plant that is owned by Duke Energy. It is currently the third worst coal ash spill ever to happen in the United States.
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4497:
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Lingen Zhang (2021). "Arsenic Removal and Recovery of Germanium and Tungsten in Toxic Coal Fly Ash from Lignite by Vacuum Distillation with a Sulfurizing Reagent".
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Rohatgi, P.K.; Gupta, N.; Alaraj, Simon (2006-07-01). "Thermal Expansion of Aluminum–Fly Ash Cenosphere Composites Synthesized by Pressure Infiltration Technique".
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Background on and Implementation of the Bevill and Bentsen Exclusions in the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act: EPA Authorities to Regulate "Special Wastes"
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were the only elements found at potentially toxic levels for grazing animals. Terrestrial organisms exposed to fly ash only showed increased levels of selenium.
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issued a fine of $ 1 million to Constellation. Nearby residents filed a lawsuit against Constellation and in 2008 the company settled the case for $ 54 million.
186:
Depending upon the source and composition of the coal being burned, the components of fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of
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EPA (2023-03-29). "Supplemental Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category." Proposed rule. 88
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179:
or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the chimneys. Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the boiler, it is known as
2411:
2147:"Managing Coal Combustion Residues in Mines", Committee on Mine Placement of Coal Combustion Wastes, National Research Council of the National Academies, 2006
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spilled 1.1 billion gallons of coal ash into the Emory and Clinch Rivers and damaged nearby residential areas. It is the largest industrial spill in the U.S.
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EPA (2023-03-29). "Supplemental Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category." Proposed rule.
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Scott, Allan N. .; Thomas, Michael D. A. (January–February 2007). "Evaluation of Fly Ash From Co-Combustion of Coal and Petroleum Coke for Use in Concrete".
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processes use a greater proportion of fly ash, and a high pressure manufacturing technique, which produces high strength bricks with environmental benefits.
3762:
Usmani, Zeba; Kumar, Vipin (17 May 2017). "Characterization, partitioning, and potential ecological risk quantification of trace elements in coal fly ash".
776: t) were reused in various applications. Environmental benefits to recycling fly ash includes reducing the demand for virgin materials that would need
2589:
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applications to treat undesirable soil conditions and to improve crop performance. Other FGD materials are used in mining and land reclamation activities.
3734:
2912:"Physical–mechanical properties and morphology of filled low-density polypropylene: Comparative study on calcium carbonate with oil shale and coal ashes"
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beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, chromium VI, cobalt, lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium, along with
4482:
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facility to produce electricity, the ash may contain higher levels of contaminants than coal ash. In that case the ash produced is often classified as
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5178:
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2000, EPA stated that coal fly ash did not need to be regulated as a hazardous waste. As a result, most power plants were not required to install
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Murata, Natsuki; Feest, Alan (15 June 2015). "A case study of evidence for showing 'no net loss' of bird biodiversity in a development project".
1956:, giving fly ash a pH somewhere between 10 and 12, a medium to strong base. This can also cause lung damage if present in sufficient quantities.
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Groundwater surrounding every single one of the 16 coal-burning power plants in Texas has been polluted by coal ash, according to a study by the
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in their concrete. As pozzolan greatly improves the strength and durability of concrete, the use of ash is a key factor in their preservation.
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Made on old fly-ash lagoons from the nearby coal fired power stations 20 years ago with the aim to provide habitat for bitterns to breed in.
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1766:(CCR) regulation in 2015. The agency continued to classify coal ash as non-hazardous (thereby avoiding strict permitting requirements under
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Manimaran, R.; Jayakumar, I.; Giyahudeen, R. Mohammad; Narayanan, L. (2018-04-19). "Mechanical properties of fly ash composites—A review".
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and other substances that are known to be detrimental to health in sufficient quantities. Potentially toxic trace elements in coal include
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Fly ash, in view of its alkalinity and water absorption capacity, may be used in combination with other alkaline materials to transform
316:. In the United States, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43% is recycled, often used as a
4363:
3904:
El-Mogazi, Dina (1988). "A Review of Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Fly Ash and Effects on Agricultural Ecosystems".
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Fly ash can leach toxic constituents that can be anywhere from one hundred to one thousand times greater than the federal standard for
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has been involved in several major lawsuits related to its coal ash storage and spills into the leakage of ash into the water basin.
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3280:"Mordenite-Type Zeolite from Waste Coal Fly Ash: Synthesis, Characterization and Its Application as a Sorbent in Metal Ions Removal"
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1963:
The National Academy of Sciences noted in 2007 that "the presence of high contaminant levels in many CCR (coal combustion residue)
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The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years due to increasing landfill costs and current interest in
502:
phases in the pulverized coal do not melt (entirely), and remain crystalline. In consequence, fly ash is a heterogeneous material.
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5478:
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Agricultural uses: soil amendment, fertilizer, cattle feeders, soil stabilization in stock feed yards, and agricultural stakes
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ensure the setting of concrete and plaster and provide concrete with more protection from wet conditions and chemical attack.
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Class "F": The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is
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or filter bags. Since the particles solidify rapidly while suspended in the exhaust gases, fly ash particles are generally
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but may include one or more of the following elements or compounds found in trace concentrations (up to hundreds of ppm):
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3435:
EPA. "Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System; Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals From Electric Utilities." 80
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2951:"Recent Advances in Fly-Ash-Based Geopolymers: Potential on the Utilization for Sustainable Environmental Remediation"
2578:(Report). Docklands, Victoria: Australia Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. 2020-11-04. p. 36.
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Evaluation of Dust Exposures at Lehigh Portland Cement Company, Union Bridge, MD, a NIOSH Report, HETA 2000-0309-2857
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generated with fly ash. New fly ash production, i.e., the burning of coal, produces approximately 20 to 30 tons of CO
1736:. Cleanup costs may exceed $ 1.2 billion. This spill was followed a few weeks later by a smaller TVA-plant spill in
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Existing ash ponds and landfills must comply with structural and location restrictions, where applicable, or close.
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Existing ash ponds that are contaminating groundwater must stop receiving CCR, and close or retrofit with a liner.
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2364:"ASTM C618 – 08 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete"
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1159:
1033:
particles. Engineering properties that affect the use of fly ash in embankments include grain size distribution,
335:
In the case that fly (or bottom) ash is not produced from coal, for example when solid waste is incinerated in a
5816:
5164:
4968:
4881:
3359:
DIRK group (1996). "Pulverised fuel ash products solve the sewage sludge problems of the wastewater industry".
3278:
Lankapati, Henilkumar M.; Lathiya, Dharmesh R.; Choudhary, Lalita; Dalai, Ajay K.; Maheria, Kalpana C. (2020).
2603:
2336:
80:
1884:(USGS) found that fly ash typically contained 10 to 30 ppm of uranium, comparable to the levels found in some
1578:
increasing the pH and affecting the plants and animals in the surrounding ecosystem. Trace elements, such as,
706:
containing up to 50% Class C fly ash. Testing shows bricks meet or exceed the performance standards listed in
3453:"Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Steam Electric Power Generating Point Source Category"
2510:
5488:
5128:
3599:
3580:
3193:
1938:
1669:
1534:
1034:
1005:"footprint" of concrete, as the production of one ton of Portland cement generates approximately one ton of
753:
172:
152:
85:
are produced by chemical "scrubber" emission control systems that remove sulfur and oxides from power plant
5273:
5586:
5463:
5387:
5278:
5103:
4911:
4591:
2157:
1486:, were told that "coal ash pits near their homes could be leaching dangerous materials into groundwater".
2632:
1574:
dust. This alkaline dust can have a pH ranging from 8 to as high as 12. Fly ash dust can be deposited on
5669:
5412:
4958:
4856:
2531:
1725:
1530:
1443:
1386:
1189:
871:
167:. Ash that falls to the bottom of the boiler's combustion chamber (commonly called a firebox) is called
4734:
A web site providing further information on technologies and trade related to coal combustion products.
4142:
2473:
1642:
4379:
4248:
EPA (2000-05-22). "Notice of Regulatory Determination on Wastes From the Combustion of Fossil Fuels."
2491:
5705:
5606:
5601:
5561:
5473:
5336:
4963:
4938:
4641:
4554:"Environmental Groups File Lawsuits Against Trump Administration for Toxic Water Pollution Rollbacks"
3947:
3913:
3368:
3151:
2310:
2223:
1673:
1459:
1107:
1046:
756:. As of 2017, coal-fired power plants in the US reported producing 38.2 million short tons (34.7
711:
90%. Bricks and pavers were expected to be available in commercial quantities before the end of 2009.
686:
lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and
4517:"Trump administration rolls back Obama-era rule aimed at limiting toxic wastewater from coal plants"
2768:
2001:
some aspects of the 2020 rule and impose more stringent wastewater limitations for some facilities.
