History of coal miners - Knowledge (XXG)

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owned by large railroads, and managed by bureaucrats. Scranton was at the center. Bituminous mines were locally owned. The social system revolved not so much on occupation (nearly all inhabitants were blue collar workers with similar incomes) but on ethnicity. Welsh and English miners had the highest prestige and the best jobs, followed by the Irish. At a lower status stood recent immigrants from Italy and Eastern Europe; recent arrivals from the Appalachian hills were lower status. The ethnic groups would stick together, seldom mingling. Blacks were sometimes brought in as strike breakers. There was little machinery apart from the railroad. Before mechanization began about 1910 the miners relied on brute force, pick-axe, hand drills and dynamite to smash lumps of coal out of the wall, and shovel them into mule-drawn carts that hauled it to the weighing station, and the railroad cars. The culture held physical courage in high regard. Boxing was the favored sport. Opportunities for women were limited, until textile companies after 1900 started opening small factories in the larger coal towns to employ women. Religion was in high regard, as each group was fiercely loyal to its denomination. Schooling was limited. The aspiration of the boys was to get a job helping around the mines until they were old enough to work underground as "real" miners.

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they were all hostile to using strikes. The 1830s saw strikes, but they were not sponsored by the labor unions; rather they were spontaneous complaints against the unity of the owners. Zeldin says, "The miners were clearly backward looking, yearning nostalgically for the days of the small un-mechanized mines, run not by distant engineers but by gang leaders chosen of the men themselves." It was a failed strike in 1869 that undermined one new union. Union leadership insisted the best policy was to seek gradual improvements through lobbying for national legislation. By 1897 there were numerous very small independent mining unions, that together comprised only a small fraction of the miners. When new mines opened up in the Nord and Pas-de-Calais, leadership passed to their unions, which also pursued a moderate policy.

477:, using local coal. The average output of a mine in 1850 was about 8,500 short tons; its employment about 64. By 1900, the average mine's output had risen to 280,000 and the employment to about 1,400. The miners in the German areas were divided by ethnicity (with Germans and Poles), by religion (Protestants and Catholics) and by politics (Socialist, liberal and Communist). Mobility in and out of the mining camps to nearby industrial areas was high. The miners split into several unions, with an affiliation to a political party. As a result, the socialist union (affiliated with the Social Democratic Party) competed with Catholic and Communist unions until 1933, when the Nazis took over all of them. After 1945 the socialists came to the fore. 556: 309:(TUC) in an unsuccessful attempt to force the British government to act to prevent wage reduction and worsening conditions for 800,000 locked-out coal miners. Some 1.7 million workers went out, especially in transport and heavy industry. The government was prepared and enlisted middle-class volunteers to maintain essential services. There was little violence and the TUC gave up in defeat. The miners gained nothing. In the long run, there was little impact on trade-union activity or industrial relations. 767:

war effort, and maximum output of coal. The rank and file miners, however, were primarily interested in regaining lost income, and began slow-downs to force the company to pay higher wages. When wages did go up, output fell as absenteeism increased and the younger men left for better-paying factory jobs, and the remaining men resisted any speedup. The union leaders were unable to control a dissatisfied and militant work force, as the miners fought both the company and their own union leaders.

117: 763:. The union mobilized its voters and took control of town councils. They challenged coal companies on the use of company police and assessment of taxes. The most dramatic change was the town council's success in restricting the authority of the company police, who had often served as special, unpaid town police officers. The town councils also intervened in the strife of the 1920s, assisting the miners against the British Empire Steel Corporation's wage-cutting. 681:) miners in the Midwest, winning significant wage increases and growing from 10,000 to 115,000 members. The UAW faced much stiffer opposition in the concentration of ownership in the small anthracite region. The owners, controlled by large railroads, refused to meet or to arbitrate with the union; the union struck in September 1900, with results that surprised even the union, as miners of all different nationalities walked out in support of the union. 803: 544: 313:

and district wage agreements. The strikers felt as though they had achieved nothing. The effect on the British coal-mining industry was profound. By the late 1930s, employment in mining had fallen by more than one-third from its pre-strike peak of 1.2 million miners, but productivity had rebounded from under 200 tons produced per miner to over 300 tons by the outbreak in 1939 of the Second World War.

