3467:
3205:
2852:
addressed issues related to the separation of families through sales or other means. The status of a child's freedom was dependent on the mother's status at the time of birth. Article XIII cites that "...if a male slave has married a free woman, their children, either male or female, shall be free as is their mother, regardless of their father's condition of slavery. And if the father is free and the mother a slave, the children shall also be slaves". Article XII precises that "the children born in marriage to a male and a female slave will belong to the mother's master if they are owned by two different masters". This reliance upon the mother's status for the identification of the consequent child's status placed the majority of the slave-producing burden upon the enslaved women of the French colonies.
2605:
3803:, called Caribbean Indians (Indiens caraĂŻbes), were seen as naturalized French subjects, and were provided the same rights as French nationals upon their baptism. It was forbidden to enslave Indigenous peoples, or to sell them as slaves. Two populations were provided for: natural populations and native French, as the Edict of 1664 did not describe slaves or the importation of a black population. The French West India Company had gone bankrupt in 1674, with its commercial activities having been transferred to the Senegal Company and its territories returned to the Crown. The rulings of the Sovereign Council of Martinique patched the legal hole concerning slave populations. In 1652, at the behest of
3535:, were responsible for introducing commercial sugar production to the French Antilles. After the Da Costa family founded the first synagogue of Martinique in 1676, the visible Jewish presence in Martinique and Saint-Domingue led Jesuit missionaries to petition for the expulsion of Jews and other non-Catholics to both local and metropolitan authorities. This precipitated an edict expelling Jews from the colonies in 1683, which would be incorporated into the Code Noir. The Jewish population of Martinique was likely the specific target of the antisemitic clause (article 1) of the original 1685 Code. These settlers' arrival in the 1650s marked the second stage of colonization. Until then,
67:
5233:"Recueil gĂ©nĂ©ral des anciennes lois françaises : depuis l'an 420 jusqu'Ă la rĂ©volution de 1789; contenant la notice des principaux monumens des MĂ©rovingiens, des Carlovingiens et des CapĂ©tiens, et le texte des ordonnances, Ă©dits, dĂ©clarations, lettres-patentes, rĂ©glemens, arrĂȘts du Conseil, etc., de la troisiĂ©me race, qui ne sont pas abrogĂ©s, ou qui peuvent servir, soit Ă l'interprĂ©tation, soit Ă l'histoire du droit public et privĂ©, avec notes de concordance, table chronologique et table gĂ©nĂ©rale analytique et alphabĂ©tique des matiĂšres : France. Laws, etc : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming"
3885:"His Majesty finds it necessary to regulate, by declaration, all that concerns the negros of the isles, both for the punishment of their crimes and for all that might concern the justice to be dealt them. It is for this that it be necessary for you to create a memorandum as precise and extensive as possible, which considers all the cases having to do with said negros and which might merit regulation by an order. You must be well acquainted with the present customs of the isles as well as what should be customary in the future".
1797:
3287:, its existence in the territory. The ordinance elaborated little on the legal status of slaves, but generally characterized slavery as "a kind of convention" that is "very useful for this colony", proclaiming that "all Panis (native slaves and indigenous members of First Nation/Pawnee) and Negroes who have been purchased or who will be purchased at some time, will belong to those who have purchased them as their full property and be known as their slaves".
29:
6476:
3903:, professor emeritus of political philosophy at Paris 1, argues that the Code Noir is the "most monstrous juridical text produced in modern times". According to Sala-Molins, the Code Noir served two purposes: to affirm "the sovereignty of the State in its farthest territories" and to create favorable conditions for the sugarcane commerce. "In this sense, the Code Noir foresaw a possible sugar
2728:. In general, a slave could be said to have a much more restricted legal capacity than does a serf, simply due to the fact that serfs were considered right-holding individuals whereas slaves, although recognized as human beings, were not. Swiss Roman law scholar Pahud Samuel explains this paradoxical status as "the slave being a person in the natural sense and a thing in the civil law sense".
2866:
3677:
it did for free persons. While it did grant enslaved people the right to rest on
Sundays and holidays, to formally marry through the church, and to be buried in proper cemeteries, forced religious conversion was just one of the many methods that France used to attempt to 'civilize' and exert their imperial control over the Black population in the French colonies.
3988:, colonial law historian Jean-François Niort was attacked for his position that the authors of the Code intended for "a mediation between master and slave" by minor Guadeloupean political organizations self-styled as "patriotic" and accused of "racial discrimination" and denialism by some members of the Guadeloupean independentist movement who threatened to
3972:" (February 4, 1794), which effectively abolished slavery in all French colonies. This decree marked a radical departure from the Code Noir's provisions that had supported and regulated the institution of slavery. The ideas of the revolution in France began to inspire revolutionary minds across the world, particularly in colonies of the French. Namely, the
3566:, as the owner of slaveholding isles, took part in the slave trade, even though commercial slavery was not explicitly stated in the 1664 edict that chartered the company. The word "trade" was generally defined as any form of trade or commerce and did not exclude commerce in slaves as it might today. Despite the creation of various
3961:, which began in 1789, the ideals of liberty, equality, and society influenced the thinking of many revolutionaries. The revolutionaries sought to apply these principles not only to the people of France but also to the colonies. As a result, the status of slavery and the rights of enslaved individuals became a topic of debate.
2684:). The new status was adopted with such great reluctance on the part of local jurisdictions that it was necessary for a ruling of the King's Council of 22 August 1687 to take a position on the capacity of slaves because of the rules of succession applicable to the new status. Despite the 1804 creation of the
5505:«Il y a une loi faite en leur faveur appelĂ©e le Code Noir. Cette loi favorable ordonne quâĂ chaque punition ils ne recevront pas plus de trente coups, quâils ne travailleront point le dimanche, quâon leur donnera de la viande toutes les semaines, des chemises tous les ans ; mais on ne suit pas la Loi».
5441:
La plus ancienne version détenue par les
Archives nationales semble ĂȘtre en effet l'Ă©dition Saugrain de 1718, dans le Guide des sources de la traite nĂ©griĂšre, de lâesclavage et de leurs abolitions, dir. Claire Sibille. Paris : Direction des Archives de France / Documentation Française, 2007, 624
3676:
The Code Noir was also conceived to âmaintain the discipline of the
Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman churchâ in the French colonies. It required that all enslaved people of African descent in the French colonies receive baptism, religious instruction, and the same practices and sacraments for slaves as
3944:
historian Jean Ehrard notes a typically colbertist method of regulating a phenomenon in the Code. Slavery had been widespread in the colonies long before royal powers provided a legal framework for it. Ehrard noted that during the same era, one can find similar or equivalent dispositions to those in
3753:
that served as inspiration for the Code Noir, but rather a collection and codification of the local customs, decisions, and regulations used in the
Antilles. According to legal scholar Vernon Palmer, who has described the lengthy four-year decision-making process that led to the original 1685 edict,
3672:
The Code Noir was a multifaceted legal document designed to govern every aspect of the lives of enslaved and free
African people under French colonial rule. While Enlightenment thinking about liberty and tolerance prevailed dominantly in French society, it became necessary to clarify that people of
2393:
population of the French colonial empire were complex and multifaceted. It outlawed the worst punishments owners could inflict upon their slaves, and led to an increase in the free population. Despite this, enslaved persons were still subject to harsh treatment at the hands of their owners, and the
2841:
Sexual relationships between a free man and a female slave were deemed adulterous. A free man fathering children with a slave, and the slave's master who had allowed it to happen, were fined 2000 pounds of sugar. If the slave's master was the father, the slave and her children were confiscated and
3917:
Nevertheless, the precise content of the 1685 edict remains uncertain, because, on one hand, the original has been lost and on the other, there are often important variations between the surviving versions. Thus, it is necessary to compare them and understand which version was applicable to which
3187:
records were required for French citizenship, even if the individual was born abroad (article 57). However, starting in the 18th century, manumission required authorization as well as the payment of an administrative tax. The tax was first instituted by local officials, but later affirmed by the
3111:
Although it was forbidden for the master to mistreat, injure, or kill his slaves, he nevertheless possessed disciplinary power (article 42) according to the Code. "Masters shall only, when they believe that their slaves so deserve, be able to chain them and have them beaten with rods or straps",
2851:
Code Noir acknowledged the existence of slave families and marriages. The Code recognized slaves marriages provided they were contracted according to the
Catholic rite and attempted to regulate family life among slaves. Mothers played a central role in maintaining family structures, and the Code
5451:
V. J.-F. Niort et J. Richard, « L'Ădit royal de mars 1685 touchant la police des Ăźles de l'AmĂ©rique française dit Code noir : versions choisies, comparĂ©es et commentĂ©es », revue Droits, no 50, 2010, p. 143-161. AccĂ©der au texte en ligne sur le blog « Homo servilis et le Code
3452:
to the U.S. government, retained citizenship. Article 8 forbade all French citizens "to buy, sell slaves, or to participate, whether directly or indirectly, in any traffic or exploitation of this nature". The application of this law was not accomplished without difficulty in these regions, with
2595:
was used not only to describe edits and additions to the original code, but also came to refer broadly to compilations of laws and other legal documents applicable to the colonies. Over time, the foundational ordinances and their associated texts were amended to meet the evolving needs of each
3510:
In
Guadeloupe, the influx of slaves started in 1641 with the Company of Saint Christopher (by this date renamed Company of the American Isles and owner of multiple islands) importing 60 enslaved people. Then, in 1650, the company imported 100 more. Starting in 1653-1654 the population greatly
2571:. Legal historians have debated whether other sources, such as Roman slavery laws, were consulted in the drafting of this original text. Studies of correspondence from Patoulet suggest that the 1685 ordinance drew mostly on local regulations provided in the colonial intendant's memoranda.
3133:(article 44), that is, considered separate from the estate on which they live (which was not the case with serfs). Despite this, slaves could not be seized by a creditor as property independent of the estate, with the exception of compensating the seller of the slaves (article 47).