1720:
In December 2008, the collapse of an embankment at an impoundment for wet storage of fly ash at the
1154:
was constructed of roller-compacted concrete that included fly ash from one of Ameren's coal plants.
5684:
5652:
5571:
5341:
5283:
5149:
Note: Peat is considered a precursor to coal. Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.
5041:
4901:
4801:
4346:
2083:
1997:
1699:
1562:
1467:
1297:
1233:
1126:, where the reactivity of the fly ash glasses can be used to create a binder similar to a hydrated
950:
819:
702:) contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes. At least one US manufacturer has announced a
309:
258:
312:, but air pollution control standards now require that it be captured prior to release by fitting
5657:
5566:
5483:
5113:
5056:
5026:
5016:
4973:
4752:
3787:
3307:
3253:
3175:
3124:
3089:
2931:
2749:
1638:
1111:
878:
612:
4677:
3659:
1747:
In 2014, 39,000 tons of ash and 27 million gallons (100,000 cubic meters) of contaminated water
3561:
3414:"Case Summary: Duke Energy Agrees to $ 3 Million Cleanup for Coal Ash Release in the Dan River"
41:(CCRs), are categorized in four groups, each based on physical and chemical forms derived from
5795:
5751:
5551:
5546:
5521:
5503:
5417:
5397:
5233:
5218:
5118:
5046:
4993:
4846:
4657:
4022:
3929:
3864:
3836:
3779:
3299:
3167:
2980:
2607:
2455:
2239:
1953:
1845:
1619:
1439:
1301:
1221:
606:
574:
274:
4682:
2590:
Coal Combustion Residual Beneficial Use Evaluation: Fly Ash Concrete and FGD Gypsum Wallboard
2131:
1296:
and other toxic sludges. This process has been used since 1996 to stabilize large amounts of
5647:
5556:
5422:
5382:
5261:
5223:
5108:
4861:
4649:
4567:
4538:
4466:
4432:
4360:
4297:
4253:
4215:"Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance"
4124:"Duke Energy Corporation agrees to $ 6 million fine for coal ash spill, North Carolina says"
4014:
3921:
3826:
3818:
3771:
3617:
3526:
3507:
3488:
3436:
3376:
3291:
3245:
3159:
3116:
3081:
2970:
2962:
2923:
2798:
2445:
2318:
2231:
2190:
2182:
1677:
1269:
1090:
922:
853:
847:
468:
321:
73:
4270:
5591:
5442:
5346:
5256:
4806:
4630:"Catastrophic dispersion of coal fly ash into oceans during the latest Permian extinction"
4598:
4367:
4341:
2863:
2662:
2415:
2391:
1741:
1127:
1042:
970:
954:
942:
781:
675:
633:
602:
383:
361:
340:
336:
325:
203:
195:
187:
68:
4618:
Obla, K H. Specifying Fly Ash for Use in Concrete. Concrete in Focus (Spring 2008) 60–66.
4359:
Citizens Coal Council, Hoosier Environmental Council, Clean Air Task Force (March 2000),
2432:
Chen, Yi; Fan, Yingjie; Huang, Yu; Liao, Xiaoling; Xu, Wenfeng; Zhang, Tao (2024-01-01).
17:
4645:
3917:
3372:
3155:
3019:
2911:
2556:"Fly Ash Use in Concrete Increases Slightly As Overall Coal Ash Recycling Rate Declines"
2314:
2227:
76:. Fly ash also serves as filler in wood and plastic products, paints and metal castings.
51:
5821:
5664:
5596:
5437:
5356:
5326:
5321:
5213:
4988:
4916:
4891:
4570:
4541:
4469:
4435:
4256:
4214:
3831:
3806:
3529:
3510:
3491:
3439:
3231:"Pyrolysis of low-density polyethylene using synthetic catalysts produced from fly ash"
2975:
2836:
2027:
1930:
1796:
1634:
1626:
1196:. They are naturally more thermally insulating than blocks made with other aggregates.
1038:
1006:
1002:
982:
978:
938:
746:
671:
403:
140:
64:
3380:
2434:"A comprehensive review of toxicity of coal fly ash and its leachate in the ecosystem"
2211:
2186:
1732:
of 5.4 million cubic yards of coal fly ash, damaging three homes and flowing into the
1705:
Where fly ash is stored in bulk, it is usually stored wet rather than dry to minimize
5810:
5637:
5536:
5526:
5432:
4745:
3925:
3311:
3229:
Na, Jeong-Geol; Jeong, Byung-Hwan; Chung, Soo Hyun; Kim, Seong-Soo (September 2006).
3179:
3128:
3093:
2998:
2935:
2669:
2235:
1900:
1706:
1293:
1253:
1071:
1050:
958:
946:
838:
703:
654:
554:
486:
Fly ash material solidifies while suspended in the exhaust gases and is collected by
451:
368:
313:
215:
199:
3257:
2301:
Snellings, R.; Mertens G.; Elsen J. (2012). "Supplementary cementitious materials".
1641:
landing on the water surface, contaminated ground water moving into surface waters,
1622:, can be found at higher concentrations compared to bottom ash and the parent coal.
653:
an optimal way to replace cement in concrete production, it must be processed using
5674:
5541:
5427:
5402:
5133:
3791:
2530:(Report). Farmington Hills, MI: American Coal Ash Association. 2018. Archived from
1813:
1713:) are typically large and stable for long periods, but any breach of their dams or
1514:
1277:
1164:
926:
902:
546:
156:
4483:"Revisions to the Coal Combustion Residuals (CCR) Closure Regulations; Fact sheet"
3085:
2719:
4361:"Laid to Waste: The Dirty Secret of Combustion Waste from America's Power Plants"
2450:
601:
and various calcium silicates and calcium aluminates identical to those found in
5642:
5361:
5298:
5066:
5061:
5003:
4953:
4928:
3706:"Neglected threat: Kingston's toxic ash spill shows the other dark side of coal"
3681:"New Report Reveals Severe Groundwater Contamination at Illinois Coal Ash Dumps"
2088:
1905:
1792:
1784:
A pond no longer receiving CCR is still subject to all regulations unless it is
1733:
1518:
1193:
1123:
914:
864:
742:
3807:"Technogenic Magnetic Particles in Alkaline Dusts from Power and Cement Plants"
3735:"Records Show 100 Percent of Texas Coal Power Plants Contaminating Groundwater"
2433:
1470:, during 1996 to 2007. The ash contaminated groundwater with heavy metals. The
5746:
5531:
5511:
5303:
4826:
4811:
4581:
Report of the Committee National Green Tribunal (NGT), New Delhi, 2015. 42 pp.
3822:
3775:
3249:
2277:
2067:
2061:
1942:
1849:
1785:
1658:
1566:
1435:
1217:
1079:
918:
898:
679:
629:
598:
499:
427:
278:
168:
94:
45:
4661:
4026:
3805:
Magiera, Tadeusz; Gołuchowska, Beata; Jabłońska, Mariola (27 November 2012).
3303:
3120:
2966:
2880:
Hennis, K. W.; Frishette, C. W. (1993). "A New Era in Control Density Fill".
2459:
2243:
1130:
in appearance, but with potentially superior properties, including reduced CO
5777:
5138:
5123:
5071:
5021:
5011:
3163:
2606:(Report). Washington, DC: National Research Council (United States). 2006.
1964:
1934:
1889:
1821:
1583:
1411:
1285:
1281:
1237:
1095:
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894:
594:
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558:
550:
542:
538:
286:
270:
242:
4301:
3840:
3783:
3295:
3171:
3043:
2984:
2950:
1985:
remanded certain portions of the regulation to EPA for further rulemaking.
720:
In the past, fly ash produced from coal combustion was simply entrained in
4699:
United States Geological Survey – Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash
4629:
4288:
Kessler, K. A. (1981). "Wet Disposal of Fossil Plant Waste Case History".
4031:
The analysis showed the compensation habitat was better than the original.
3933:
2322:
1188:
In the United Kingdom, fly ash has been used for over fifty years to make
5761:
5756:
5392:
5351:
5313:
5195:
5187:
5088:
5036:
4943:
4921:
4886:
4866:
4841:
4816:
4045:"TVA to auction 62 parcels in Kingston after ash spill cleanup completed"
2116:. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2019-05-07.
2093:
1873:
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1710:
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1603:
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1431:
1427:
1423:
1382:
1305:
1273:
1241:
1200:
990:
974:
969:
Owing to its pozzolanic properties, fly ash is used as a replacement for
930:
812:
808:
Coal ash uses include (approximately in order of decreasing importance):
730:
726:
721:
667:
645:
534:
329:
317:
294:
290:
282:
254:
230:
164:
86:
4705:
Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility: Coal Combustion Waste
4231:
2195:
1381:
The majority of CCPs are landfilled, placed in mine shafts or stored in
5720:
5288:
4948:
4796:
4592:
https://www.cea.nic.in/reports/others/thermal/tcd/flyash_final_1516.pdf
2156:"Human and Ecological Risk Assessment of Coal Combustion Wastes", RTI,
1885:
1869:
1865:
1825:
1817:
1737:
1714:
1650:
1646:
1630:
1615:
1611:
1575:
1506:
1498:
1419:
1403:
1257:
825:
Fly-ash pellets which can replace normal aggregate in concrete mixture.