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royalty-lessees. In South Wales, the miners showed a high degree of solidarity. They lived in isolated villages where the miners comprised the great majority of workers. There was a high degree of equality in lifestyle; combined with an evangelical religious style based on Methodism this led to an ideology of equalitarianism. They forged a "community of solidarity" - under the leadership of the

714: 535:, redeemable at the store, which often charged higher prices than other stores. Many miners' homes were also owned by the mines. Although there were company towns that raised the prices of all goods and made eviction a constant threat, these conditions were not the norm for all coal towns—some owners were paternalistic and others were exploitative. 408: 439:(French speaking southern Belgium), starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after 1830. The availability of cheap coal was a main factor that attracted entrepreneurs. Numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around 734:

in all soft (bituminous) coal fields. They had agreed to a wage agreement to run until the end of World War I and now sought to capture some of their industry's wartime gains. The Federal government invoked the wartime measure that made it a crime to interfere with the production or transportation of

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became involved and set up a fact-finding commission that suspended the strike. The strike never resumed, as the miners received more pay for fewer hours; the owners got a higher price for coal, and did not recognize the union as a bargaining agent. It was the first labor episode in which the federal

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fields of eastern Pennsylvania. Miners were on strike asking for higher wages, shorter workdays and the recognition of their union. The strike threatened to shut down the winter fuel supply to all major cities (homes and apartments were heated with anthracite or "hard" coal because it had higher heat

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The UMW was weakened by internal factionalism in the 1920s and lost members. Oil was replacing coal as the nation's main energy source and the industry was threatened. The number of coal miners nationwide fell from a peak of 694,000 in 1919 to 602,000 in 1929, and fell sharply to 454,000 in 1939 and

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published a report on 10 March 1926 recommending that in the future, national agreements, the nationalization of royalties, and sweeping reorganization and improvement should be considered for the mining industry. It also recommended a reduction of 13.5% of miners' wages along with the withdrawal of

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The Amalgamated became Communist-led in the 1930s and promoted militancy, extreme rank-and-file democracy and radical resistance to company demands for wage cuts. During the Second World War, after the Soviet Union was invaded by Germany in 1941 the union overnight became intense supporters of the

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Coal was typically mined in remote areas, often mountainous. The miners lived in crude housing provided at low cost by the companies, and shopped in company stores. There were few amenities, and few alternative industries besides the railroads and saloons. The anthracite mines of Pennsylvania were

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French miners were slow to organize themselves. When they did organize, they avoided strikes if possible. They placed their faith in the national government to improve their lot through special legislation, and were careful to be moderate. Miner organizations were torn by internal difficulties, but

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The miners maintained resistance for a few months before being forced by their own economic needs to return to the mines. By the end of November most miners were back at work. However, many remained unemployed for many years. Those that were employed were forced to accept longer hours, lower wages,

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was the first national strike by coal miners in Britain. Its main goal of securing a minimum wage. After a million men had walked out for 37 days, the UK Government intervened and ended the strike by passing a minimum wage law. This caused many problems with ships due to the shortage of fuel. As a

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during the troubled 1920s and 1930s. They never worked for the mines but provided psychological support especially during strikes when the pay packets did not arrive. They were the family financiers and encouraged other wives who otherwise might have coaxed their menfolk to accept company terms.

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Lewis, facing criminal charges and sensitive to the propaganda campaign, withdrew his strike call. Lewis did not fully control the faction-ridden UAW and many locals ignored his call. As the strike dragged on into its third week, supplies of the nation's main fuel were running low and the public

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After the Samuel Commission's report, the mine owners declared that, on penalty of a lockout from 1 May, miners would have to accept new terms of employment that included lengthening the work day and reducing wages between 10% and 25%, depending on various factors. The Miners' Federation of Great

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From the mid-19th century onward, coal miners have often built strong connections with the organized labor movement, and sometimes as well with radical political movements. Coal miners were among the first groups of industrial workers to collectively organize to the protection of both working and

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The company store is one of the most reviled and misunderstood of economic institutions. In song, folktale, and union rhetoric the company store was often cast as a villain, a collector of souls through perpetual debt peonage. Nicknames, like the "pluck me" and more obscene versions that cannot

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in a remote area where virtually everyone is employed by one firm, such as the coal mine. In a company town, the housing is owned by the company but there may be independent stores there or nearby. Company stores face little or no competition and prices are therefore not competitive. The store

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show that mechanizing the mines gave miners significant control over underground operations. In addition, the cooperative nature of the work enabled the miners to forge close friendships. By contrast in another coalfield, where miners were largely unskilled, owners could replace men easily and

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integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825. By 1830 when iron became important the Belgium coal industry had long been established, and used steam-engines for pumping. Coal was sold to local mills and railways as well as to France and

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worked with the miners union on favorable terms. Nash notes that the coal operators saw that it was to the advantage to support the union policy of uniform wage rates, for it prevented cutthroat competition and falling prices. The UMW limited the propensity of miners to go on wildcat strikes.