3934:"Everywhere will the name of the hero who has restored the rights of the human species be blessed, everywhere will monuments be erected in his honor. And so the black code will disappear, but how terrible the white code shall be, should the victor consult only the law of reprisal!â
3846:, intended for certain regions that had recently become part of the kingdom. The edict was not concerned with personal servitude, but rather real servitude or mortmain, which is to say that the denizen/owner could not sell or bequeath the land, as if the denizen/owner were only a
2454:, with subordinate workers dictating the day-to-day running of the plantations. Because of their enormous population, in addition to the harsh conditions facing slaves, small-scale slave revolts were common. Although the Code Noir contained a few, minor humanistic provisions, the
3992:
him from
Guadeloupe. He has been roundly supported by the historical community which has denounced the verbal and physical intimidation of specialists in the colonial history of the region. The controversy continued in an argument in the opinions section of the French newspaper
2480:
The Code Noir aimed to provide a legal framework for slavery, to establish protocols governing the conditions of the slaves in the French colonies, and appears to make an attempt at ending the illegal slave trade. Strict religious morals were also imposed in the crafting of the
3784:, was challenged by the members of the Sovereign Council. When negotiations settled, the draft was sent to the chancellery, which retained what was essential and only reinforced or streamlined the articles such that they were compatible with preexisting laws and institutions.
3613:. Twenty years later, in 1682, the number of inhabitants had tripled to 14,190 with a white population that had barely doubled, but with a slave population that had grown to 9634, and with the Indigenous population at a mere 61, slaves made up 68% of the total population.
2692:
which precluded
Napoleonic rights. In the 1830s, under the civil code of the July Monarchy, slaves were explicitly given a civil personality while also considered as being fixtures, that is, personal property legally attached to and/or part of real estate or businesses.
3650:
The authorities were not concerned with miscegenation per se, but rather the resulting manumission of mulatto children. For this reason, the Code inverted basic patrimonial French custom in maintaining that even if the father is free, the children of an enslaved woman
3673:
African descent did not belong under this umbrella of understanding. It was essential to the preservation of France's economy and colonial interests that Black people residing in French colonies maintain their status as property rather than become French subjects.
3120:
or of the hamstring, branding, and death are prescribed by a criminal court in the case of conviction and imposed by a magistrate rather than by the slave's master. However, in reality, the conviction of masters for the murder or torture of slaves was very rare.
2720:), a slave could be sold, given away, and legally passed to another owner as part of an estate or a legacy, but this could not be done with a serf. Contrary to serfdom, slaves were considered in Roman law to be objects of personal property that could be owned,
1565:
2650:. According to French colonial legal historian Frédéric Charlin, an individual's legal capacity was fully dissociable from her humanity under old French law. Additionally, the legal status of slaves was further distinguished by the separation of
3531:. Although colonial authorities were hesitant to allow entry to the Jewish families, the French decided that their capital and proficiency in cane cultivation would benefit the colony. Some historians suggest that these Jewish planters, such as
3409:
was to establish a commission to "prepare for the act of emancipation of slaves of the colonies of the
Republic". The commission was completed and presented to the government in less than two months and subsequently instituted on 27 April 1848.
5442:
p., p. 37, 46-47. La version la plus ancienne de l'édit de mars 1685 connue à ce jour est celle enregistrée au Conseil supérieur de la Guadeloupe en décembre 1685, éditée récemment par J.-F. Niort aux éditions Dalloz (v. dans la bibliographie)
3506:
or French ships. With the island becoming overpopulated, there were efforts to colonize Guadeloupe with the aid of French recruits in 1635, as well as Martinique with the aid of 100 "old residents" of Saint Christopher in the same year.
2737:
provided that slaves might lodge complaints with local judges in the case of mistreatment or being under-provided with necessities (article 26), but also that their statements should be considered only as reliable as that of minors or
5544:
2642:(article 32). Article 48 stipulates that, in the case of a seizure of person (physical seizure), this is an exception to article 44. Should the human nature of the slave confer certain rights, the slave was nevertheless denied a true
3089:. Should there be a third attempt, the slave would be put to death. It is important to note that these kinds of punishments (branding by iron, mutilation, etc.) also existed in metropolitan France's penological practice at the time.
3044:
Freed slaves had to show a special respect for their former master and were punished more severely for any offense against him. However, they were deemed free of any other obligation the former master could claim (art.
3107:
by domestic servants was also punishable by death in France). The third attempt to escape (article 38) and the congregation of recidivist slaves belonging to different masters (article 16) were also offenses punishable by death.
2415:, a free person of color in the French colonial empire was highly likely to be literate, and had a high chance of owning businesses, properties and even their own slaves. The code has been described by historian of modern France
5129:
David Bailie Warden, Nicolas Viton de Saint-Allais, Jean Baptiste Pierre Jullien de Courcelles et Agricol Joseph François Fortia d'Urban (marquis de), L'art de vérifier les dates : depuis l'année 1770 jusqu'à nos jours,
2104:
3620:, or with slaves. With white women being rare and black women seeking to improve their circumstances, by 1680 the census showed 314 métis people in Martinique (twelve times the count in 1660), 170 in Guadeloupe, and 350 in
5558:
3658:
The Code Noir also more sharply defined the status of métis people. In 1689, four years after its promulgation, around one hundred mulattoes left the French Antilles for New-France, where all men were considered free.
3877:
the plantation owners who owned more than one hundred slaves. The opinions recorded in the memoranda were entirely from Martinicans with no one from Guadeloupe, where métis and the large plantation owners were fewer.
3377:
were characterized by a political trend to endow the slave with a certain level of humanity⊠encourage a slow assimilation of the slave into other workforces of French society through moral and family values". The
5306:
Marie-Christine Rochmann, « Esclavage et abolitions: mémoires et systÚmes de représentation : actes du colloque international de l'Université Paul Valéry, Montpellier III, 13 au 15 novembre 1998 »
4924:
Merrill, Gordon. "The Role of Sephardic Jews in the British Caribbean Area During the Seventeenth Century". Caribbean Studies, vol. 4, no. 3, Institute of Caribbean Studies, University of Puerto Rico, 1964, pp.
3115:
Article 43 addresses itself to judges: "to punish murder while taking into account the atrocity of the circumstances; in the case of absolution, our officers willâŠâ The most serious punishments, such as the
5600:
3354:. Soon after, he reestablished slavery in Guadeloupe (on 16 July 1802) and Guiana (in December 1802). Slavery was not reestablished in Saint-Domingue due to the resistance of the Haitians against the
3655:
unless they are rendered legitimate through the marriage of the parents, which was a rare occurrence. In subsequent regulation, marriage between free and slave populations would be further limited.
3004:
Free blacks who harboured fugitive slaves would be beaten by the slave owner and fined 300 pounds of sugar per day of refuge given; other free people who harboured fugitive slaves would be fined 10
5689:
5089:
3725:
used similar jurisprudence. The 1661 law held that a slave could only produce enslaved children and that mistreatment of a slave could be justified in certain cases. The law also incorporated the
3100:
yet less severe than that for soldiers. Masters could only chain and whip slaves "when they believe that their slaves deserved it" and cannot, at will, torture their slaves, or put them to death.
2819:
to masters who allowed pagan beliefs and practices performed by their slaves, thus encouraging quick indoctrination into Catholicism on threat of the outright punishment of lenient slave holders.
3807:
missionaries, the Council reified the rule that slaves, like domestic servants, shall not be made to work on Sundays and in 1664, held that slaves would be required to be baptized and to attend
5160:« Histoire de la république des Etats-Unis depuis l'établissement des premiÚres colonies jusqu'à l'élection du président Lincoln (1620-1860) » p. 446, (consulté le 6 septembre 2019)
3799:
or conceded to the company, whose formation had replaced the Company of Saint Christopher (1626â1635), but would eventually be succeeded by the Company of the American Isles (1635â1664). The
3373:
rulings on local jurisdictions' decisions following the 1827 and 1828 ordinances on civil procedures. According to historian Frédéric Charlin, in metropolitan France, "the two decades of the
1686:
4725:
3639:
and sent 250 girls to Martinique and 165 to Saint-Domingue. Compared to its English counterpart, which sent condemned criminals and exiled populations, the French migration was voluntary.
3466:
4665:
2811:
faith (article 5) and particularly "pagan religions" practiced by indigenous Indians who were routinely forced into slavery in Mexico and the Americas. The code extends the punishment of
3204:
4987:
Histoire et civilisation de la Caraïbe: Guadeloupe, Martinique, petites Antilles : la construction des sociétés antillaises des origines au temps présent, structures et dynamiques
4951:
Breathett, George. "Catholicism and the Code Noir in Haiti". The Journal of Negro History, vol. 73, no. 1/4, Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, Inc, 1988, pp. 1â11,
5120:
Breathett, George. "Catholicism and the Code Noir in Haiti". The Journal of Negro History, vol. 73, no. 1/4, Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, Inc, 1988, pp. 1â11.
3681:
3524:
3512:
1550:
1081:
3605:
At the time of the first official census of Martinique, taken in 1660, there were 5259 inhabitants, 2753 of which were white and already 2644 were black slaves. There were only 17
3028:
and could not be mortgaged, and must be equally split between the master's heirs, but could be used as payment in case of debt or bankruptcy, and otherwise sold (art. 44â46, 48â54)
5630:
5343:
3041:
Slaves who were declared to be sole legatees by their masters, or named as executors of their wills, or tutors of their children, should be considered as freed slaves (art. 56)
1435:
807:
544:
3598:) to provide a yearly supplement of 1000 black slaves to the French isles. To solve the "negro shortage", in 1686, the King personally chartered a slave ship for operation in
3295:
1171:
812:
3854:, meaning that the lord could retain any fee or proceeds resulting from the passing of the censive (the right to live on the estate and to pay tribute or cens to the lord).