687:
637:
586:
582:
566:
562:
530:
375:
250:
238:
234:
219:
4018:
3568:. Vol. 87, no. 8. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
2927:
5447:
5407:
5241:
4933:
4851:
4728:
A web site providing further information on the applications for PFA.
4653:
4628:
Grasby, Stephen E.; Sanei, Hamed; Beauchamp, Benoit (February 2011).
4533:
EPA (2020-10-13). "Steam Electric Reconsideration Rule." Final rule.
2056:
1926:
1857:
1853:
1837:
1829:
1607:
1599:
1591:
1502:
1407:
1147:
906:
794:
777:
649:
578:
570:
526:
491:
262:
160:
2802:
1983:
United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit
1053:. Nearly all the types of fly ash used in embankments are Class F.
5366:
5268:
4786:
4335:"Above ground golf course, Just beneath if potential health risks"
2014:
1893:
1415:
1168:
1141:
834:
495:
324:
or hydraulic plaster and a replacement or partial replacement for
246:
50:
3197:
2686:
937:, house siding and trim, running tracks, blasting grit, recycled
5031:
4983:
4871:
4791:
4768:
3652:"Riverkeeper: Coal ash from Buck steam plant poses toxic threat"
3212:"From ash to eco-friendly solution for hazardous metals removal"
2882:
Proceedings of the Tenth International Ash Utilization Symposium
1877:
1841:
1595:
1587:
1579:
1030:
859:
766: t) of fly ash, of which 24.1 million short tons (21.9
707:
266:
42:
5160:
4741:
2525:
2017 Coal Combustion Product Production & Use Survey Report
2351:
Fly ash contains approximately one part per million of mercury.
1561:
The effect of fly ash on the environment can vary based on the
815:
production, as a substitute material for Portland cement, sand.
4978:
4731:
4683:
Determination of Airborne Crystalline Silica Treatise by NIOSH
4103:
Chakravorty, Shubhankar; Gopinath, Swetha (18 February 2015).
1565:
where it is produced, as well as the proportion of fly ash to
1321:
4317:"Chesapeake takes steps toward Superfund designation of site"
2113:
120:
and back-scatter detector: cross section of fly ash particles
4449:"EPA Letting Some Hazardous Coal Ash Ponds Stay Open Longer"
1106:
Coal and shale oil fly ashes have been used as a filler for
5156:
4712: : A site promoting the many uses of fly ash in the UK
4380:"Substances Listed in the Thirteenth Report on Carcinogens"
4160:
Lessard, Paul C.; Vannasing, Davis; Darby, William (2016).
2816:
Halstead, W. (October 1986). "Use of Fly Ash in Concrete".
889:
Loose application on roads and parking lots for ice control
229:
The minor constituents of fly ash depend upon the specific
72:
stabilization, road base, structural fill, embankments and
4725:
4709:
4692:
4105:"Duke Energy Close To Settling With Government Over Spill"
3471:"D.C. Circuit Court Remands CCR Deadline Extension to EPA"
2629:"Coal Combustion Products Production & Use Statistics"
2394:". Chusid, Michael; Miller, Steve; & Rapoport, Julie.
1653:, gold, cerium, chromium, selenium, cadmium, and mercury.
909:, utensils, tool handles, picture frames, auto bodies and
831:
and other structural fills (usually for road construction)
3865:"Coal Ash The toxic threat to our health and environment"
2712:"Mine Tailings and Fly Ash Beneficial Use Photo Showcase"
1482:
In 2014, residents living near the Buck Steam Station in
1070:
Fly ash is also used as a component in the production of
4687:
4404:"Headwaters Resources Class F Fly Ash Safety Data Sheet"
3600:"Constellation, Gambrills residents settle fly-ash suit"
3044:"FAQs – Fly Ash Bricks – Puzzolana Green Fly-Ash bricks"
2895:
Zimmer, F. V. (1970). "Fly Ash as a Bituminous Filler".
2561:. Denver, CO: American Coal Ash Association. 2020-12-15.
2511:"Spill spews tons of coal ash into North Carolina river"
2257:
350:
4737:
3543:"2 Tennessee Cases Bring Coal's Hidden Hazard to Light"
3396:"2 Tennessee Cases Bring Coal's Hidden Hazard to Light"
1680:, providing habitat for rare birds and other wildlife.
1346:
1122:
More recently, fly ash has been used as a component in
2409:
Coal by-product to be used to make bricks in Caledonia
1402:
Coal contains trace levels of trace elements (such as
308:
In the past, fly ash was generally released into the
5094:
Health and environmental impact of the coal industry
3622:"Dukeville concerns over coal ash: 5 things to know"
1941:
and US National Toxicology Program as a known human
1318:
Health and environmental impact of the coal industry
55:
Diagram of the disposition of coal combustion wastes
5770:
5739:
5693:
5630:
5502:
5456:
5375:
5312:
5232:
5194:
5084:
Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia
5002:
4834:
4775:
4296:(2). American Society of Civil Engineers: 199–208.
3469:Green, Douglas H.; Houlihan, Michael (2019-04-24).
3020:"What is Fly Ash? - Definition from Corrosionpedia"
2897:
Proceedings of the Second Ash Utilization Symposium
2763:Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility.
1199:Ash bricks have been used in house construction in
989:(which possesses similar properties to fly ash) as
2011:Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
1967:may create human health and ecological concerns".
1937:, if inhaled. Crystalline silica is listed by the
218:(CaO), the main mineral compounds in coal-bearing
4556:. New York, NY: Waterkeeper Alliance. 2020-11-02.
3899:
3897:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3881:
2687:"Rotary celebrates naming of Paul Harris Fellows"
901:, kitchen counter tops, floor and ceiling tiles,
37:s), also called coal combustion wastes (CCWs) or
5731:International Federation for Structural Concrete
4167:. Loomis, CA: Tons Per Hour, Inc. Archived from
4075:"Tennessee: Gypsum pond leaks into Widows Creek"
3858:
3856:
3854:
3852:
3850:
2128:"Fly Ash & The Lightweight Aggregate Market"
1629:. Fly ash can contaminate surface water through
662:mark or the DCL mark of the Dubai Municipality.
4716:Coal Ash Is More Radioactive than Nuclear Waste
3335:"Toxic Sludge stabilisation for INAG, Portugal"
3238:Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
2592:(Report). EPA. February 2014. EPA 530-R-14-001.
1696:Fly Ash containment failure on 23 December 2008
874:substitute material (e.g. for brick production)
4515:Dennis, Brady; Eilperin, Juliet (2020-08-31).
3757:
3755:
3059:"List of important IS Codes related to bricks"
1337:deal primarily with US and do not represent a
850:production (as a substitute material for clay)
63:is captured after coal combustion by filters (
5172:
4753:
2818:National Cooperative Highway Research Project
2162:United States Environmental Protection Agency
1908:or leachate collection systems in ash ponds.
1335:The examples and perspective in this section
1192:. They are widely used for the inner skin of
780:and cheap substitution for materials such as
8:
4498:"Groups challenge rollback of coal ash rule"
3954:. Living Levels Partnership. 25 January 2019
3764:Environmental Science and Pollution Research
2143:
2141:
2026:Due to the ignition of coal deposits by the
605:can be identified in Ca-rich fly ashes. The
4315:McCabe, Robert; Mike Saewitz (2008-07-19).
3477:. Washington, DC: American Bar Association.
3431:
3429:
3427:
2838:The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete
1216:density decreases. The presence of fly ash
1158:Another application of using fly ash is in
961:, and filler in wood and plastic products.
957:, binding agent, paints and undercoatings,
5179:
5165:
5157:
4760:
4746:
4738:
3475:Environment, Energy, and Resources Section
2604:Managing Coal Combustion Residues in Mines
2492:"Duke Energy plant reports coal-ash spill"
1740:, which contaminated Widows Creek and the
1353:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
678:(water glass) to a Class F ash can form a
626:American Society for Testing and Materials
297:, along with very small concentrations of
3830:
2974:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2797:(1). American Concrete Institute: 62–70.
2449:
2210:Fang, Zheng; Gesser, H. D. (1996-06-01).
2194:
1812:Fly ash contains trace concentrations of
1369:Learn how and when to remove this message
1134:emissions, depending on the formulation.
3502:
3500:
2916:Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology
1687:
111:
4208:
4206:
3977:"Newport Wetlands Nature Reserve (NRW)"
3464:
3462:
2212:"Recovery of gallium from coal fly ash"
2105:
1791:New ponds and landfills must include a
1288:and utilized in waste water treatment.