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After 1790 output soared, reaching 16 million long tons by 1815. By 1830 this had risen to over 30 million tons The miners, less menaced by imported labor or machines than were the textile workers, had begun to form trade unions and fight their battle for control against the coal owners and

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In Germany, the coal miners demonstrated their militancy through large-scale strikes in 1889, 1905, and 1912. However, in political terms, the German miners were middle-of-the-road and not especially radical. One reason was the formation of different unions—Socialist, liberal, radical, and

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The statistics show that from 1889 to 1921 British miners struck between 2 and 3 times more frequently than any other group of workers. Some isolated coal fields had long traditions of militancy and violence; those in Scotland were especially strike-prone. Coal miners formed the core of the

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movements (as in Britain, Poland, Japan, Canada, Chile and (in the 1930s) in the U.S.) Historians report that, "From the 1880s through the end of the twentieth century, coal miners across the world became one of the most militant segments of the working class in the industrialized world."

582:. However air pollution was a constant health threat; the houses lacked indoor plumbing. As demand for metallurgical coke declined, the mine laid off workers and Segundo's population declined. After a major fire in 1929, CF&I left town and Segundo became practically a ghost town. 58:

views. A number of far-left political movements have had the support of both coal miners themselves and their trade unions, particularly in Great Britain. In France, on the other hand, coal miners have been much more conservative. In India, Coal Miners Day is celebrated on May 4.

392:(the new name for the national Coal Board), was privatised by selling off a large number of pits to private concerns through the mid-1990s. Because of exhausted seams and high prices the mining industry disappeared almost completely, despite the militant protests of some miners. 489:. The use of steam engines enabled exploitation of deeper lying coal seams to the west. Until 1800 mineworkers were organised in small companies who exploited a seam. In the twentieth century the mining companies grew big. The Roman Catholic church actively engaged through 107:

the coal miners were the most politicized element in society after 1945. They were the primary support group for the Communist governments and were heavily subsidized. Poland's miners were also critical supporters of the anti-Communist Solidarity movement of the 1980s.

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In British Columbia, Canada, the coal miners were "independent, tough, and proud" and became "among the most radical and militant laborers in an extremely polarized province." They were the core of the socialist movement; their strikes were frequent, long, and bitter.

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The stores served numerous functions, such as a locus for the government post office, and as the cultural, and community center where people could freely gather. Company stores became scarce after the miners bought automobiles and could travel to a range of stores.

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Being a miner in the 19th century meant long hours of continuous hard labor in the dark mines with low ceilings. Accidents were frequent. Young boys were used outside the mine to sort coal from rocks; they were not allowed underground until age 18.

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After the late 19th-century coal miners in many countries were a frequent presence in industrial disputes with both the management and government. Coal miners' politics, while complex, has occasionally been radical, with a frequent leaning towards

195:' of British politics can trace its origins to coal-mining areas, with the main trade union being the Miners' Federation of Great Britain, founded in 1888. The MFGB claimed 600,000 members in 1908. (The MFGB later became the more centralised 238:

Mine owners wanted to normalize profits even during times of economic instability, which often took the form of wage reductions for miners in their employ. Coupled with the prospect of longer working hours, the industry was thrown into

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when coal was burnt on a large scale to fuel stationary and locomotive engines and heat buildings. Owing to coal's strategic role as a primary fuel, coal miners have figured strongly in labor and political movements since that time.

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necessities. Ignoring the court order 400,000 coal workers walked out. The coal operators played the radical card, saying Lenin and Trotsky had ordered the strike and were financing it, and some of the press echoed that language.

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As well as energy supply, coal became a very political issue, due to the conditions under which colliers worked. Their dominance in remote villages heightened political and industrial solidarily, colliery owners. Much of the 'old

335:. The 1980s and 1990s saw much change in the coal industry, with privatisation, the industry contracting, in some areas quite drastically. Many pits were considered uneconomic to work at then current wage rates compared to cheap 342:

The NCB employed over 700,000 people in 1950 and 634,000 in 1960, but successive governments reduced the size of the industry by closing geographically impaired or low productivity pits. Closures were originally concentrated in

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This decision became known as "Red Friday" because it was seen as a victory for working-class solidarity and Socialism. In practice, the subsidy gave the mine owners and the government time to prepare for a major labor dispute.