2807:
The code prohibited slaves from publicly practicing any religion other than the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Catholic religion (article 3), including the practice of the
5386:
3103:
The death penalty was reserved for those slaves who had struck their master, his wife, or his children (article 33) as well as for thieves of horses or cows (article 35) (
3873:
The colonial intendants' work was centered in Martinique, where multiple nobles of the royal entourage had received estates and where Patoulet had requested Louis XIV to
6505:
5786:
3949:. Colonists were opposed to the Code because they were now compelled to provide slaves with a means of subsistence, which they normally were not required to guarantee.
4781:
3830:, but had limited effect due to a lack of control of the King's officers and/or the fact that few serfs possessed sufficient funds to buy their liberty. Such forms of
2556:(French National Overseas Archives). The Marquis de Seignelay wrote the draft using legal briefs written by the first intendant of the French islands of the Americas,
504:
6585:
5416:
5356:
3938:
Bernardin de Saint Pierre, who stayed in Ile de France from 1768 to 1770, highlighted the lag that existed between the creation of legislation and its institution.
5791:
5608:
4550:
4407:
3866:
died in 1683, less than two years after having transmitted the King's order to the two successive intendants of Martinique, Patoulet and BĂ©gon. Colbert's son, the
6114:
5071:
4836:
859:
5703:
1940:
2978:
Slaves couldn't work, nor be sold, on Sunday or on catholic's holy days. The penalty was the confiscation of the slave and of the product of his work (art. 6)
1405:
2517:
from March and August 1685. One of the two regulated black slaves in the French islands of the Americas, while the other established the Sovereign Council of
6510:
3382:
of the Court of Cassation under the July Monarchy was marked by a gradual recognition of a legal personhood for slaves. Accordingly, the 1820s saw a general
3305:
of plantation and slave owners, the National Constituent Assembly and the Legislative Assembly decided that this equality applied only to the inhabitants of
2206:
1555:
6565:
4075:
3867:
2539:
2099:
886:
5801:
5796:
5096:
3616:
In all of the colonies, there was a great disparity between the number of men and women which led to men having children with Indigenous women, who were
1632:
384:
3787:
At the time, there were two common law statutes in effect in Martinique: that pertaining to French nationals, which was the Custom of Paris as well as
3930:, denounces slavery and imagines a large slave revolt orchestrated by a charismatic leader that leads to a complete reversal of the established order.
834:
5894:
3791:, which did not include rules particular to soldiers, nobles, or clergy. These statutes were included in the Edict of May 1664 that established the
2196:
2145:
2003:
1605:
1425:
598:
2604:
6378:
6124:
5317:
2201:
2186:
1763:
3780:
The study, which incorporated local legal customs, decisions, and jurisprudence of the Sovereign Council, as well as a number of rulings by the
3413:
The enslavement of black people in French colonies was definitively abolished on 4 March and 27 April 1848. Due in large part to the actions of
6089:
6040:
4567:
4111:
2072:
869:
287:
5990:
5531:
4709:
4152:
3706:
3406:
2433:
2412:
2324:
1447:
1124:
896:
6590:
6560:
6530:
6084:
5972:
5748:
4271:
1639:
1600:
1243:
6500:
4673:
4339:
5222:
Les instructions du roi rédigées par Colbert rappellent que le droit de l'esclavage est « nouveau et inconnu dans le royaume ».
4622:"Les patronymes attribués aux anciens esclaves des colonies françaises. NON AN NOU, NON NOU, les livres des noms de familles antillaises"
5771:
3800:
3606:
3428:'s ban on slavery to all French citizens residing in foreign countries where the possession of slaves was legal, while according them a
3015:
If a master had falsely accused a slave of a crime and as a result, the slave had been put to death, the master would be fined (art. 40)
2171:
1823:
1681:
1318:
978:
829:
625:
534:
5509:, , Ă©d. augmentĂ©e dâinĂ©dits avec notes et index par Robert Chaudenson, Rose-Hill, Ăle Maurice : Ăditions de lâOcĂ©an Indien, 1986,
3208:
Manuscript of the Royal Ordinance, Edict of the King or Code Noir of March 1685 Pertaining to the Slaves in the Isles of French America
6570:
6305:
4010:
3765:, who, in turn, requested memoranda from the colonial intendant of Martinique, Jean-Baptiste Patoulet and later from his replacement,
1701:
1395:
1149:
5680:
5573:
3680:
The Code thus gave a guarantee of morality to the Catholic nobility that arrived in Martinique between 1673 and 1685. Of these, were
3490:
was the Company of Saint Christopher and neighboring islands (Compagnie de Saint-Christophe et Ăźles adjacentes) which was founded by
6545:
6232:
5047:
4998:
Histoire et civilisation de la CaraĂŻbe (Guadeloupe, Martinique, Petites Antilles) de Jean-Pierre Sainton et Raymond Boutin, page 318
3881:
The first letter from Colbert to intendant Patoulet and governor general of the Antilles Charles de Courbon, count of Blénac, reads:
3737:
for her freedom) which was contested by the white aristocracy who held that paternity and conversion were unable to confer freedom.
2949:
2651:
2534:
2121:
1523:
1400:
824:
593:
460:
2887:
2880:
1370:
66:
2783:
The writers of the code believed that slaves of all races were human persons, endowed with a soul and receptive to salvation. The
6595:
6399:
6358:
6147:
3815:
3302:
3212:
Based on the fundamental law that any man who sets foot on French soil is free, various parliaments refused to pass the original
1904:
1654:
864:
849:
795:
480:
470:
465:
294:
150:
3766:
3081:(articles 33-36 and 38). Runaway slaves who had disappeared for a month were to have their ears cut off and be branded with the
2568:
6515:
6162:
6079:
5823:
4070:
3685:
3140:. Slaves were provided no name or civil registration, rather, starting in 1839, they were given a serial number. Following the
2828:
Weddings between slaves strictly required the master's permission (art. 10) but also required the slave's own consent (art. 11)
2613:
2575:
2506:
2176:
2094:
1649:
1420:
226:
3562:
a matter of primary concern and worked to undercut foreign competition, particularly Dutch slavers. It is undeniable that the
3350:
reinstated slavery on 20 May 1802 in Martinique and the Mascarenes, as the islands had been returned by the British after the
1560:
6525:
6520:
6152:
6069:
5781:
3726:
3714:
3402:
2688:
and its partial promulgation in the Antilles, the re-institution of slavery in 1802 had led to the reinstatement of parts of
1899:
1119:
1107:
687:
499:
145:
4785:
3684:, the marquis of Maintenon and his nephew Jean-Jacques Mithon de Senneville, the colonial intendant Jean-Baptiste Patoulet,
2834:
Children of a male slave and a free woman were free; children of a female slave and a free man were slaves(art. 13; compare
2382:
for all enslaved people throughout the empire, defined the punishments meted out to them, and ordered the expulsion of all
6142:
4701:
La police des Noirs en Amérique (Martinique, Guadeloupe, Guyane, Saint-Dominique) et en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siÚcles
3754:
the project consisted of 52 articles for the first draft and preliminary report, as well as the instructions of the King.
3272:
2975:
Masters must give food (quantities specified) and clothes to their slaves, even to those who were sick or old (art. 22â27)
2473:
claimed that its two primary objectives were to assert French sovereignty in its colonies and to secure the future of the
2395:
1969:
1691:
1474:
335:
4048:
6342:
6050:
4554:
4415:
2930:
2166:
1696:
1540:
1410:
1071:
839:
819:
379:
347:
3240:, the date of its institution is unknown. The edicts of December 1723 and March 1724 were instituted in the islands of
2987:
A slave husband and wife and their prepubescent children under the same master were not to be sold separately (art. 47)
2800:
Slaves had the right to marry (articles 10 and 11), provided the master allowed them to do so, and had to be buried in
6104:
4100:
4006:
3746:
3718:
3370:
2981:
Slaves could testify in court but their testimony couldn't be considered a proof or be the basis for a ruling (art.30)
2902:
2370:
and served as the code for slavery conduct in the French colonies up until 1789 the year marking the beginning of the
2270:
2011:
1756:
1706:
1430:
1348:
475:
256:
76:
5711:
5466:
5213:
Jacques Le Cornec, "Un royaume antillais: d'histoires et de rĂȘves et de peuples mĂȘlĂ©s", on Google Books, L'Harmattan.
3532:
3814:
The edict of 1685 ratified the practice of slavery despite the conflicting legislation of the Kingdom of France and
3324:
did the same on 4 February 1794, for all French colonies. This would only be effective, however, in Saint-Domingue,
2766:), within three months under penalty of the confiscation of person and property. The Antillean Jews targeted by the
6540:
6247:
5952:
5670:
5075:
4733:
3781:
3579:
2077:
1615:
1467:
1452:
1343:
539:
209:
2876:
6441:
6268:
5151:
Sébastien Louis Saulnier, « Revue britannique, publ. par mm. Saulnier fils et P. Dondey-Dupré », p. 142
3976:
was a radical rebellion and the first in the area to successfully gain independence from a large European power.
3792:
3563:
3369:
despite the contradictory nature of the two texts, but this arrangement became increasingly difficult due to the
3355:
2909:
2317:
2213:
1711:
1610:
1141:
1129:
719:
692:
197:
3393:
The revolution of February 1848 and the creation of the Second Republic brought prominent abolitionists such as
2596:
colony. The New Orleans planters relaxed and adapted the slave regime towards the end of French administration.
6335:
6263:
6215:
5851:
5741:
3647:
tendencies, with colored women being preferred as many colonists considered the new arrivals to be foreigners.
3503:
3486:
since at least 1625, it was nonexistent in metropolitan France. The first official French establishment in the
3216:
which was ultimately instituted only in the colonies for which the edict was written: the Sovereign Council of
2055:
1947:
1491:
1360:
913:
702:
187:
88:
2460:
was generally flaunted, in particular regarding protection for slaves and limitations on corporal punishment.