886:Loose application on rivers to melt ice
347:Chemical composition and classification
3144:Environmental Science & Technology
2478:Duke Energy Coal Ash Spill in Eden, NC
2438:Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
2303:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry
2258:"ACAA – American Coal Ash Association"
1996:In October 2020 EPA published a final
1772:Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
1517:, the Prairie Rivers Network, and the
1472:Maryland Department of the Environment
844:Waste stabilization and solidification
624:Two classes of fly ash are defined by
5052:mining disasters in the United States
4693:Fly Ash Info, the Ash Library Website
4213:US Geological Survey (October 1997).
4162:"Large-Scale Fly Ash Pond Dewatering"
2864:"Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers"
2765:"Coal Combustion Wastes in Our Lives"
2509:Shoichet, Catherine E. (2014-02-09).
1284:in a high-temperature process called
670:in nature, and contains less than 7%
7:
5294:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
3906:The Science of the Total Environment
3863:Gottlieb, Barbara (September 2010).
3080:(8). Taylor & Francis: 887–893.
2385:The Building Brick of Sustainability
1760:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1668:In the UK, fly ash lagoons from old
1466:at a former sand and gravel mine in
545:. Other phases often identified are
494:in shape and range in size from 0.5
305:, and other trace carbon compounds.
5711:Institution of Structural Engineers
4275:U.S. Congressional Research Service
4122:Broome, Gerry (25 September 2016).
3541:Schlossberg, Tatiana (2017-04-15).
3394:Schlossberg, Tatiana (2017-04-15).
2160:, August 6, 2007, prepared for the
1774:(RCRA), but with new restrictions:
175:, fly ash is generally captured by
5079:Environmental issues in Appalachia
4143:"EPA coal ash rule still not done"
4141:Martinson, Erica (24 March 2014).
4055:from the original on June 16, 2019
3560:Johnson, Jeffrey W. (2009-02-23).
1462:disposed fly ash generated by its
1220:in a pure Al matrix decreases its
648:of 45 ÎĽm or less, and have a
159:that are driven out of coal-fired
25:
2860:US Federal Highway Administration
2742:US Federal Highway Administration
2032:Permian–Triassic extinction event
1717:is rapid and on a massive scale.
1464:Brandon Shores Generating Station
1248:Waste treatment and stabilization
352:Fly ash composition by coal type
5791:
5790:
4825:
3811:Water, Air, & Soil Pollution
3115:(13). Sage Journals: 1163–1174.
2949:Adewuyi, Yusuf G. (2021-06-22).
1326:
1272:, appears to function well as a
1222:coefficient of thermal expansion
799:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
4073:Koch, Jacqueline (2009-01-10).
3566:Chemical & Engineering News
3562:"The Foul Side Of 'Clean Coal'"
2627:American Coal Ash Association.
2474:"History and Response Timeline"
1948:Lime (CaO) reacts with water (H
1882:United States Geological Survey
1547:Environmental Integrity Project
1511:Environmental Integrity Project
1244:from fly ash and recycle them.
941:, utility poles and crossarms,
48:methods and emission controls:
5209:Roman architectural revolution
4290:Journal of the Energy Division
3581:"Coal Ash Dump in City Fought"
3109:Journal of Composite Materials
2663:"Coal ash will fight flooding"
1709:. The resulting impoundments (
27:By-products of coal combustion
1:
4688:American Coal Ash Association
4043:Flessner, Dave (2015-05-29).
4007:Water and Environment Journal
3381:10.1016/S0956-053X(96)00060-8
3086:10.1080/15567036.2018.1463319
3001:. Portland Cement Association
2342:. perkinswill.com. 2011-11-17
2278:"Renelux Commodities Fly Ash"
2187:10.1016/S0378-3820(02)00245-X
2073:Energetically modified cement
1392:2014 Dan River coal ash spill
1152:Taum Sauk hydroelectric plant
985:in Rome used volcanic ash or
921:, roofing granules, decking,
4273:(Report). Washington, D.C.:
4269:Luther, Linda (2013-08-06).
4079:Chattanooga Times Free Press
4049:Chattanooga Times Free Press
3926:10.1016/0048-9697(88)90127-1
3712:. 2019-02-19. Archived from
3337:. DIRK group. Archived from
2451:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115905
2236:10.1016/0304-386X(95)00055-L
1385:at coal-fired power plants.
737:water and local ecosystems.
118:scanning electron microscope
116:Photomicrograph made with a
5726:Portland Cement Association
5701:American Concrete Institute
3650:Fisher, Hugh (2014-05-06).
3579:Wheeler, Tim (2009-09-07).
1349:, discuss the issue on the
1268:Fly ash, when treated with
1256:into organic fertilizer or
935:structural insulated panels
893:Other applications include
716:Disposal and market sources
488:electrostatic precipitators
314:pollution control equipment
177:electrostatic precipitators
5838:
5204:Ancient Roman architecture
5099:Health effects of coal ash
4907:power in the United States
4732:Asian Coal Ash Association
4726:UK Quality Ash Association
4710:UK Quality Ash Association
4496:Smoot, D.E. (2020-12-11).
2999:"Taum Sauk Reconstruction"
2573:National Waste Report 2020
2396:The Construction Specifier
2175:Fuel Processing Technology
2079:Health effects of coal ash
1922:Health effects of coal ash
1919:
1749:spilled into the Dan River
1722:Tennessee Valley Authority
1693:Tennessee Valley Authority
1315:
1280:into substance similar to
1232:It may be possible to use
1035:compaction characteristics
660:Bureau of Indian Standards
5786:
5716:Indian Concrete Institute
5147:
4823:
3823:10.1007/s11270-012-1389-9
3776:10.1007/s11356-017-9171-6
3598:Cho, Hanah (2008-11-01).
3494:. Final rule. 2020-08-28.
3250:10.1007/s10163-006-0156-7
2052:Alkali–aggregate reaction
1764:Coal Combustion Residuals
1670:coal-fired power stations
1551:Maximum Contaminant Level
1484:Dukeville, North Carolina
1398:Groundwater contamination
1160:roller compacted concrete
1138:Roller compacted concrete
1102:Filler for thermoplastics
356:
145:coal combustion residuals
39:coal combustion residuals
18:Coal combustion residuals
4969:Greenhouse gas emissions
4695:, University of Kentucky
3121:10.1177/0021998305057379
2967:10.1021/acsomega.1c00662
1676:nature reserves such as
1207:environmental benefits.
1190:concrete building blocks
644:the fly ash must have a
328:in concrete production.
155:that is composed of the
81:Flue-gas desulfurization
31:Coal combustion products
5129:Problems in coal mining
4220:. Fact Sheet FS-163-97.
3164:10.1021/acs.est.0c08784
3046:. Fly Ash Bricks Delhi.
2064:– a CCP, often recycled
1211:Metal matrix composites
1146:The upper reservoir of
1110:that could be used for
1021:of fly ash as a given.
754:sustainable development
173:coal-fired power plants
153:coal combustion product
5494:Alkali–silica reaction
5252:Energetically modified
5104:History of coal mining
4409:. Headwaters Resources
4302:10.1061/JDAEDZ.0000063
3948:"Newport Wetlands NNR"
3296:10.1002/slct.201903715
3194:"N-Viro International"
3061:. Fly Ash Bricks Info.
2158:Research Triangle Park
2046:Alkali–silica reaction
2022:In the geologic record
1795:liner over a layer of
1702:
1684:Spills of bulk storage
1155:
121:
56:
4959:Fossil fuel phase-out
4857:Black coal equivalent
4013:(3). Wiley: 419–429.
2791:ACI Materials Journal
2337:"Fly Ash in Concrete"
2323:10.2138/rmg.2012.74.6
1726:Kingston Fossil Plant
1691:
1531:Kingston Fossil Plant
1444:groundwater pollution
1387:Groundwater pollution
1316:Further information:
1312:Environmental impacts
1145:
913:, cellular concrete,
905:, flotation devices,
818:Corrosion control in
115:
54:
5479:Environmental impact
5337:Reversing drum mixer
4964:Great Smog of London
4897:pollution mitigation
3716:on February 20, 2021
2910:Krasnou, I. (2021).
2676:, February 17, 2010.
2366:. ASTM International
1788:and covered by 2018.
1460:Constellation Energy
1347:improve this section
1236:in order to extract
1051:frost susceptibility
533:and the iron oxides
231:coal bed composition
4882:fired power station
4877:combustion products
4802:Sub-bituminous coal
4779:(lowest to highest)
4776:Coal types by grade
4720:Scientific American
4646:2011NatGe...4..104G
4521:The Washington Post
4347:The Virginian-Pilot
4321:The Virginian-Pilot
4051:. Chattanooga, TN.
3983:. Llywodraeth Cymru
3918:1988ScTEn..74....1E
3770:(18): 15547–15566.