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The first important German mines appeared in the 1750s, in the valleys of the rivers Ruhr, Inde and Wurm where coal seams outcropped and horizontal adit mining was possible. After 1815 entrepreneurs in Belgium launched the

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coast of Scotland, deep shaft mining in Britain began to develop extensively in the late 18th century, with rapid expansion throughout the 19th century and early 20th century when the industry peaked. The location of the

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The political unity and radicalism of coal miners has traditionally been explained in terms of the isolation of a homogeneous mass of workers in conditions of economic and cultural deprivation. However local studies in

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in 1925 made the British pound too strong for effective exporting to take place from Britain, and also (because of the economic processes involved in maintaining a strong currency) raised interest rates, hurting all

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The fall in coal prices resulted from the re-entry in 1925 of Germany to the international coal market by exporting "free coal" to France and Italy as part of their reparations for the First World War.

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that won the presidency in 1938, 1942, and 1946. The long-run political gains were illusory, as a major strike in 1947 was repressed by the military on orders of the president the miners had elected.

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subsidised coal by four times as much and France by three times as much in 1984) and the availability of lower cost, often open-cast, coal mined in Australia, Colombia, Poland and the United States.

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coal company housed its workers. It offered adequate housing and promoted upward mobility through its sponsorship of a YMCA Center, elementary school, and some small businesses, as well as a

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social conditions in their communities. Beginning in the 19th century, and continuing through the 20th, coal miners unions became powerful in many countries, the miners becoming leaders of

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Belgium took the lead in the industrial revolution on the continent, and began large scale coal mining operations by the 1820s using British made methods. Industrialisation took place in

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last deep pit mine closed with the loss of 120 jobs. The coal was exhausted. British coal mines employed only 4,000 workers at 30 locations in 2013, extracting 13 million tonnes of coal.

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in 1919, had failed to reach an agreement, producing four different reports with proposals ranging from complete restoration of private ownership and control, to complete nationalization.

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in the creation of a Roman Catholic miners trade union, to prevent the growing influence of socialism. Starting in 1965 coal mines were dismantled, initiated by social democrat minister

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Mining has always been dangerous, because of methane gas explosions, roof cave-ins, and the difficulty of mines rescue. The worst single disaster in British coal mining history was at

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the government subsidy. Two weeks later, the prime minister announced that the government would accept the report provided other parties also did. A previous royal commission, the

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appear in a family newspaper, seem to point to exploitation. The attitudes carry over into the scholarly literature, which emphasizes that the company store was a monopoly."

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was typical in more isolated areas. It was company owned and sold a limited range of food, clothing and daily necessities to employees of a company. It is typical of a

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As well as disasters directly affecting mines, there have been disasters attributable to the impact of mining on the surrounding landscapes and communities. The

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decided to intervene, declaring that they would provide a nine-month subsidy to maintain the miners' wages and that a royal commission under the chairmanship of

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Carol Conell, and Samuel Cohn. "Learning from other people's actions: Environmental variation and diffusion in French coal mining strikes, 1890-1935."

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typically accepts "scrip" or non-cash vouchers issued by the company in advance of weekly cash paychecks, and gives credit to employees before payday.

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called for ever stronger government action. Final agreement came after five weeks with the miners getting a 14% raise, far less than they wanted.

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and is still bitterly resented in some parts of Britain that suffered from the aftermath of pit closures. In popular culture this is reflected in

844:, Europe's worst mining accident, caused the death of 1,099 miners in Northern France on 10 March 1906. This disaster was surpassed only by the 926: 1006: 936: 931: 1555:

Berger, "Working-Class Culture and the Labour Movement in the South Wales and the Ruhr Coalfields, 1850–2000: A Comparison," (2001) pp 5–40.

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Between 1898 and 1908 the wages of coal miners, both in the bituminous and anthracite districts had doubled. Business leaders, led by the

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Stefan Llafur Berger, "Working-Class Culture and the Labour Movement in South Wales and the Ruhr Coalfields, 1850–2000: A Comparison,"

821:. On the morning of 14 October 1913 an explosion and subsequent fire killed 436 men and boys. It followed a series of many extensive 2596: 1240: 911: 298: 247: 862:

Often the victims were memorialized by songs. For example, at least 11 folk songs were composed about the 1956 and 1958 disasters at

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Gildart, Keith. "The Women and Men of 1926: A Gender and Social History of the General Strike and Miners' Lockout in South Wales",

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which destroyed a school in South Wales can be directly attributed to the collapse of spoil heaps from the town's colliery past.