367:
6555:
6446:
6074:
6045:
5818:
4755:
4568:
https://wfu.ares.atlas-sys.com/ares/ares.dll?SessionID=A054125445F&Action=10&Type=10&Value=62625
4211:
4044:
3926:
3709:
on his return to England after having entrusted Barbados to his deputy governor Richard Peers. In 1661, the
3652:
3595:
2835:
2586:, that the first royal authorizations to practice the slave trade were given to shipowners in French ports.
2557:
1981:
1813:
1780:
1676:
1415:
1365:
1293:
1066:
844:
788:
771:
202:
3164:
anything to their families. Upon the death of the slave, all remained property of the master (article 28).
2916:
2772:
were mainly descendants of families of Portuguese and Spanish origin who had come from the Dutch colony of
2298:
964:
6535:
6409:
6394:
6035:
5962:
5942:
5917:
5857:
5808:
5776:
4457:
3969:
3425:
3249:
3145:
2997:
Fugitive slaves absent for a month should have their ears cut off and be branded. For another month their
2675:
2526:
2367:
1891:
1859:
1749:
1718:
1223:
876:
724:
448:
414:
409:
3769:, as well as the governor general of the Caribbean, Charles de Courbon, comte de Blenac (1622â1696). The
2419:
as "one of the most extensive official documents on race, slavery, and freedom ever drawn up in Europe".
6325:
6310:
4579:
3907:
for France in Europe. To achieve this goal, it was first necessary to condition the tool of the slave".
3863:
3774:
3762:
3722:
3571:
3398:
3117:
2842:
couldn't be freed, unless the master agreed to marry the slave, making her and her children free (art.9)
2280:
2161:
2111:
2045:
1585:
1440:
1353:
1338:
1020:
1008:
754:
739:
524:
299:
221:
6414:
5601:"Code Noir : Jean-François Niort menacé, les historiens de Guadeloupe font bloc contre la censure"
5272:"Thierry Bressan, Serfs et mainmortables en France au XVIIIe siĂšcle, la fin d'un archaĂŻsme seigneurial"
4498:
4363:"L'émergence récente de la mémoire de l'esclavage dans l'espace public : enjeux et significations"
2707:
5695:
Tyler Stovall, "Race and the Making of the Nation: Blacks in Modern France." In Michael A. Gomez, ed.
4331:
4137:
For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts, and the End of Slavery
3301:
articulated the principle of equal rights from birth for all, but under the lobbying influence of the
3038:
Slave masters 20 years of age (25 years without parental permission) could free their slaves (art. 55)
2898:
6580:
6550:
6456:
6424:
6320:
6177:
6094:
6000:
3941:
3831:
3632:
3617:
3544:
3160:
or domestic servants (articles 30 and 31). Slaves had no right to personal possessions and could not
3152:), lodge complaint, and, with the master's permission, have savings, marry, etc. Nevertheless, their
3096:
or royal law, where the disciplinary power over slaves could be considered more severe than that for
2562:
2521:. Subsequently, starting in 1723, two supplementary texts were added that instituted the code in the
2510:
2375:
2310:
2293:
2133:
2116:
1844:
1840:
1723:
1627:
1590:
1518:
1462:
1331:
1288:
1102:
1032:
707:
487:
389:
273:
180:
3570:
in 1670, 1671, and 1672, the company went bankrupt in 1674 and the islands in its possession became
3432:
of three years to conform to the new law. In 1848, there numbered around 20,000 French nationals in
3060:
must go to the royal administration, but one third would be assigned to the local hospital (art. 60)
2574:
The later two supplemental texts concerning the Mascarene Islands and Louisiana were drafted during
6479:
6429:
6419:
6285:
6242:
5957:
5927:
5907:
5845:
5734:
3965:
3710:
3636:
3414:
3394:
3321:
3306:
3070:
2437:
2250:
2191:
1916:
1864:
1854:
1211:
1191:
1076:
1061:
930:
901:
891:
781:
729:
697:
494:
352:
320:
315:
268:
125:
4937:
Maurouard, Elvire. Juifs de Martinique et Juifs Portugais sous Louis XIV. Ăditions Du Cygne, 2009.
3148:, a name was assigned to each former slave. Slaves could testify, have a proper burial (for those
2966:
Slaves belonging to different masters must not gather at any time under any circumstance (art. 16)
2831:
Children born to married slaves were also slaves, belonging to the female slave's master (art. 12)
2638:( of any race, color or gender) is considered property immune from seizure (article 44), yet also
6575:
5932:
5863:
5394:
5065:
4647:
4532:
4158:
3973:
3705:
In the English colonies, the Barbados Lifetime Slavery Decree of 1636 was instituted by governor
3689:
3559:
3516:
3491:
3483:
3449:
3418:
3359:
3260:
3168:
3078:
3025:
2716:
2714:: while a serf cannot be purchased, they reproduce through demographic growth. In Roman law (the
2021:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1849:
1818:
1788:
1457:
1303:
1278:
1268:
1233:
1228:
1196:
1161:
1154:
1095:
1088:
945:
764:
759:
749:
519:
372:
330:
325:
278:
246:
236:
173:
6188:
3129:
With respect to the inheritance of property, estate, and seizures, slaves were considered to be
2984:
A slave who struck his or her master, his wife, mistress or children would be executed (art. 33)
2760:
residing in the colonial territories due to their being "sworn enemies of the Christian faith" (
1796:
394:
340:
5665:(in French). Paris: Chez Claude Girard, dans la Grand'Salle, vis-Ă -vis la Grande'Chambre. 1735.
4175:
2963:
Slaves must not carry weapons except with the permission of their masters for hunting (art. 15)
6461:
6404:
5922:
5879:
5813:
5527:
5484:
5289:
5053:
5043:
4705:
4639:
4186:
4148:
4080:
3958:
3900:
3827:
3567:
3337:
3264:
3137:
3130:
2522:
2470:
2399:
2371:
2363:
2260:
2149:
2128:
1545:
1263:
1258:
1201:
1186:
1166:
988:
983:
918:
881:
714:
680:
509:
362:
251:
130:
20:
4458:"Les " Questions ridicules " : la nature juridique des esclaves de culture aux Antilles"
2444:, so their presence was seen as an unwelcome Dutch influence in French colonial life. French
6451:
6330:
6280:
6220:
6020:
6010:
5869:
5474:
5279:
4952:
4629:
4388:
4222:
4140:
4105:
4095:
4085:
3804:
3552:
3494:
in 1626. In 1635, 500-600 slaves were acquired, through what was essentially a seizure of a
3351:
3188:
edict of 24 October 1713 and the royal ordinance of 22 May 1775. Manumission was considered
2255:
2218:
1735:
1313:
1308:
1298:
1273:
1238:
1206:
1176:
1049:
1037:
1015:
993:
940:
776:
744:
46:
4305:
3448:. Louisiana was, by far, the region home to the most slave owning French, who, despite the
3001:
would be cut and they would be branded again. A third time they would be executed (art. 38)
2972:
Slaves should not sell any other commodity without permission of their masters (art. 19â21)
2582:(a minor of thirteen) in December 1723 and March 1724 respectively. It was also during the
28:
6172:
6167:
5684:
5678:
5364:
4019:
3366:
3097:
2794:
2739:
2685:
2639:
2379:
2350:
2156:
2050:
1909:
1644:
1535:
1530:
1283:
1253:
1248:
971:
935:
734:
652:
357:
103:
5995:
4521:"The Role of Sephardic Jews in the British Caribbean Area during the Seventeenth Century"
4435:
5669:Ădit du Roi, Touchant la Police des Isles de l'AmĂ©rique Française (Paris, 1687), 28â58.
4844:
4034:
and has its own database entry in the game, which provides background on the Code Noir.
6295:
6237:
5884:
4023:
4015:
3851:
3523:
families and a great many slaves, settled in Martinique. Many of these immigrants were
3520:
3499:
3280:
3225:
3221:
3184:
3153:
3007:
2923:
2518:
2084:
1974:
1728:
1622:
514:
192:
155:
113:
2487:; in part a result of the influence of the influx of Catholic leaders arriving in the
6494:
6210:
6030:
6005:
5232:
4651:
3921:
3625:
3379:
3374:
3329:
3233:
3074:
3018:
Masters might chain and beat slaves but might not torture nor mutilate them (art. 42)
2808:
2647:
2416:
2265:
2243:
2181:
2089:
2016:
1666:
1595:
1042:
1025:
800:
630:
620:
404:
54:
5660:
4383:
Ingersoll, Thomas N. âSlave Codes and Judicial Practice in New Orleans, 1718-1807.â
3918:
colony or to each case, in order to accurately measure the impact of the Code Noir.
3271:) upon their baptism. Various local indigenous customs were collected to create the
2706:
primarily in that serfs could not be bought. According to anthropological historian
2552:". The only known manuscript of this law to have been preserved is currently in the
6015:
5874:
4132:
3730:
3640:
3429:
3387:
3383:
3341:
3141:
3086:
3082:
2725:
2643:
2441:
1671:
1508:
1484:
1390:
1383:
1114:
642:
615:
578:
556:
443:
160:
140:
118:
108:
98:
93:
83:
5257:
2969:
Slaves should not sell sugar cane, even with permission of their masters (art. 18)
1932:
923:
4699:
4604:
6436:
4090:
3989:
3874:
3441:
3237:
3180:
3157:
2865:
2816:
2661:
2532:
The earliest of these constituent ordinances was drafted by the Naval Minister (
2238:
1513:
1501:
854:
657:
647:
605:
419:
5631:"Le Code Noir, une monstruosité qui mérite de l'histoire et non de l'idéologie"
4621:
3773:(memorandum) of 30 April 1681 from the King to the intendant (who was probably
6363:
6315:
6025:
5757:
4883:
Le Métissage dans la littérature des Antilles françaises, le complexe d'Ariel,
4362:
3808:
3761:
for the black population of the French Caribbean and delegated its writing to
3599:
3540:
3495:
3479:
3333:
3325:
3256:
3241:
3217:
3167:
Married slaves and their prepubescent children could not be separated through
3093:
2801:
2773:
2583:
2474:
2445:
2060:
1835:
1661:
958:
662:
529:
5488:
5318:"Racisme et déboulonnement des statues : que reprocher à Colbert ?"