3373:1996WaMan..16...51D
3200:on August 23, 2010.
3156:2021EnST...55.4027Z
2961:(24): 15532–15542.
2418:". Burke, Michael.
2315:2012RvMG...74..211S
2228:1996HydMe..41..187F
2084:Pozzolanic reaction
1998:effluent guidelines
1700:Kingston, Tennessee
1563:thermal power plant
1468:Gambrills, Maryland
1234:vacuum distillation
1012:, compared to no CO
820:reinforced concrete
353:
259:hexavalent chromium
137:pulverised fuel ash
5582:Self-consolidating
5274:Water–cement ratio
5017:Black lung disease
4994:Toxic heavy metals
4974:Metallurgical coal
4722:(13 December 2007)
4597:2020-10-11 at the
4366:2008-01-15 at the
4340:2013-05-16 at the
4238:. EPA. 2018-11-29.
3547:The New York Times
3455:. EPA. 2018-11-30.
3420:. EPA. 2017-03-15.
3400:The New York Times
2716:Tons Per Hour, Inc
2674:Omaha World-Herald
2496:Charlotte Observer
2480:. EPA. 2017-03-14.
2414:2010-09-18 at the
2390:2009-06-28 at the
1927:Crystalline silica
1762:(EPA) published a
1703:
1639:airborne particles
1228:Mineral extraction
1156:
1057:Soil stabilization
879:asphaltic concrete
877:Mineral filler in
609:content can reach
589:-bearing minerals
351:
163:together with the
122:
57:
5804:
5803:
5796:Category:Concrete
5577:Roller-compacting
5398:Climbing formwork
5247:Calcium aluminate
5219:Roman engineering
5154:
5153:
4912:preparation plant
4847:Asian brown cloud
4780:
4634:Nature Geoscience
4535:Federal Register,
4485:. EPA. July 2020.
4429:Federal Register,
4250:Federal Register,
4019:10.1111/wej.12124
3604:The Baltimore Sun
3585:The Baltimore Sun
3523:Federal Register,
2928:10.1002/vnl.21869
2691:observertoday.com
2420:The Journal Times
1954:calcium hydroxide
1916:Exposure concerns
1643:flooding drainage
1379:
1378:
1371:
1201:Windhoek, Namibia
1112:injection molding
923:fireplace mantles
858:Stabilization of
484:
483:
16:(Redirected from
5829:
5794:
5793:
5706:Concrete Society
5517:Fiber-reinforced
5332:Volumetric mixer
5224:Roman technology
5181:
5174:
5167:
5158:
5109:Hydrogen sulfide
4829:
4778:
4762:
4755:
4748:
4739:
4666:
4665:
4654:10.1038/ngeo1069
4625:
4619:
4616:
4610:
4607:
4601:
4588:
4582:
4579:
4573:
4564:
4558:
4557:
4550:
4544:
4531:
4525:
4524:
4512:
4506:
4505:
4502:Muskogee Phoenix
4493:
4487:
4486:
4479:
4473:
4463:
4457:
4456:
4445:
4439:
4424:
4418:
4417:
4415:
4414:
4408:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4391:
4390:
4384:
4376:
4370:
4357:
4351:
4333:McCabe, Robert.
4331:
4325:
4324:
4312:
4306:
4305:
4285:
4279:
4278:
4266:
4260:
4246:
4240:
4239:
4232:"Special Wastes"
4228:
4222:
4221:
4219:
4210:
4201:
4198:
4192:
4189:
4183:
4182:
4180:
4179:
4173:
4166:
4157:
4151:
4150:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4100:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4081:. Archived from
4070:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4002:
3996:
3995:
3990:
3988:
3973:
3967:
3966:
3961:
3959:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3901:
3876:
3875:
3869:
3860:
3845:
3844:
3834:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3759:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3746:
3731:
3725:
3724:
3722:
3721:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3692:
3677:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3658:. Archived from
3647:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3628:. Archived from
3618:Associated Press
3614:
3608:
3607:
3595:
3589:
3588:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3557:
3551:
3550:
3538:
3532:
3519:
3513:
3504:
3495:
3485:
3479:
3478:
3466:
3457:
3456:
3449:
3443:
3433:
3422:
3421:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3361:Waste Management
3356:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3346:
3331:
3325:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3290:(3): 1193–1198.
3275:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3235:
3226:
3220:
3219:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3196:. Archived from
3190:
3184:
3183:
3150:(6): 4027–4036.
3139:
3133:
3132:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3054:
3048:
3047:
3040:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3030:
3016:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2978:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2892:
2886:
2885:
2877:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2856:
2843:
2842:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2777:
2776:
2767:. Archived from
2760:
2754:
2753:
2748:. Archived from
2738:
2732:
2731:
2729:
2727:
2718:. Archived from
2707:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2683:
2677:
2661:Gaarder, Nancy.
2659:
2653:
2650:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2631:. Archived from
2624:
2618:
2617:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2586:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2560:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2536:
2529:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2453:
2429:
2423:
2405:
2399:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2371:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2348:
2347:
2341:
2333:
2327:
2326:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2264:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2170:
2164:
2154:
2148:
2145:
2136:
2135:
2130:. Archived from
2124:
2118:
2117:
2110:
1892:rock, and black
1678:Newport Wetlands
1374:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1354:
1330:
1329:
1322:
1270:sodium hydroxide
1183:
1091:Asphalt concrete
1086:Asphalt concrete
943:railway sleepers
854:Mine reclamation
822:(RC) structures
772:
771:
762:
761:
701:
700:
699:
615:
354:
322:hydraulic cement
74:mine reclamation
21:
5837:
5836:
5832:
5831:
5830:
5828:
5827:
5826:
5817:Coal technology
5807:
5806:
5805:
5800:
5782:
5766:
5735:
5689:
5626:
5498:
5452:
5371:
5347:Flow table test
5308:
5228:
5190:
5185:
5155:
5150:
5143:
4998:
4835:Coal combustion
4830:
4821:
4807:Bituminous coal
4777:
4771:
4766:
4674:
4669:
4627:
4626:
4622:
4617:
4613:
4608:
4604:
4599:Wayback Machine
4589:
4585:
4580:
4576:
4565:
4561:
4552:
4551:
4547:
4532:
4528:
4514:
4513:
4509:
4504:. Muskogee, OK.
4495:
4494:
4490:
4481:
4480:
4476:
4464:
4460:
4447:
4446:
4442:
4425:
4421:
4412:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4401:
4397:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4378:
4377:
4373:
4368:Wayback Machine
4358:
4354:
4342:Wayback Machine
4332:
4328:
4314:
4313:
4309:
4287:
4286:
4282:
4268:
4267:
4263:
4247:
4243:
4236:Hazardous Waste
4230:
4229:
4225:
4217:
4212:
4211:
4204:
4199:
4195:
4190:
4186:
4177:
4175:
4171:
4164:
4159:
4158:
4154:
4140:
4139:
4135:
4121:
4120:
4116:
4102:
4101:
4097:
4088:
4086:
4072:
4071:
4067:
4058:
4056:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4004:
4003:
3999:
3986:
3984:
3975:
3974:
3970:
3957:
3955:
3946:
3945:
3941:
3903:
3902:
3879:
3867:
3862:
3861:
3848:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3761:
3760:
3753:
3744:
3742:
3733:
3732:
3728:
3719:
3717:
3704:
3703:
3699:
3690:
3688:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3665:
3663:
3649:
3648:
3644:
3635:
3633:
3626:The Denver Post
3616:
3615:
3611:
3597:
3596:
3592:
3578:
3577:
3573:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3520:
3516:
3505:
3498:
3486:
3482:
3468:
3467:
3460:
3451:
3450:
3446:
3434:
3425:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3393:
3392:
3388:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3344:
3342:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3323:
3319:
3284:ChemistrySelect
3277:
3276:
3272:
3262:
3260:
3233:
3228:
3227:
3223:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3192:
3191:
3187:
3141:
3140:
3136:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3042:
3041:
3037:
3028:
3026:
3018:
3017:
3013:
3004:
3002:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2948:
2947:
2943:
2909:
2908:
2904:
2894:
2893:
2889:
2879:
2878:
2874:
2866:
2858:
2857:
2846:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2815:
2814:
2810:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2774:
2772:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2725:
2723:
2722:on 5 March 2016
2710:Lessard, Paul.