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Women's labor leagues organized a variety of social, educational, and fund-raising functions. Women also violently confronted "

635: 2411: 2356: 2148: 1985: 274:(a leader of the Miners' Federation) said of this event: "We have no need to glorify about victory. It is only an armistice." 2340: 1960:

Ashworth, William, and Mark Pegg. History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 5: 1946–1982: The Nationalized Industry (1986)

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coal towns changed from company towns to labor towns, reflecting a change in the local balance of power. The main union, the

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coalfields opened in the 1830s. Railroads were built around 1850 and numerous small industrial centres sprang up, focused on

448: 271: 1811: 174:, or scraped off when it outcropped on the surface. Small groups of part-time miners used shovels and primitive equipment. 2586: 2377: 1011: 867: 182:. The union supported first the Liberal Party, then after 1918 Labour, with some Communist Party activism at the fringes. 2616: 814: 170:

were the leading coal producers and they were the sites of the first deep pits. In much of Britain coal was worked from

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Fishback, Price V. "Did Coal Miners 'Owe Their Souls to the Company Store'? Theory and Evidence from the Early 1900s,"

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The Foreign Worker and the German Labour Movement: Xenophobia and Solidarity in the Coal Fields of the Ruhr, 1871-1914

2052: 1350:"Forgotten (or conveniently forgotten) reason for 1926 miners strike recalled - Dr Fred Starr | Claverton Group" 841: 837:

ignitions followed by coal dust explosions. Deaths were mainly caused by carbon monoxide poisoning or asphyxiation.

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The NCB saw three major national strikes. The 1972 and 1974 strikes were both over pay and both saw success for the

1493:"Historical coal data: coal production, availability and consumption 1853 to 2013 - Statistical data sets - GOV.UK" 977: 863: 756: 207: 82: 2520:

The Polish Coal Miners' Union and the German Labor Movement in the Ruhr, 1902–1934: National and Social Solidarity

788:, policemen, and soldiers. They had to stretch the food dollar and show inventiveness in clothing their families. 830: 702: 2090: 383: 1902:

Neil V. Rosenberg, "The Springhill Mine Disaster Songs: Class, Memory, and Persistence in Canadian Folksong,"

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Until the middle of the 19th century coal mining in the Netherlands was limited to the direct surroundings of

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in the 1970s. Closures in all coalfields began in the 1980s as demand for British coal was weakened by large

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Penfold Steven, "'Have You No Manhood in You?' Gender and Class in the Cape Breton Coal Towns, 1920-1926."

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result, many transatlantic crossings were cancelled and in some cases, passengers were transferred to the

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The Coal Question: Political Economy and Industrial Change from the Nineteenth Century to the Present Day

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The coal question: political economy and industrial change from the nineteenth century to the present day

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Michael Earle, "'Down with Hitler and Silby Barrett': The Cape Breton Miners' Slowdown Strike of 1941,"

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All the coal mines in Britain were purchased by the government in 1947 and put under the control of the

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Ian McKay, "The Realm of Uncertainty: The Experience of Work in the Cumberland Coal Mines, 1873–1927,"

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Mining for the Nation: The Politics of Chile's Coal Communities from the Popular Front to the Cold War

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J. B. McLachlan: A Biography: The Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners,

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The miners: in crisis and war: a history of the Miners' Federation of Great Britain from 1930 onwards

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The miners: years of struggle: a history of the Miners' Federation of Great Britain from 1910 onwards

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The Industrial Revolution in Iron; The impact of British Coal Technology in Nineteenth-Century Europe

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J. B. McLachlan: A Biography: The Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners,

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Frank David, "Company Town/Labour Town: Local Government in the Cape Breton Coal Towns, 1917–1926,"

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Griffiths, D. A History of the NPA 1906–2006 (London: Newspaper Publishers Association, 2006) pg. 67

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Coals to Newcastle: a History of Coal Loading at the Port of Newcastle, New South Wales 1797-1997

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South Wales Miners, Glowyr de Cymru: a History of the South Wales Miners' Federation (1914–1926)

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The fall of the house of labor: the workplace, the state, and American labor activism, 1865-1925

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Women played an important, though quiet, role in support of the union movement in coal towns in

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Industrial Structure, Union Strategy and Strike Activity in Bituminous Coal Mining, 1881 - 1894

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The History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 4: 1913–1946: The Political Economy of Decline

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The Dukeries Transformed: A history of the development of the Dukeries coal field after 1920