5293:
5271:
5021:
Le métissage dans la littérature des Antilles françaises: le complexe d'Ariel
4643:
4251:
Palmer, Vernon Valentine (1996). "The Origins and Authors of the Code Noir".
3547:
than slaves, but this trend was reversed around 1660 with the development of
3259:(present day Canada) which followed the general principle of French law that
6373:
6368:
6275:
6225:
6157:
5057:
4162:
4018:. The assassin Adéwalé, formerly an escaped slave turned pirate, aids local
3843:
3796:
3750:
3587:
3548:
3543:
cultivation had been the mainstay of colonial efforts and had required more
3445:
3245:
2998:
2543:
2514:
2359:
2275:
2065:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1869:
571:
433:
588:
5492:
4499:"Le statut de l'esclave et sa capacité à agir dans le domaine contractuel"
3777:), expressed the utility of making an ordinance specific to the Antilles.
3313:
had been abolished for centuries. The American territories were excluded.
3051:
Freed slaves had the same rights as French colonial subjects (art. 58, 59)
6300:
6290:
5037:
4956:
4634:
4144:
3994:
3946:
3904:
3837:
3729:(a mulatto slave, daughter of a white plantation owner, who converted to
3644:
3621:
3528:
3487:
3347:
3284:
3276:
2812:
2721:
2579:
2488:
2411:, but were otherwise free to pursue their own careers. Compared to other
1496:
1054:
998:
950:
610:
455:
310:
216:
4536:
4520:
3624:
where the slave population was eight times that of Guadeloupe but where
3527:, who brought sugarcane infrastructure to French Martinique and English
6182:
5284:
5170:
The Law of slaves: a comparative Study of the Roman and Luisiana System
3847:
3821:
3788:
3758:
3745:
Contrary to the thinking of legal theorists such as Leonard Oppenheim,
3734:
3610:
3536:
3502:. Later, the number was increased by slaves brought from Guinea aboard
3310:
3268:
3229:
3214:
Ordonnance ou édit de mars 1685 sur les esclaves des ßles de l'Amérique
3193:
3189:
3161:
3149:
3104:
2790:
2711:
2703:
2635:
2549:
Ordonnance ou édit de mars 1685 sur les esclaves des ßles de l'Amérique
2390:
2139:
1479:
561:
241:
58:
4226:
3857:
3594:ânot to be confused with the 17th century English colonial enterprise
3511:
increased with the arrival of 50 Dutch nationals to the French isles,
3136:
According to the Code, slaves can be bought, sold, and given like any
5839:
3911:
3628:(métissage) was illegalized after the rise of sugarcane cultivation.
3433:
3236:
on 5 May 1704. While the Code Noir was also applied in the colony of
3220:
on 6 August 1685, Guadeloupe on 10 December of the same year, and in
2777:
1181:
1003:
583:
566:
428:
263:
231:
5479:
4440:
Revue française de théorie, de philosophie et de cultures juridiques
3910:
Sala-Molin's theories have been critiqued by historians for lacking
3525:
Sephardic Jewish planters from Bahia, Dutch Pernambuco, and Suriname
3417:, the slave trade had already been abolished in 1815, following the
4392:
3945:
the Code Noir for other categories like for sailors, soldiers, and
3228:
on 6 May 1687. Finally, the Code was passed before the councils of
3048:
Freed slaves were French subjects, even if born elsewhere (art. 57)
4806:
BibliothĂšque et Archives Canada. FR CAOM COL C11A 30 fol. 334-335.
4436:"La condition juridique de l'esclave sous la Monarchie de Juillet"
4027:
3465:
3317:
3203:
2603:
2405:
Free people of color were still placed under restrictions via the
1830:
438:
424:
399:
27:
5417:"Les travaux sur le Code noir ne doivent pas se plier aux dogmes"
3858:
The King's order through Colbert and the centrality of Martinique
3358:
sent by Bonaparte, a resistance which eventually resulted in the
2710:, it is the mode of reproduction that distinguishes slavery from
5453:
5357:"Louis Sala-Molins : Le Code Noir ou le calvaire de Canaan"
3437:
3344:
of the 1794 decree when it finally arrived to the isle in 1796.
2757:
2440:. At this time in the Caribbean, Jews were mostly active in the
2383:
305:
135:
5730:
5346:, sur esclavage-martinique.com (consulté le 6 septembre 2019).
5042:. Molefi Kete Asante, Ama Mazama. Thousand Oaks, Calif. 2005.
4212:"Les juifs aux ßles françaises du vent (XVIIe-XVIIIe siÚcles)"
3362:
and the formation of the Republic of Haiti on 1 January 1804.
2859:
2513:, and referred to a compilation of two separate ordinances of
5726:
3586:) in 1679. To amend what was seen as an insufficient supply,
2432:
Codes governing slavery had already been established in many
5342:« Histoire de la martinique et de son esclavage »
4989:, sur Google Books, Maisonneuve et Larose, 6 septembre 2019.
3899:
In his 1987 analysis of the Code Noir and its applications,
3968:, under the influence of revolutionary ideals, issued the "
3820:
Edict bringing emancipation in exchange for payment to the
3021:
Masters who killed their slaves would be punished (art. 43)
4885:
Chantal Maignan-Claverie, Karthala Ăditions, 2005 - 444 p.
3558:
Thereafter, the French State made the facilitation of the
3519:
slaves. Subsequently, 300 people composed mainly of a few
3386:
trend, but one that was mainly preoccupied with a gradual
3248:(Ăle de France) as well as in the colony and province of
3578:). The monopoly on the Caribbean trade was given to the
4911:
PÚre Pelleprat, cité par J. Petit Jean Roget, tome II,
3749:, and Hans W. Baade, it was not slave legislation from
3365:
The Code Noir coexisted for forty-three years with the
3297:
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
3255:
The Code Noir was not originally intended for northern
2674:, slaves other than those "of culture" were considered
5545:"The Impact of the French Revolution on the Caribbean"
5204:
Archives de l'Outre-Mer, Ă Aix-en-Provence, Col F/390.
4820:
https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01926560/document
4176:
Samantha Cook,Sarah Hull, "The Rough Guide to the USA"
3424:
Article 8 of the decree of 27 April 1848 extended the
2620:
In 60 articles, the document specified the following:
5522:
Jean Ehrard, , Bruxelles, André Versaille, 2008, 238
3997:
between Niort and the philosopher Louis Sala-Molins.
3275:. However, on 13 April 1709, an ordinance created by
3914:
and for relying on a selective reading of the Code.
3283:
imposed regulations on slavery thereby recognizing,
1436:
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
6387:
6351:
6256:
6203:
6135:
6059:
5983:
5893:
5832:
5764:
4465:Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire de la Guadeloupe
4219:Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire de la Guadeloupe
3986:Le Code noir. Idées reçues sur un texte symbolique
3870:, signed the ordinance two years after his death.
3631:To mitigate the deficit of women in the Antilles,
4782:"Esclavage | Musée virtuel de la Nouvelle France"
4666:"Microsoft Word - NiortConditionlibrecouleur.doc"
4508:– via University of Lausanne Open Archives.
3457:The development of slavery in the French Antilles
16:1685 law on slavery in the French colonial empire
4837:"dossiers d'histoire - Victor Schoelcher- SĂ©nat"
4606:Recueil de l'Académie de législation de Toulouse
3390:that paralleled improved conditions for slaves.
2448:owners largely governed their land and holdings
1551:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
5574:"Dénonçons la fatwa contre Jean-François Niort"
4898:, 1664, cité par J. Petit Jean Roget, tome II,
3688:, the count of Blénac, and the militia captain
5276:Annales historiques de la Révolution française
4187:Terry L. Jones, "The Louisiana Journey", p.115
3183:by their owner (article 55), in which case no
2509:, Duke of Orleans, (1715â1723) under minister
5742:
5194:Law of slavery in spanish Luisiana 1769â1803.
3073:for slaves and provides for disfigurement by
2318:
1757:
8:
5699:. New York: New York University Press. 2006.
5471:Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie
4272:"Le " Code Noir " est bien une monstruosité"
4030:). It is mentioned during the main story of
3482:, because, while slavery had existed in the
3055:
3005:
2784:
2767:
2761:
2751:
2732:
2697:
2679:
2669:
2655:
2629:
2590:
2547:
2500:
2482:
2464:
2455:
2406:
2339:
1556:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
33:
5260:, Paris, Imprimerie nationale, August 1779,
4506:Ătude de droit romain de l'Ă©poque classique
4139:. Princeton University Press. p. 322.
3840:and of servitude in the domains of the King
3224:before the Council of the French colony of
2449:
5749:
5735:
5727:
5070:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4049:"The Origins and Authors of the Code Noir"
3836:Edict for the suppression of the right of
3826:, had been introduced on 11 July 1315, by
3584:PremiÚre compagnie d'Afrique ou du Sénégal
3453:Louisiana being particularly problematic.
3267:should be considered free royal subjects (
2374:. The decree restricted the activities of
2325:
2311:
1775:
1764:
1750:
41:
5478:
5283:
4633:
3696:Juridical origins and similar legislation
3320:) abolished slavery locally in 1793, the
3263:of lands conquered or surrendered to the
3112:similar to pupils, soldiers, or sailors.