2709:
2708:
2704:
2695:
2693:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2638:
2636:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2614:
2602:
2601:
2597:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2566:
2558:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2472:
2471:
2467:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2416:Wayback Machine
2406:
2402:
2392:Wayback Machine
2382:
2378:
2369:
2367:
2362:
2361:
2357:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2334:
2330:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2286:
2284:
2282:www.renelux.com
2276:
2275:
2271:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2251:
2216:Hydrometallurgy
2209:
2208:
2204:
2172:
2171:
2167:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2139:
2126:
2125:
2121:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2041:
2024:
2007:
1978:
1973:
1951:
1924:
1918:
1810:
1742:Tennessee River
1686:
1559:
1543:
1492:
1480:
1457:
1452:
1400:
1375:
1364:
1358:
1355:
1344:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1314:
1302:leather sludges
1276:for converting
1266:
1250:
1230:
1213:
1181:
1177:
1140:
1133:
1128:Portland cement
1120:
1104:
1088:
1068:
1059:
1043:compressibility
1027:
1019:
1015:
1010:
971:Portland cement
967:
965:Portland cement
955:artificial reef
790:
782:Portland cement
769:
767:
759:
757:
725:disposed of in
718:
698:
695:
694:
693:
691:
676:sodium silicate
622:
610:
603:Portland cement
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
435:
431:
411:
407:
387:
349:
341:hazardous waste
337:waste-to-energy
326:Portland cement
213:
209:
204:aluminium oxide
193:
188:silicon dioxide
110:
83:(FGD) materials
69:Portland cement
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5835:
5833:
5825:
5824:
5819:
5809:
5808:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5798:
5787:
5784:
5783:
5781:
5780:
5774:
5772:
5768:
5767:
5765:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5743:
5741:
5737:
5736:
5734:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5697:
5695:
5691:
5690:
5688:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5665:Concrete block
5662:
5661:
5660:
5655:
5653:voided biaxial
5650:
5645:
5634:
5632:
5628:
5627:
5625:
5624:
5623:
5622:
5617:
5609:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5508:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5497:
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5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5460:
5458:
5454:
5453:
5451:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
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5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5379:
5377:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5369:
5364:
5359:
5357:Concrete cover
5354:
5349:
5344:
5339:
5334:
5329:
5327:Concrete mixer
5324:
5318:
5316:
5310:
5309:
5307:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5265:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5238:
5236:
5230:
5229:
5227:
5226:
5221:
5216:
5214:Roman concrete
5211:
5206:
5200:
5198:
5192:
5191:
5186:
5184:
5183:
5176:
5169:
5161:
5152:
5151:
5148:
5145:
5144:
5142:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5114:Mining regions
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5075:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5042:homogenization
5039:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5008:
5006:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4996:
4991:
4989:Sulfur dioxide
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4925:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4904:
4902:power in China
4899:
4894:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4838:
4836:
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4822:
4820:
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4814:
4809:
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4783:
4781:
4773:
4772:
4767:
4765:
4764:
4757:
4750:
4742:
4736:
4735:
4729:
4723:
4713:
4707:
4702:
4696:
4690:
4685:
4680:
4673:
4672:External links
4670:
4668:
4667:
4640:(2): 104–107.
4620:
4611:
4602:
4583:
4574:
4559:
4545:
4526:
4507:
4488:
4474:
4458:
4440:
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4395:
4371:
4352:
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4307:
4280:
4261:
4241:
4223:
4202:
4193:
4184:
4152:
4133:
4114:
4095:
4065:
4035:
3997:
3968:
3939:
3877:
3846:
3797:
3751:
3726:
3697:
3672:
3656:Salisbury Post
3642:
3620:(2014-06-17).
3609:
3590:
3571:
3552:
3533:
3514:
3496:
3480:
3458:
3444:
3423:
3405:
3386:
3367:(1–3): 51–57.
3351:
3326:
3317:
3270:
3244:(2): 126–132.
3221:
3203:
3185:
3134:
3099:
3074:Energy Sources
3064:
3057:Real, Bricks.
3049:
3035:
3024:Corrosionpedia
3011:
2990:
2941:
2902:
2887:
2872:
2844:
2835:Moore, David.
2827:
2808:
2803:10.14359/18496
2781:
2755:
2752:on 2007-06-21.
2733:
2702:
2678:
2668:2012-09-08 at
2654:
2645:
2619:
2612:
2595:
2581:
2564:
2547:
2516:
2501:
2483:
2465:
2424:
2422:April 1, 2009.
2400:
2376:
2355:
2328:
2309:(1): 211–278.
2293:
2269:
2249:
2222:(2): 187–200.
2202:
2181:(3): 209–223.
2165:
2149:
2137:
2134:on 2018-11-05.
2119:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2070:
2065:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2028:Siberian Traps
2023:
2020:
2006:
2003:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1949:
1917:
1914:
1809:
1806:
1801:
1800:
1797:compacted soil
1789:
1782:
1779:
1685:
1682:
1635:surface runoff
1627:drinking water
1558:
1555:
1542:
1539:
1491:
1488:
1479:
1478:North Carolina
1476:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1399:
1396:
1377:
1376:
1341:of the subject
1339:worldwide view
1334:
1332:
1325:
1313:
1310:
1265:
1262:
1249:
1246:
1229:
1226:
1212:
1209:
1176:
1173:
1139:
1136:
1131:
1119:
1116:
1114:applications.
1108:thermoplastics
1103:
1100:
1087:
1084:
1067:
1064:
1058:
1055:
1039:shear strength
1026:
1023:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1003:greenhouse gas
966:
963:
959:metal castings
951:marine pilings
947:noise barriers
939:plastic lumber
891:
890:
887:
884:
881:
875:
868:
862:
856:
851:
848:Cement clinker
845:
842:
832:
826:
823:
816:
789:
786:
747:North Carolina
717:
714:
713:
712:
696:
683:
621:
620:Classification
618:
522:
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510:
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482:
481:
478:
475:
472:
465:
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461:
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455:
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409:
405:
400:
399:
396:
393:
390:
385:
380:
379:
372:
365:
358:
348:
345:
211:
207:
191:
141:plurale tantum
109:
106:
105:
104:
91:
77:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5834:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5814:
5812:
5797:
5789:
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5785:
5779:
5776:
5775:
5773:
5769:
5763:
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5753:
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5748:
5745:
5744:
5742:
5738:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5707:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5698:
5696:
5694:Organizations
5692:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5659:
5658:slab on grade
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5640:
5639:
5636:
5635:
5633:
5629:
5621:
5618:
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5613:
5612:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5587:Self-leveling
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
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5525:
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5513:
5510:
5509:
5507:
5505:
5501:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5461:
5459:
5455:
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5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
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5426:
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5421:
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5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5388:Cast-in-place
5386:
5384:
5381:
5380:
5378:
5374:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5343:
5340:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5319:
5317:
5315:
5311:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5284:Reinforcement
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
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5243:
5240:
5239:
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5235:
5231:
5225:
5222:
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5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
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5201:
5199:
5197:
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5189:
5182:
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5159:
5146:
5140:
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5135:
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5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
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5097:
5095:
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5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5057:mining region
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5034:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5005:
5001:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4874:
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4868:
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4863:
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4855:
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4774:
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4758:
4756:
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4730:
4727:
4724:
4721:
4717:
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4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4700:
4697:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4671:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4624:
4621:
4615:
4612:
4606:
4603:
4600:
4596:
4593:
4587:
4584:
4578:
4575:
4572:
4569:
4563:
4560:
4555:
4549:
4546:
4543:
4540:
4536:
4530:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4511:
4508:
4503:
4499:
4492:
4489:
4484:
4478:
4475:
4472:. 2020-08-28.
4471:
4468:
4462:
4459:
4455:. 2020-10-16.
4454:
4450:
4444:
4441:
4438:. 2019-08-14.
4437:
4434:
4430:
4423:
4420:
4405:
4399:
4396:
4381:
4375:
4372:
4369:
4365:
4362:
4356:
4353:
4349:
4348:
4343:
4339:
4336:
4330:
4327:
4322:
4318:
4311:
4308:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4284:
4281:
4276:
4272:
4265:
4262:
4258:
4255:
4251:
4245:
4242:
4237:
4233:
4227:
4224:
4216:
4209:
4207:
4203:
4197:
4194:
4188:
4185:
4174:on 2016-03-05
4170:
4163:
4156:
4153:
4148:
4144:
4137:
4134:
4129:
4128:CBS News / AP
4125:
4118:
4115:
4110:
4106:
4099:
4096:
4085:on 2022-08-09
4084:
4080:
4076:
4069:
4066:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4028:
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4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4001:
3998:
3994:
3982:
3978:
3972:
3969:
3965:
3953:
3952:Living Levels
3949:
3943:
3940:
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3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3898:
3896:
3894:
3892:
3890:
3888:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3878:
3873:
3872:Earth Justice
3866:
3859:
3857:
3855:
3853:
3851:
3847:
3842:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3801:
3798:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3740:
3736:
3730:
3727:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3701:
3698:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3673:
3662:on 2016-02-12
3661:
3657:
3653:
3646:
3643:
3632:on 2016-02-12
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3613:
3610:
3605:
3601:
3594:
3591:
3586:
3582:
3575:
3572:
3567:
3563:
3556:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3503:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3490:
3484:
3481:
3476:
3472:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3448:
3445:
3442:, 2015-04-17.