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The Miners; One Union, One Industry: a History of the National Union of Mineworkers, 1939-46

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Ben Curtis, "A Tradition of Radicalism: The Politics of the South Wales Miners, 1964–1985,"

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The Struggle for Market Power: Industrial Relations in the British Coal Industry, 1800-1840

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Irwin Marcus, Eileen Cooper and Beth O'Leary, "The Coal Strike of 1919 in Indiana County,"

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Miners, Millhands, and Mountaineers: Industrialization of the Appalachian South, 1880–1930

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Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields: The Southern West Virginia Miners, 1880-1922

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on the Continent by opening mines and associated iron smelters. In Germany (Prussia), the

259: 167: 2522:(1997); the socially conservative Catholic Polish miners had a high strike activity level 2128: 2038:

The miners of Northumberland and Durham: a history of their social and political progress

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Victor R. Greene, "A Study in Slavs, Strikes and Unions: The Anthracite Strike of 1897."

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The History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 1: Before 1700: Towards the Age of Coal

501:. In 1974 the last coal mine was closed, which led to large unemployment in the region. 760: 302: 163: 138: 104: 96:

In Chile in the 1930s and 1940s, the miners supported the Communist Party as part of a

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Democratic Miners: Work and Labor Relations in the Anthracite Coal Industry, 1875-1925

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St. Clair. A Nineteenth-Century Coal Town's Experience with a Disaster-Prone Industry

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History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 5: 1946–1982: The Nationalized Industry

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History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 2. 1700–1830: The Industrial Revolution

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Soft Coal, Hard Choices: The Economic Welfare of Bituminous Coal Miners, 1890-1930

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Soft Coal, Hard Choices: The Economic Welfare of Bituminous Coal Miners, 1890–1930

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The Face of Decline: The Pennsylvania Anthracite Region in the Twentieth Century

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Conflict and Accommodation: Coal Miners, Steel Workers, and Socialism, 1890-1920

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responded to this news by promising to support the miners in their dispute. The

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University Press of Kentucky, 1985, conflict in the coal industry to the 1980s.

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The Best Dressed Miners: Life and Labor in the Maryland Coal Region, 1835-1910

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Robert H. Wiebe, "The Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902: A Record of Confusion."

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When Coal Was King: Ladysmith and the Coal-Mining Industry on Vancouver Island

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The miners' pay had gone down from £6.00 to £3.90 in the space of seven years.

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rejected the terms: "Not a penny off the pay, not a minute on the day." The

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Divided Loyalties: The Public and Private Life of Labor Leader John Mitchell

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Catching Up?: Organizational and Management Change in the Ex-Socialist Block

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that lasted nine days, from 4 May 1926 to 13 May 1926. It was called by the

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Gildart, Keith. "The Miners' Lockout in 1926 in the Cumberland Coalfield",

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The Miners: a History of the Miners' Federation of Great Britain, 1889-1910

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Rowland. Berthoff, "The Social Order of the Anthracite Region, 1825–1902,"

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Coalcracker Culture: Work and Values in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1835-1935

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The pitmen of the northern coalfield: work, culture and protest, 1790-1850

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The 1926 Miners' Lockout: Meanings of Community in the Durham Coalfield

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The First Industrial Nation: An Economic History of Britain, 1700-1914.

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History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 3: Victorian Pre-Eminence

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Blood, Sweat, and Toil: Remaking the British Working Class, 1939-1945

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Britain (MFGB) refused the wage reduction and regional negotiation.

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Mine owners announced their intention to reduce miners' wages. The

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Fire in the Hole: Miners and Managers in the American Coal Industry