3085:. In the case of recidivism, the slave's
2950:Learn how and when to remove this message
3336:was, at this time, a British colony and
3156:was still more restrictive than that of
1561:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf
1426:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery
1406:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889â90
4124:
3405:to power. One of the first acts of the
3309:, where there were no slaves and where
3054:Fees and fines paid with regard to the
2823:Sexual relations, marriage, and progeny
2589:From the 18th century onward, the term
1787:
53:
19:For the Marianne de Pierres novel, see
6586:Anti-black racism in the United States
5063:
4947:
4945:
4943:
4933:
4931:
4867:Revue française d'histoire d'outre-mer
4814:
4812:
4693:
4691:
4620:Gordien, Emmanuel (11 February 2013).
4336:The Library of Congress Global Gateway
4022:in freeing the enslaved population of
3842:of 8 August 1779, which was passed by
3757:In 1681, the King decided to create a
2886:Please improve this section by adding
2542:and promulgated in March 1685 by King
2394:expulsion of Jews was an extension of
6506:Colonial history of the Ancien RĂ©gime
5991:List of French forts in North America
4865:Lawrence C Jennings, « »,
4451:
4449:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4402:
4400:
2646:before the reforms adopted under the
2624:Legal status and incapacity of slaves
2505:first appeared during the regency of
2349:
1448:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention
1125:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
7:
4342:from the original on 24 October 2005
4300:
4298:
4296:
4294:
4292:
4246:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4236:
4205:
4203:
3713:reiterated this 1636 decree and the
2804:if they were baptized (article 14).
2756:enjoins a Catholic expulsion of all
2702:is legally different from that of a
2567:, as well as those of his successor
2469:'s significance, French philosopher
1640:Slave marriages in the United States
1244:Human trafficking in the Middle East
6511:French colonization of the Americas
5772:French colonization of the Americas
5599:Creoleways, RĂ©dac (10 April 2015).
5270:Lemarchand, Guy (1 December 2008).
3462:The origins of enslaved populations
3192:if a slave was designated the sole
2362:in 1685 defining the conditions of
979:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
6566:Anti-black racism in North America
5692:(in English), trans. John Garrigus
4818:Frédéric Charlin, « »,
4726:"La Louisiane française 1682-1803"
4408:"The 60 articles of the Code Noir"
4005:The Code Noir is mentioned in the
3984:Upon the 2015 release of his work
3682:Knight Charles François d'Angennes
3515:, taking with them 1200 black and
3472:Lettres sur la profession dâavocat
3316:After Saint-Domingue (present day
2793:and educated in the Apostolic and
1633:last survivors of American slavery
14:
5467:"Diderot, Roubaud et l'esclavage"
4076:Slavery in the French West Indies
3635:enacted a similar measure to the
2668:). Before the institution of the
2434:European colonies in the Americas
2413:European colonies in the Americas
594:Field slaves in the United States
461:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate
6475:
6474:
6400:Military history of the Acadians
6148:Seigneurial system of New France
5465:Thomson, Ann (15 October 2003).
4584:Histoires d'antan et d'à présent
4011:Assassin's Creed IV: Freedom Cry
2864:
2763:ennemis déclarés du nom chrétien
1943: population exchange
1795:
471:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
466:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
295:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
65:
5824:History of the French-Americans
5572:dahomay, jacky (6 April 2015).
5256:Louis XVI, Ădit du 8 aoĂ»t 1779
4387:, vol. 13, no. 1, 1995, p. 39.
4071:History of slavery in Louisiana
4032:Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag
3590:created the Company of Guinea (
3470:Definition of the Code noir in
3340:colonists forcibly opposed the
2614:Historic New Orleans Collection
2554:Archives nationales d'outre-mer
2428:International and trade context
1421:Committee of Experts on Slavery
972:East, Southeast, and South Asia
6153:Criminal justice in New France
5782:Timeline of New France history
5637:(in French). 15 September 2015
5095:. 19 June 2015. Archived from
5009:Histoire générale des Antilles
4626:In Situ. Revue des patrimoines
4486:. Paris: Quadrige. p. 90.
3980:Controversies about its legacy
3970:Decree of 16 PluviĂŽse, Year II
3637:King's Daughters of New France
3513:who had been run out of Brazil
3407:Provisional Government of 1848
3125:Seizure and slaves as chattels
2608:A copy of the 1743 edition of
2358:) was a decree passed by King
1120:Slave raiding in Easter Island
1:
6143:Custom of Paris in New France
5316:La-Croix.com (23 June 2020).
5039:Encyclopedia of Black studies
4361:Chivallon, Christine (2002).
3643:was unavoidable due to basic
3092:Punishments were a matter of
2888:secondary or tertiary sources
2535:secrĂ©taire d'Ătat Ă la Marine
1789:Racial and ethnic segregation
5278:(in French) (354): 223â225.
4484:Anthropologie de l'esclavage
4482:Meillassoux, Claude (1998).
3478:The edict of 1685 bridged a
3474:by Armand-Gaston Camus, 1772
3196:of the master (article 56).
2660:), the main workforce, from
2463:In his 1987 analysis of the
1411:Temporary Slavery Commission
1072:Slavery in the Mongol Empire
6591:Anti-black racism in Canada
6561:Anti-black racism in Europe
6531:Political history of Quebec
5662:Le code noir ou Edit du roy
5607:(in French). Archived from
4732:(in French). Archived from
4580:"Le chĂątiment au Moyen Age"
4270:Sala-Molins, Louis (2015).
4007:action-adventure video game
3533:Benjamin da Costa d'Andrade
2696:The status of the slave in
2578:'s regency and ratified by
1431:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery
476:Volga Bulgarian slave trade
6612:
6090:Governor of Trois-RiviĂšres
5697:Diasporic Africa: A Reader
5019:Chantal Maignan-Claverie,
4704:. Ibis rouge. p. 67.
4434:Charlin, Frédéric (2010).
4412:Liceo Cantonale di Locarno
3795:. The American Isles were
3450:1803 sale of the territory
3360:independence of the colony
3322:French National Convention
3175:Emancipation / manumission
2789:encouraged that slaves be
2389:The code's effects on the
1616:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
1453:Anti-Slavery International
1218:North Africa and West Asia
18:
6571:Catholic Church in France
6470:
6442:Expulsion of the Acadians
6233:Company of 100 Associates
6046:Fort St. Louis (Illinois)
5708:The Canadian Encyclopedia
5507:Voyage Ă lâIsle de France
5473:(in French) (35): 69â94.
4698:Bellance, Hurard (2011).
4221:. 65â66 (65â66): 77â133.
4014:, as it is mainly set in
3850:. The lord possessed the
3793:French West India Company
3719:governor William Berkeley
3564:French East India Company
3371:French Court of Cassation
3142:1848 abolition of slavery
2750:The first article of the
2724:, or used as a part of a
2681:immeubles par destination
2423:Context, origin and scope
2378:, mandated conversion to
1712:Emancipation Proclamation
1384:Opposition and resistance
1142:Sex trafficking in Europe
1130:Blackbirding in Polynesia
693:Trans-Saharan slave trade
6546:Slavery in North America
6501:Law of the Ancien RĂ©gime
6437:French and Iroquois Wars
5423:(in French). 9 July 2015
5090:"The "Code Noir" (1685)"
4760:Mémoires des Montréalais
4519:Merrill, Gordon (1964).
4456:Castaldo, André (2010).
4367:Les enjeux de la mémoire
4210:Lafleur, GĂ©rard (1985).
4045:Palmer, Vernon Valentine
3953:French Revolution impact
3553:large plantation estates
3069:The Code Noir permitted
2386:from France's colonies.
2146:West Bank settlement law
1492:Compensated emancipation
703:Indian Ocean slave trade
6596:17th century in slavery
6447:Great Peace of Montreal
6248:Compagnie de l'Occident
5819:History of the Acadians
3927:Histoire des deux Indes
3715:1662 Virginia slave law
3446:U.S. state of Louisiana
2836:partus sequitur ventrem
2491:between 1673 and 1685.
1921:French colonial empire
1814:Anti-miscegenation laws
1416:1926 Slavery Convention
1172:Germany in World War II
789:North and South America
311:Contract of manumission
38:, from the 1742 edition
6516:Antisemitism in France
6395:Military of New France
6321:Gens de couleur libres
6051:Fort St. Louis (Texas)
6036:Fortress of Louisbourg
5860:(1682â1763, 1801â1803)
5777:French colonial empire
5690:The "Code Noir" (1685)
4497:Pahud, Samuel (2013).
4385:Law and History Review
4306:"Le Code noir de 1685"
3936:
3887:
3475:
3209:
3171:or sale (article 47).
3146:French Second Republic
3087:hamstring would be cut
3065:DĂ©lits and punishments
3056:
3006:
2875:relies excessively on
2797:religion (article 2).
2785:
2768:
2762:
2752:
2733:
2698:
2680:
2670:
2656:
2630:
2617:
2612:, now in New Orleans (
2591:
2558:Jean-Baptiste Patoulet
2548:
2501:
2483:
2465:
2456:
2450:
2407:
2368:French colonial empire
2340:
1950: in Europe
1860:Housing discrimination
897:British Virgin Islands
449:Circassian slave trade
415:Safavid imperial harem
410:Ottoman Imperial Harem
39:
34:
32:A frontispiece of the
6526:17th century in Haiti
6521:Jewish French history
5559:"French Emancipation"
5387:"Historia Thématique"
5134:39, Paris, 1837, 539
5074:) CS1 maint: others (
4985:Jean-Pierre Sainton,
4970:Bordeaux port négrier
4330:Library of Congress.