3441:
3438:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3415:
3409:
3406:
3401:
3397:
3390:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3355:
3352:
3341:on 2008-08-20
3340:
3336:
3330:
3327:
3321:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
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3251:
3247:
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3213:
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3199:
3195:
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3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3138:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3103:
3100:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3068:
3065:
3060:
3053:
3050:
3045:
3039:
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3025:
3021:
3015:
3012:
3000:
2994:
2991:
2986:
2982:
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2972:
2968:
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2960:
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2937:
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2913:
2906:
2903:
2898:
2891:
2888:
2883:
2876:
2873:
2865:
2861:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2839:
2831:
2828:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2809:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2782:
2771:on 2011-01-17
2770:
2766:
2759:
2756:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2706:
2703:
2692:
2688:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2670:archive.today
2667:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2635:on 2010-12-04
2634:
2630:
2623:
2620:
2615:
2613:0-309-65472-6
2609:
2605:
2599:
2596:
2591:
2585:
2582:
2574:
2568:
2565:
2557:
2551:
2548:
2537:on 2019-05-07
2533:
2526:
2520:
2517:
2512:
2505:
2502:
2498:. 2014-02-03.
2497:
2493:
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2159:
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2144:
2142:
2138:
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2129:
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2109:
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2100:
2095:
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2047:
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2038:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2012:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1984:
1976:United States
1975:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1955:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1915:
1913:
1909:
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1902:
1901:U.S. Congress
1897:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1807:
1805:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1787:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1730:major release
1727:
1723:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1707:fugitive dust
1701:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1529:In 2008, the
1527:
1526:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1373:
1370:
1362:
1352:
1348:
1342:
1340:
1333:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1300:contaminated
1299:
1295:
1294:sewage sludge
1289:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1254:sewage sludge
1247:
1245:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1153:
1149:
1144:
1137:
1135:
1129:
1125:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1092:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1072:flowable fill
1066:Flowable fill
1065:
1063:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1024:
1022:
1011:
1004:
998:
994:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
964:
962:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
903:bowling balls
900:
896:
888:
885:
882:
880:
876:
873:
869:
866:
863:
861:
857:
855:
852:
849:
846:
843:
840:
839:Flowable fill
836:
833:
830:
827:
824:
821:
817:
814:
811:
810:
809:
806:
802:
800:
796:
787:
785:
783:
779:
775:
765:
755:
750:
748:
744:
738:
734:
732:
728:
723:
715:
709:
705:
704:fly ash brick
689:
684:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
664:
663:
661:
656:
655:beneficiation
651:
647:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
619:
617:
614:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
503:
501:
497:
493:
489:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
466:
462:
459:
456:
453:
450:
449:
445:
442:
439:
436:
426:
425:
421:
418:
415:
412:
402:
401:
397:
394:
391:
388:
382:
381:
378:
377:
373:
371:
370:
369:Subbituminous
366:
364:
363:
359:
355:
346:
344:
342:
338:
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
306:
304:
303:PAH compounds
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
223:
221:
217:
216:calcium oxide
205:
201:
197:
189:
184:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
119:
114:
107:
101:
97:
96:
92:
88:
84:
82:
78:
75:
70:
66:
62:
59:
58:
53:
49:
47:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
5670:Step barrier
5631:Applications
5542:Nanoconcrete
5428:Power trowel
5413:Power screed
5403:Slip forming
5376:Construction
5134:Refined coal
5047:liquefaction
4939:Energy value
4876:
4719:
4637:
4633:
4623:
4614:
4605:
4586:
4577:
4562:
4548:
4534:
4529:
4520:
4510:
4501:
4491:
4477:
4461:
4452:
4443:
4428:
4422:
4411:. Retrieved
4398:
4387:. Retrieved
4374:
4355:
4350:, 2008-03-30
4345:
4329:
4320:
4310:
4293:
4289:
4283:
4264:
4249:
4244:
4235:
4226:
4196:
4187:
4176:. Retrieved
4169:the original
4155:
4146:
4136:
4127:
4117:
4108:
4098:
4087:. Retrieved
4083:the original
4078:
4068:
4057:. Retrieved
4048:
4038:
4030:
4010:
4006:
4000:
3992:
3985:. Retrieved
3981:Croeso Cymru
3980:
3971:
3963:
3956:. Retrieved
3951:
3942:
3909:
3905:
3871:
3814:
3810:
3800:
3767:
3763:
3743:. Retrieved
3741:. 2019-01-16
3739:Earthjustice
3738:
3729:
3718:. Retrieved
3714:the original
3709:
3700:
3689:. Retrieved
3687:. 2018-11-27
3685:Earthjustice
3684:
3675:
3664:. Retrieved
3660:the original
3655:
3645:
3634:. Retrieved
3630:the original
3625:
3612:
3603:
3593:
3584:
3574:
3565:
3555:
3546:
3536:
3522:
3517:
3483:
3474:
3447:
3417:
3408:
3399:
3389:
3364:
3360:
3354:
3343:. Retrieved
3339:the original
3329:
3320:
3287:
3283:
3273:
3261:. Retrieved
3241:
3237:
3224:
3215:
3206:
3198:the original
3188:
3147:
3143:
3137:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3077:
3073:
3067:
3052:
3038:
3027:. Retrieved
3023:
3014:
3003:. Retrieved
2993:
2958:
2954:
2944:
2919:
2915:
2905:
2896:
2890:
2881:
2875:
2837:
2830:
2821:
2817:
2811:
2794:
2790:
2784:
2773:. Retrieved
2769:the original
2758:
2750:the original
2736:
2724:. Retrieved
2720:the original
2715:
2705:
2694:. Retrieved
2690:
2681:
2673:
2657:
2648:
2637:. Retrieved
2633:the original
2622:
2598:
2584:
2567:
2550:
2539:. Retrieved
2532:the original
2519:
2504:
2495:
2486:
2477:
2468:
2441:
2437:
2427:
2419:
2403:
2395:
2379:
2368:. Retrieved
2358:
2350:
2344:. Retrieved
2331:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2285:. Retrieved
2281:
2272:
2261:. Retrieved
2252:
2219:
2215:
2205:
2196:10533/174158
2178:
2174:
2168:
2152:
2132:the original
2122:
2108:
2035:conditions.
2025:
2008:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1979:
1962:
1958:
1947:
1925:
1910:
1906:geomembranes
1899:In 1980 the
1898:
1814:heavy metals
1811:
1808:Contaminants
1802:
1757:
1746:
1719:
1704:
1667:
1655:
1624:
1560:
1544:
1535:Roane County
1528:
1524:
1523:
1515:Earthjustice
1493:
1481:
1458:
1401:
1380:
1365:
1359:January 2023
1356:
1336:
1308:, Portugal.
1298:chromium(VI)
1290:
1278:polyethylene
1267:
1251:
1231:
1214:
1205:
1198:
1194:cavity walls
1187:
1178:
1165:Ghatghar Dam
1157:
1121:
1105:
1089:
1078:(0.3 to 8.3
1069:
1060:
1047:permeability
1028:
999:
995:
968:
927:cinder block
892:
867:construction
865:Road subbase
807:
803:
791:
773:
763:
751:
739:
735:
719:
642:
623:
547:cristobalite
504:
485:
374:
367:
360:
334:
307:
228:
224:
185:
180:
171:. In modern
157:particulates
148:
144:
139:(in the UK)—
136:
132:
128:
124:
123:
99:
93:
79:
60:
38:
34:
30:
29:
5648:hollow-core
5607:Waste light
5602:Translucent
5562:Prestressed
5489:Segregation
5474:Degradation
5362:Cover meter
5299:Silica fume
5234:Composition
5004:Coal mining
4954:Fossil fuel
3817:(1): 1389.
3710:Environment
3418:Enforcement
3263:14 November
2089:Silica fume
2030:during the
1952:O) to form
1793:geomembrane
1734:Emory River
1519:Sierra Club
1218:cenospheres
1167:Project in
1124:geopolymers
1118:Geopolymers
915:geopolymers
829:Embankments
743:Duke Energy
575:portlandite
320:to produce
220:rock strata
200:crystalline
100:boiler slag
5811:Categories
5747:Eurocode 2
5685:Structures
5572:Reinforced
5532:Lunarcrete
5512:AstroCrete
5469:Durability
5464:Properties
5342:Slump test
5314:Production
5304:Metakaolin
5027:Coalfields
4812:Anthracite
4701:(document)
4413:2016-05-12
4389:2016-05-12
4178:2016-03-05
4089:2023-12-13
4059:2019-06-16
3745:2022-03-27
3720:2021-06-26
3691:2022-03-27
3666:2014-06-17
3636:2014-06-17
3345:2009-04-09
3029:2022-06-17
3005:2012-11-15
2922:: 94–103.