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P. 1938: 1935: 1932:Arnot, R. P. 1931: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1921: 1917: 1912: 1905: 1899: 1896: 1891: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1872: 1869: 1865: 1859: 1856: 1852: 1846: 1843: 1839: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1803: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1779: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1760: 1757: 1754: 1750: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1731: 1728: 1722: 1719: 1715: 1709: 1706: 1702: 1696: 1693: 1689: 1683: 1680: 1676: 1670: 1667: 1663: 1657: 1654: 1650: 1644: 1641: 1637: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1621: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1605: 1599: 1596: 1592: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1561: 1558: 1552: 1549: 1537: 1533: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1513: 1510: 1498: 1494: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1473: 1470: 1466: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1448: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1436:Peter Mathias 1432: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1415: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1397: 1394: 1388: 1385: 1379: 1376: 1372: 1366: 1363: 1351: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1334: 1331: 1326: 1324:9780521265010 1320: 1316: 1315: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1294: 1291: 1286: 1279: 1276: 1271: 1269:9780791415986 1265: 1261: 1260: 1252: 1249: 1244: 1238: 1234: 1233: 1225: 1222: 1217: 1215:9780774840149 1211: 1207: 1206: 1198: 1195: 1190: 1188:9780198021407 1184: 1180: 1179: 1171: 1168: 1163: 1161:9780199604111 1157: 1153: 1152: 1144: 1141: 1137: 1131: 1128: 1123: 1121:9781592138043 1117: 1113: 1112: 1104: 1101: 1098:(1991) p 343. 1097: 1091: 1088: 1084: 1081:David Frank, 1078: 1075: 1072:(1959) p. 521 1071: 1065: 1062: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1045: 1039: 1036: 1032: 1026: 1023: 1017: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1002: 999: 996: 993: 990: 989:John L. Lewis 987: 984: 981: 979: 976: 975: 971: 967: 964: 963: 959: 955: 952: 951: 947: 943: 940: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 904: 900: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 877: 873: 871: 869: 865: 860: 858: 853: 851: 847: 843: 838: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 809: 804: 799: 791: 789: 787: 782: 777: 774: 768: 764: 762: 758: 754: 746: 744: 740: 736: 733: 729: 728:John L. Lewis 721: 720: 715: 711: 708: 704: 699: 696: 691: 687: 682: 680: 676: 670: 662: 657: 652: 648: 643: 639: 637: 632: 625: 623: 616: 611: 610: 609: 606: 603: 599: 598:company store 593: 592:Company store 586:Company store 585: 583: 581: 580:company store 577: 573: 569: 562: 557: 550: 549:West Virginia 545: 538: 536: 534: 530: 526: 525:company store 518: 514:United States 513: 511: 504: 502: 500: 496: 492: 488: 480: 478: 476: 472: 468: 459: 457: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 430: 426: 423:and Northern 422: 418: 414: 409: 402: 400: 398: 395:In 2008, the 393: 391: 387: 385: 381: 377: 373: 368: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 340: 338: 337:North Sea oil 334: 330: 324: 316: 314: 310: 308: 304: 300: 295: 291: 289: 285: 280: 275: 273: 272:Herbert Smith 267: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 241: 237: 233: 232:gold standard 229: 226: 225: 224: 218: 216: 214: 209: 205: 200: 198: 194: 185: 183: 181: 175: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 140: 136: 132: 124: 118: 112:Great Britain 111: 109: 106: 101: 99: 94: 90: 86: 84: 78: 75: 71: 62: 60: 57: 51: 48: 44: 36: 31: 27: 19: 2548: 2533: 2526: 2519: 2512: 2505: 2491: 2484: 2467: 2460: 2453: 2446: 2439: 2432: 2428: 2421: 2404: 2397: 2390: 2373: 2366: 2350: 2333: 2326: 2318: 2309: 2292: 2282: 2275: 2265: 2255: 2248: 2247:Dix, Keith. 