3932:
3883:
3834:existed up until the
3801:Indigenous population
3607:Indigenous Caribbeans
3469:
3207:
3077:, as well as for the
3075:branding with an iron
2607:
2347:French pronunciation:
2281:Racial discrimination
2105:South Asian labourers
2038:Contemporary examples
1136:Europe and North Asia
1096:Australia and Oceania
796:Pre-Columbian America
368:Slave raid of SuĂ°uroy
300:Slavery in al-Andalus
222:Black Sea slave trade
151:21st-century jihadism
31:
6095:Governor of Montreal
6001:Fort Michilimackinac
5809:1763 Treaty of Paris
5182:Slave Law in America
4957:10.1086/JNHv73n1-4p1
4635:10.4000/insitu.10129
4253:Louisiana Law Review
4145:10.2307/j.ctt1287k58
4053:Louisiana Law Review
3964:In 1794, the French
3868:Marquis of Seignelay
3832:indentured servitude
3828:Louis X the Stubborn
3824:of the King's domain
3291:After the Revolution
3200:Adoptive territories
2540:Marquis de Seignelay
2477:plantation economy.
2376:free people of color
2134:Palestinian enclaves
1965:Portugal & Spain
1845:Institutional racism
1591:Indentured servitude
1519:Underground Railroad
1319:United Arab Emirates
708:Zanzibar slave trade
675:By country or region
488:Atlantic slave trade
390:Ma malakat aymanukum
274:Venetian slave trade
6243:Mississippi Company
5714:on 29 November 2011
5683:9 July 2005 at the
5495:on 3 February 2018.
5391:archive.wikiwix.com
5361:archive.wikiwix.com
4896:Relation de voyages
4847:on 27 December 2021
4841:archive.wikiwix.com
4730:archive.wikiwix.com
4670:archive.wikiwix.com
4310:axl.cefan.ulaval.ca
3966:National Convention
3789:laws for foreigners
3721:under the reign of
3711:Barbados Slave Code
3592:Compagnie de Guinée
3356:expeditionary corps
3307:metropolitan France
3279:colonial intendant
3118:cutting of the ears
3071:corporal punishment
2438:Barbados Slave Code
2436:, such as the 1661
2360:Louis XIV of France
2251:Forced assimilation
1885:Historical examples
1865:Exclusionary zoning
1855:Forced displacement
1677:Slave Route Project
808:Americas indigenous
698:Red Sea slave trade
688:Contemporary Africa
551:Topics and practice
321:Crimean slave trade
316:Bukhara slave trade
269:Genoese slave trade
146:Contemporary Africa
126:Forced prostitution
6415:King William's War
6410:Intercolonial Wars
5611:on 18 January 2022
5534:), second chapter.
5285:10.4000/ahrf.10947
4628:(in French) (20).
4001:In popular culture
3974:Haitian revolution
3924:, in a passage of
3727:Elizabeth Key case
3690:Nicolas de Gabaret
3686:Charles de Courbon
3492:Cardinal Richelieu
3476:
3419:Congress of Vienna
3348:Napoleon Bonaparte
3261:Indigenous peoples
3244:(Ăle Bourbon) and
3210:
3026:community property
2802:consecrated ground
2666:esclave de culture
2618:
2396:antisemitic trends
2073:BosniaâHerzegovina
2022:Separate but equal
1960:Partition of India
1955:Pale of Settlement
1850:Ethnic nationalism
1819:Crime of apartheid
1458:Blockade of Africa
765:Somali slave trade
681:Sub-Saharan Africa
373:Turkish Abductions
331:Khivan slave trade
326:Khazar slave trade
279:Balkan slave trade
237:Prague slave trade
40:
6541:Slavery in France
6488:
6487:
6425:King George's War
6405:Acadian Civil War
6352:Missionary groups
6343:Intellectual life
6080:Sovereign Council
5814:History of Quebec
5532:978-2-87495-006-3
4972:, Karthala 2002,
4756:"Ordonnance 1709"
4711:978-2-84450-369-5
4525:Caribbean Studies
4227:10.7202/1043818ar
4154:978-1-4008-6680-9
4081:Slavery in Canada
4028:Republic of Haiti
3959:French Revolution
3901:Louis Sala-Molins
3862:Sick since 1681,
3733:and successfully
3415:Victor Schoelcher
3238:Saint Christopher
3131:personal property
3098:domestic servants
3012:per day (art. 39)
2960:
2959:
2952:
2934:
2740:domestic servants
2708:Claude Massilloux
2657:esclave de jardin
2644:civil personality
2640:criminally liable
2523:Mascarene Islands
2471:Louis Sala-Molins
2400:Kingdom of France
2372:French Revolution
2351:[kÉdnwaÊ]
2335:
2334:
2261:Income inequality
1774:
1773:
1724:Freedmen's Bureau
1546:Third Servile War
1541:International law
1108:Human trafficking
870:Human trafficking
545:Thirteen colonies
363:Sack of Baltimore
131:Human trafficking
21:Code Noir (novel)
6603:
6478:
6477:
6457:Schenectady Raid
6430:Seven Years' War
6420:Queen Anne's War
6286:King's Daughters
6238:Crozat's Company
6221:Coureur des bois
6163:Superior Council
6085:Bishop of Quebec
6070:Governor General
6011:Fort de Chartres
5870:Illinois Country
5751:
5744:
5737:
5728:
5723:
5721:
5719:
5710:. Archived from
5666:
5647:
5646:
5644:
5642:
5627:
5621:
5620:
5618:
5616:
5596:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5585:
5569:
5563:
5562:
5555:
5549:
5548:
5541:
5535:
5525:
5520:
5514:
5512:
5503:
5497:
5496:
5491:. Archived from
5482:
5462:
5456:
5449:
5443:
5439:
5433:
5432:
5430:
5428:
5413:
5407:
5406:
5404:
5402:
5393:. Archived from
5383:
5377:
5376:
5374:
5372:
5363:. Archived from
5353:
5347:
5340:
5334:
5333:
5331:
5329:
5313:
5307:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5287:
5267:
5261:
5254:
5248:
5247:
5245:
5243:
5237:Internet Archive
5229:
5223:
5220:
5214:
5211:
5205:
5202:
5196:
5191:
5185:
5179:
5173:
5167:
5161:
5158:
5152:
5149:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5127:
5121:
5118:
5112:
5111:
5109:
5107:
5101:
5094:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5069:
5061:
5034:
5028:
5026:
5017:
5011:
5007:PĂšre du Tertre,
5005:
4999:
4996:
4990:
4983:
4977:
4975:
4966:
4960:
4949:
4938:
4935:
4926:
4922:
4916:
4914:
4909:
4903:
4901:
4892:
4886:
4880:
4874:
4872:
4863:
4857:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4843:. Archived from
4833:
4827:
4825:
4816:
4807:
4804:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4793:
4788:on 22 March 2023
4784:. Archived from
4778:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4767:
4752:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4736:on 14 March 2016
4722:
4716:
4715:
4695:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4681:
4672:. Archived from
4662:
4656:
4655:
4637:
4617:
4611:
4610:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4592:
4590:
4576:
4570:
4565:
4559:
4558:
4557:on 4 March 2007.
4553:. Archived from
4547:
4541:
4540:
4516:
4510:
4509:
4503:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4479:
4473:
4472:
4462:
4453:
4444:
4443:
4431:
4420:
4419:
4418:on 4 March 2007.
4414:. Archived from
4404:
4395:
4381:
4375:
4374:
4358:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4347:
4327:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4302:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4248:
4231:
4230:
4216:
4207:
4198:
4197:Stovall, p. 205.
4195:
4189:
4184:
4178:
4173:
4167:
4166:
4129:
4106:Slave Trade Acts
4096:Slave rebellions
4086:Slavery in Haiti
4060:
3912:historical rigor
3701:English colonies
3549:cane cultivation
3484:French Caribbean
3352:Treaty of Amiens
3179:Slaves could be
3059:
3011:
2955:
2948:
2944:
2941:
2935:
2933:
2892:
2868:
2860:
2788:
2771:
2765:
2755:
2736:
2701:
2683:
2673:
2659:
2633:
2594:
2566:
2551:
2546:with the title "
2504:
2486:
2468:
2459:
2453:
2410:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2327:
2320:
2313:
2256:Gender apartheid
2177:Northern Ireland
2039:
1949:
1942:
1910:Indian hospitals
1905:Separate schools
1799:
1776:
1766:
1759:
1752:
1736:Emancipation Day
1569:
1536:Slave Trade Acts
227:Byzantine Empire
69:
42:
37:
6611:
6610:
6606:
6605:
6604:
6602:
6601:
6600:
6491:
6490:
6489:
6484:
6466:
6383:
6359:Jesuit missions
6347:
6296:Casquette girls
6252:
6199:
6168:Admiralty court
6131:
6055:
5979:
5896:
5889:
5828:
5787:Beginningsâ1533
5760:
5755:
5717:
5715:
5702:
5685:Wayback Machine
5659:
5656:
5651:
5650:
5640:
5638:
5629:
5628:
5624:
5614:
5612:
5598:
5597:
5593:
5583:
5581:
5571:
5570:
5566:
5557:
5556:
5552:
5543:
5542:
5538:
5523:
5521:
5517:
5510:
5504:
5500:
5480:10.4000/rde.179
5464:
5463:
5459:
5452:noir » du
5450:
5446:
5440:
5436:
5426:
5424:
5415:
5414:
5410:
5400:
5398:
5397:on 14 July 2007
5385:
5384:
5380:
5370:
5368:
5355:
5354:
5350:
5341:
5337:
5327:
5325:
5315:
5314:
5310:
5305:
5301:
5269:
5268:
5264:
5255:
5251:
5241:
5239:
5231:
5230:
5226:
5221:
5217:
5212:
5208:
5203:
5199:
5192:
5188:
5180:
5176:
5168:
5164:
5159:
5155:
5150:
5146:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5128:
5124:
5119:
5115:
5105:
5103:
5102:on 19 June 2015
5099:
5092:
5088:
5087:
5083:
5062:
5050:
5036:
5035:
5031:
5024:
5018:
5014:
5006:
5002:
4997:
4993:
4984:
4980:
4973:
4967:
4963:
4950:
4941:
4936:
4929:
4923:
4919:
4912:
4910:
4906:
4899:
4893:
4889:
4881:
4877:
4870:
4864:
4860:
4850:
4848:
4835:
4834:
4830:
4823:
4817:
4810:
4805:
4801:
4791:
4789:
4780:
4779:
4775:
4765:
4763:
4754:
4753:
4749:
4739:
4737:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4712:
4697:
4696:
4689:
4679:
4677:
4676:on 15 June 2007
4664:
4663:
4659:
4619:
4618:
4614:
4603:
4602:
4598:
4588:
4586:
4578:
4577:
4573:
4566:
4562:
4549:
4548:
4544:
4518:
4517:
4513:
4501:
4496:
4495:
4491:
4481:
4480:
4476:
4460:
4455:
4454:
4447:
4433:
4432:
4423:
4406:
4405:
4398:
4382:
4378:
4360:
4359:
4355:
4345:
4343:
4332:"The Code Noir"
4329:
4328:
4324:
4314:
4312:
4304:
4303:
4290:
4280:
4278:
4269:
4268:
4264:
4250:
4249:
4234:
4214:
4209:
4208:
4201:
4196:
4192:
4185:
4181:
4174:
4170:
4155:
4131:
4130:
4126:
4121:
4067:
4043:
4040:
4038:Further reading
4003:
3982:
3955:
3897:
3892:
3860:
3743:
3741:French colonies
3703:
3698:
3670:
3665:
3653:shall be slaves
3580:Senegal Company
3568:incentive plans
3464:
3459:
3426:Second Republic
3367:Napoleonic code
3293:
3273:Custom of Paris
3202:
3177:
3127:
3067:
3035:
3008:livres tournois
2994:
2956:
2945:
2939:
2936:
2893:
2891:
2885:
2881:primary sources
2869:
2858:
2849:
2847:Maternal Impact
2825:
2748:
2686:Napoleonic Code
2662:domestic slaves
2626:
2602:
2560:
2497:
2430:
2425:
2346:
2331:
2286:
2285:
2234:
2233:
2224:
2223:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2029:
2028:
1887:
1886:
1877:
1876:
1809:
1808:
1770:
1741:
1740:
1645:Slave narrative
1601:Fugitive slaves
1581:
1573:
1572:
1563:
1531:Slave rebellion
1386:
1376:
1375:
1334:
1324:
1323:
1146:United Kingdom
1082:Yankee princess
676:
668:
667:
395:Avret Pazarları
341:Avret Pazarları
210:Medieval Europe
176:
166:
165:
104:Forced marriage
79:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6609:
6607:
6599:
6598:
6593:
6588:
6583:
6578:
6573:
6568:
6563:
6558:
6556:1685 in France
6553:
6548:
6543:
6538:
6533:
6528:
6523:
6518:
6513:
6508:
6503:
6493:
6492:
6486:
6485:
6483:
6482:
6471:
6468:
6467:
6465:
6464:
6462:Deerfield Raid
6459:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6433:
6432:
6427:
6422:
6417:
6407:
6402:
6397:
6391:
6389:
6385:
6384:
6382:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6361:
6355:
6353:
6349:
6348:
6346:
6345:
6340:
6339:
6338:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6272:
6271:
6260:
6258:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6250:
6245:
6240:
6235:
6230:
6229:
6228:
6223:
6213:
6207:
6205:
6201:
6200:
6198:
6197:
6192:
6185:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6150:
6145:
6139:
6137:
6133:
6132:
6130:
6129:
6128:
6127:
6119:
6118:
6117:
6109:
6108:
6107:
6099:
6098:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6063:
6061:
6057:
6056:
6054:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6038:
6033:
6028:
6023:
6018:
6013:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5987:
5985:
5981:
5980:
5978:
5977:
5976:
5975:
5967:
5966:
5965:
5960:
5955:
5947:
5946:
5945:
5937:
5936:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5923:Trois-RiviĂšres
5920:
5912:
5911:
5910:
5901:
5899:
5891:
5890:
5888:
5887:
5885:Domaine du roy
5882:
5880:Pays d'en Haut
5877:
5872:
5867:
5861:
5855:
5849:
5843:
5836:
5834:
5830:
5829:
5827:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5805:
5804:
5799:
5794:
5789:
5779:
5774:
5768:
5766:
5762:
5761:
5756:
5754:
5753:
5746:
5739:
5731:
5725:
5724:
5700:
5693:
5687:
5672:
5667:
5655:
5654:External links
5652:
5649:
5648:
5622:
5591:
5564:
5550:
5536:
5515:
5498:
5457:
5444:
5434:
5408:
5378:
5367:on 16 May 2009
5348:
5335:
5308:
5299:
5262:
5249:
5224:
5215:
5206:
5197:
5186:
5174:
5162:
5153:
5144:
5122:
5113:
5081:
5048:
5029:
5012:
5000:
4991:
4978:
4968:Eric Saugera,
4961:
4939:
4927:
4917:
4904:
4894:Antoine Biet,
4887:
4875:
4858:
4828:
4808:
4799:
4773:
4747:
4717:
4710:
4687:
4657:
4612:
4596:
4571:
4560:
4542:
4511:
4489:
4474:
4445:
4421:
4396:
4393:10.2307/743955
4376:
4353:
4322:
4288:
4262:
4232:
4199:
4190:
4179:
4168:
4153:
4123:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4115:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4083:
4078:
4073:
4066:
4063:
4062:
4061:
4039:
4036:
4024:Saint-Domingue
4016:Port-au-Prince
4002:
3999:
3981:
3978:
3954:
3951:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3859:
3856:
3852:droit de suite
3782:King's Council
3742:
3739:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3596:Guinea Company
3496:slave shipment
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3292:
3289:
3281:Jacques Raudot
3226:Saint-Domingue
3201:
3198:
3185:naturalization
3176:
3173:
3154:legal capacity
3126:
3123:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3042:
3039:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3022:
3019:
3016:
3013:
3002:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2872:
2870:
2863:
2857:
2854:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2832:
2829:
2824:
2821:
2795:Roman Catholic
2747:
2744:
2664:"of culture" (
2625:
2622:
2601:
2598:
2519:Saint-Domingue
2496:
2493:
2442:Dutch colonies
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2322:
2315:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2288:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
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2247:
2246:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2143:
2136:
2126:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2109:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2087:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2046:Anti-Romanyism
2042:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2008:United States
2006:
2004:United Kingdom
2001:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1984:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1975:Nuremberg Laws
1967:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1948:Jewish ghettos
1945:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1929:
1919:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1894:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1816:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1792:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1783:of articles on
1772:
1771:
1769:
1768:
1761:
1754:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1642:
1637:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1623:List of slaves
1620:
1619:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1444:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1387:
1382:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1341:
1335:
1330:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1167:Dutch Republic
1164:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1111:
1110:
1099:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1058:
1057:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1035:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1023:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1006:
1001:
991:
986:
981:
975:
974:
968:
967:
962:
955:
954:
953:
948:
938:
933:
928:
927:
926:
916:
911:
910:
909:
904:
899:
894:
884:
879:
874:
873:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
817:
816:
815:
805:
804:
803:
792:
791:
785:
784:
779:
774:
769:
768:
767:
757:
752:
747:
742:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
711:
710:
700:
695:
690:
684:
683:
677:
674:
673:
670:
669:
666:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
639:
638:
634:
633:
628:
626:Child soldiers
623:
618:
613:
608:
603:
602:
601:
591:
586:
581:
576:
575:
574:
569:
564:
553:
552:
548:
547:
542:
537:
535:Spanish Empire
532:
527:
522:
517:
515:Middle Passage
512:
507:
502:
497:
491:
490:
484:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
452:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
377:
376:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
345:
344:
343:
336:Ottoman Empire
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
297:
291:
290:
284:
283:
282:
281:
271:
266:
261:
260:
259:
254:
249:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
213:
212:
206:
205:
200:
195:
190:
184:
183:
177:
172:
171:
168:
167:
164:
163:
158:
156:Sexual slavery
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
122:
121:
116:
114:Child marriage
111:
101:
96:
91:
89:Child soldiers
86:
80:
75:
74:
71:
70:
62:
61:
51:
50:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6608:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6577:
6574:
6572:
6569:
6567:
6564:
6562:
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6549:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6539:
6537:
6536:Law of France
6534:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6524:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6512:
6509:
6507:
6504:
6502:
6499:
6498:
6496:
6481:
6473:
6472:
6469:
6463:
6460:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6413:
6412:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6392:
6390:
6386:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6356:
6354:
6350:
6344:
6341:
6337:
6334:
6333:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6270:
6267:
6266:
6265:
6262:
6261:
6259:
6255:
6249:
6246:
6244:
6241:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6231:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6218:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6211:Chemin du Roy
6209:
6208:
6206:
6202:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6190:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6144:
6141:
6140:
6138:
6134:
6126:
6123:
6122:
6120:
6116:
6113:
6112:
6110:
6106:
6103:
6102:
6100:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6067:
6065:
6064:
6062:
6058:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6031:Fort Duquesne
6029:
6027:
6024:
6022:
6021:Fort Carillon
6019:
6017:
6014:
6012:
6009:
6007:
6006:Fort de Buade
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5988:
5986:
5982:
5974:
5971:
5970:
5968:
5964:
5961:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5950:
5948:
5944:
5941:
5940:
5938:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5915:
5913:
5909:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5902:
5900:
5898:
5892:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5865:
5862:
5859:
5856:
5853:
5850:
5847:
5844:
5841:
5838:
5837:
5835:
5831:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5784:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5769:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5752:
5747:
5745:
5740:
5738:
5733:
5732:
5729:
5713:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5698:
5694:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5682:
5679:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5664:
5663:
5658:
5657:
5653:
5636:
5632:
5626:
5623:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5595:
5592:
5579:
5575:
5568:
5565:
5560:
5554:
5551:
5546:
5540:
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3952:
3950:
3948:
3943:
3942:