2775:2010-11-23
2696:2022-03-27
2639:2010-11-23
2541:2019-05-09
2444:: 115905.
2370:2008-09-18
2346:2013-11-19
2287:2022-06-17
2263:2022-03-27
2114:"Coal Ash"
2101:References
2068:Coal waste
2062:Cenosphere
1971:Regulation
1943:carcinogen
1920:See also:
1850:molybdenum
1768:Subtitle C
1672:have been
1659:molybdenum
1567:bottom ash
1436:molybdenum
1031:clay-sized
1025:Embankment
945:, highway
919:roof tiles
911:boat hulls
899:toothpaste
860:soft soils
841:production
722:flue gases
680:geopolymer
668:pozzolanic
634:bituminous
630:anthracite
599:akermanite
500:refractory
362:Bituminous
357:Component
310:atmosphere
279:molybdenum
169:bottom ash
165:flue gases
95:Bottom ash
65:bag houses
46:combustion
5778:Hempcrete
5740:Standards
5567:Ready-mix
5484:Recycling
5279:Aggregate
5262:Rosendale
5139:Whitedamp
5124:Peak coal
5119:Outbursts
5022:Coal dust
5012:Blackdamp
4917:seam fire
4892:phase-out
4662:1752-0894
4453:U.S. News
4277:. R43149.
4027:1747-6585
3312:213214375
3304:2365-6549
3180:232121663
3129:137542868
3094:103146717
2955:ACS Omega
2936:244252984
2746:"Fly Ash"
2460:0147-6513
2398:May 2009.
2244:0304-386X
1965:leachates
1935:silicosis
1890:phosphate
1822:beryllium
1786:dewatered
1728:caused a
1711:ash ponds
1674:made into
1584:manganese
1525:Tennessee
1412:beryllium
1383:ash ponds
1351:talk page
1286:pyrolysis
1282:crude oil
1238:germanium
1096:ASTM D242
987:pozzolana
979:aqueducts
895:cosmetics
872:aggregate
778:quarrying
731:ash ponds
727:landfills
595:gehlenite
591:anorthite
559:periclase
555:free lime
551:anhydrite
543:maghemite
539:magnetite
492:spherical
330:Pozzolans
287:strontium
271:manganese
243:beryllium
196:amorphous
5771:See also
5762:EN 10080
5757:EN 206-1
5752:EN 197-1
5611:Aerated
5552:Polished
5547:Pervious
5522:Filigree
5418:Finisher
5393:Formwork
5257:Portland
5188:Concrete
5089:Firedamp
4944:Flue gas
4867:Charcoal
4842:Ash pond
4817:Graphite
4595:Archived
4364:Archived
4338:Archived
4147:Politico
4109:HuffPost
4053:Archived
3912:: 1–37.
3841:23325986
3784:28516354
3258:97662386
3172:33663209
2985:34179596
2666:Archived
2412:Archived
2388:Archived
2094:Cenocell
2039:See also
1886:granitic
1874:vanadium
1862:selenium
1834:chromium
1753:Eden, NC
1663:selenium
1649:, zinc,
1604:chromium
1572:alkaline
1495:Illinois
1490:Illinois
1455:Maryland
1450:Examples
1432:selenium
1428:thallium
1424:chromium
1345:You may
1306:Alcanena
1274:catalyst
1264:Catalyst
1242:tungsten
1182:1000 °C.
991:pozzolan
983:Pantheon
975:concrete
931:PVC pipe
813:Concrete
646:fineness
535:hematite
318:pozzolan
295:vanadium
291:thallium
283:selenium
255:chromium
194:) (both
181:coal ash
133:coal ash
129:flue ash
87:flue gas
5721:Nanocem
5680:Columns
5557:Polymer
5457:Science
5423:Grinder
5383:Precast
5289:Fly ash
5196:History
4949:Fly ash
4797:Lignite
4642:Bibcode
3987:24 June
3958:24 June
3934:3065936
3914:Bibcode
3832:3543769
3792:8021314
3369:Bibcode
3216:nmi3.eu
3152:Bibcode
2976:8223219
2726:1 March
2311:Bibcode
2224:Bibcode
1888:rocks,
1870:uranium
1866:thorium
1846:mercury
1826:cadmium
1818:arsenic
1770:of the
1738:Alabama
1715:bunding
1651:bromine
1647:calcium
1631:erosion
1620:mercury
1616:cadmium
1612:arsenic
1576:topsoil
1557:Ecology
1507:lithium
1499:arsenic
1440:mercury
1420:cadmium
1404:arsenic
1258:biofuel
1224:(CTE).
981:or the
795:dioxins
688:sulfate
638:lignite
607:mercury
583:anatase
567:sylvite
563:calcite
541:and/or
531:mullite
376:Lignite
299:dioxins
275:mercury
251:cadmium
239:arsenic
235:gallium
161:boilers
151:)—is a
125:Fly ash
108:Fly ash
61:Fly ash
5643:waffle
5592:Sulfur
5448:Tremie
5443:Sealer
5408:Screed
5352:Curing
5242:Cement
5067:slurry
5062:refuse
4934:Coking
4852:Asthma
4660:
4025:
3932:
3839:
3829:
3790:
3782:
3310:
3302:
3256:
3178:
3170:
3127:
3092:
2983:
2973:
2934:
2610:
2513:. CNN.
2458:
2242:
2057:Cement
1876:, and
1858:radium
1854:nickel
1838:copper
1830:barium
1661:, and
1618:, and
1608:cobalt
1600:nickel
1592:copper
1505:, and
1503:cobalt
1408:barium
1175:Bricks
1148:Ameren
1076:lbf/in
1049:, and
907:stucco
650:carbon
636:, and
585:. The
579:rutile
571:halite
527:quartz
463:15–40
440:10–40
422:20–25
419:20–30
398:15–45
395:40–60
392:20–60
293:, and
263:cobalt
214:) and
5822:Waste
5675:Roads
5597:Tabby
5504:Types
5438:Float
5367:Rebar
5322:Plant
5269:Water
4787:Xylit
4571:18824
4542:64650
4470:53516
4436:40353
4407:(PDF)
4385:. NTP
4383:(PDF)
4257:32214
4218:(PDF)
4172:(PDF)
4165:(PDF)
3868:(PDF)
3788:S2CID
3530:18824
3511:72506
3492:53516
3440:21301
3308:S2CID
3254:S2CID
3234:(PDF)
3176:S2CID
3125:S2CID
3090:S2CID
2932:S2CID
2867:(PDF)
2576:(PDF)
2559:(PDF)
2535:(PDF)
2528:(PDF)
2340:(PDF)
2075:(EMC)
2048:(ASR)
2015:India
2005:India
1894:shale
1751:near
1541:Texas
1416:boron
1169:India
835:Grout
788:Reuse
474:0–15
460:5–30
457:1–12
446:4–15
443:4–10
416:5–35
247:boron
135:, or
5638:Slab
5620:RAAC
5537:Mass
5527:Foam
5433:Pump
5072:town
5032:Coal
4984:Smog
4929:Coke
4872:Coal
4862:Char
4792:Peat
4769:Coal
4658:ISSN
4023:ISSN
3989:2023
3960:2023
3930:PMID
3837:PMID
3780:PMID
3300:ISSN
3265:2022
3168:PMID
2981:PMID
2728:2016
2608:ISBN
2456:ISSN
2240:ISSN
2009:The
1939:IARC
1931:lime
1929:and
1878:zinc
1842:lead
1758:The
1596:lead
1588:zinc
1580:iron
1438:and
1240:and
837:and
797:and
729:and
708:ASTM
672:lime
581:and
517:, Fe
509:, Al
480:0–5
477:0–3
471:(%)
454:(%)
437:(%)
413:(%)
389:(%)
267:lead
198:and
190:(SiO
149:CCRs
98:and
43:coal
5615:AAC
5037:gas
4979:NOx
4922:tar
4887:gas
4650:doi
4537:85
4431:84
4298:doi
4294:107
4252:65
4015:doi
3922:doi
3827:PMC
3819:doi
3815:224
3772:doi
3525:88
3377:doi
3292:doi
3246:doi
3160:doi
3117:doi
3082:doi
2971:PMC
2963:doi
2924:doi
2822:127
2799:doi
2795:104
2446:doi
2442:269
2319:doi
2232:doi
2191:hdl
2183:doi
2013:of
1724:'s
1698:in
1533:in
1304:in
1150:'s
1080:MPa
973:in
870:As
745:in
640:).
613:ppm
505:SiO
469:LOI
452:CaO
384:SiO
206:(Al
202:),
35:CCP
5813::
4718:,
4656:.
4648:.
4636:.
4632:.
4568:FR
4539:FR
4519:.
4500:.
4467:FR
4451:.
4433:FR
4344:,
4319:.
4292:.
4254:FR
4234:.
4205:^
4145:.
4126:.
4107:.
4077:.
4047:.
4029:.
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