2241: 2225: 2218: 2211: 2204: 2197: 2190: 2171: 2155: 2144: 2134: 2122: 2112: 2105: 2096: 2086: 2080: 2073: 2066: 2059: 2048: 2037: 2030: 2023: 2016: 2009: 2002: 1995: 1978: 1971: 1964: 1954: 1947: 1940: 1933: 1926: 1903: 1898: 1884: 1876: 1871: 1863: 1858: 1850: 1845: 1837: 1832: 1827:(1976) p 580 1824: 1819: 1807: 1802: 1790: 1785: 1777: 1772: 1764: 1759: 1748: 1743: 1735: 1730: 1721: 1713: 1708: 1703:(1992) p 131 1700: 1695: 1687: 1682: 1674: 1669: 1661: 1656: 1648: 1643: 1635: 1630: 1619: 1614: 1603: 1598: 1590: 1585: 1580:(1973) p 221 1577: 1572: 1565: 1560: 1551: 1539:. Retrieved 1535: 1525: 1517: 1512: 1501:. Retrieved 1496: 1487: 1478: 1472: 1464: 1459: 1452: 1447: 1439: 1431: 1419: 1414: 1405: 1396: 1387: 1378: 1370: 1365: 1354:. Retrieved 1344: 1333: 1313: 1306: 1298: 1293: 1284: 1278: 1258: 1251: 1231: 1224: 1204: 1197: 1177: 1170: 1150: 1143: 1135: 1130: 1110: 1103: 1095: 1090: 1085:(1999) p, 69 1082: 1077: 1069: 1064: 1056: 1051: 1046:(1961) p. 86 1043: 1038: 1030: 1029:Geoff Eley, 1025: 997:, U.S. union 861: 854: 848:accident in 839: 812: 778: 769: 765: 750: 741: 737: 725: 717: 700: 683: 672: 658:20th century 633: 629: 620: 613: 607: 602:company town 595: 570: 566: 561:Pennsylvania 522: 508: 499:Frans Dohmen 495:Joop den Uyl 484: 463: 434: 394: 390:British Coal 388: 369: 365:West Germany 341: 326: 311: 296: 292: 276: 268: 245: 222: 203: 201: 189: 186:20th century 176: 131:Tudor period 128: 102: 95: 91: 87: 79: 66: 52: 42: 40: 26: 2582:Coal miners 2544:; Australia 2480:coal strike 2001:Dennis, N. 1059:(1997) p 48 890:Coal mining 773:Nova Scotia 753:Cape Breton 481:Netherlands 421:Netherlands 403:West Europe 357:South Wales 235:businesses. 172:drift mines 156:South Wales 43:coal miners 18:Coal miners 2607:Coal towns 2576:Categories 2487:Feb. 2000. 2154:Zweig, F. 2036:Fynes, R. 1877:Acadiensis 1864:Acadiensis 1851:Acadiensis 1725:Fox (1990) 1541:6 February 1503:2015-07-07 1497:www.gov.uk 1356:2010-08-28 815:Senghenydd 796:See also: 707:Mark Hanna 647:anthracite 636:black lung 533:coal scrip 353:Lancashire 317:Since 1945 148:Lancashire 144:coalfields 63:Radicalism 2129:full text 2029:Fine, B. 792:Disasters 730:called a 475:ironworks 471:Ruhr Area 456:Prussia. 445:Charleroi 361:subsidies 239:disarray. 160:Sheffield 154:, and of 152:Yorkshire 74:socialist 2474:Archived 2412:Archived 2381:Archived 2357:Archived 2341:Archived 2300:Archived 2287:in JSTOR 2232:Archived 2147:. 1923. 2139:Dukeries 1986:Archived 1795:in JSTOR 1753:in JSTOR 1608:in JSTOR 1589:Zeldin, 1424:in JSTOR 985:, Canada 874:See also 835:firedamp 825:such as 649:mine in 576:CF&I 487:Kerkrade 437:Wallonia 345:Scotland 125:Pre 1900 2536:(2002) 2407:(1939) 2336:(1923) 2295:(1992) 2258:(2005) 2115:(2003). 2108:(1944). 2089:(1988) 2076:(1984). 2069:(1993). 2051:(1882) 2033:(1990). 2026:(1928). 1981:(1980) 1936:. 1953. 1918:Britain 1136:Strikes 901:Britain 817:in the 684:In the 460:Germany 453:Seraing 431:Belgium 417:Belgium 413:Germany 219:1920-45 213:Titanic 2540: 2529:(1994) 2449:(1990) 2424:(1994) 2378:online 2376:(2008) 2297:ONLINE 2244:(1981) 2179: 2158:. 1948 2149:Online 2099:(1986) 2053:Online 2042:Online 2005:. 1956 1998:. 1987 1983:online 1967:(2010) 1943:. 1961 1767:(1982) 1651:(2008) 1321: 1266: 1239: 1212: 1185: 1158: 1118: 1033:(2002) 808:France 747:Canada 653:, 1900 551:, 1908 505:France 425:France 419:, the 374:. The 355:, and 301:was a 258:under 199:). E. 168:Durham 37:, 1946 2499:Other 2278:1982. 1780:p 155 1018:Notes 960:India 850:China 786:scabs 529:scrip 441:Liège 150:, of 2538:ISBN 2193:2003 2177:ISBN 1543:2013 1477:BBC 1319:ISBN 1264:ISBN 1237:ISBN 1210:ISBN 1183:ISBN 1156:ISBN 1116:ISBN 885:Coal 840:The 673:The 443:and 297:The 277:The 248:MFGB 208:1912 202:The 193:Left 166:and 70:left 531:or 252:TUC 206:of 133:in 103:In 72:or 2578:: 2431:, 1810:: 1534:. 1495:. 1438:, 870:. 596:A 415:, 351:, 215:. 85:. 2185:. 1545:. 1506:. 1359:. 1327:. 1272:. 1245:. 1218:. 1191:. 1164:. 1124:. 563:. 20:)

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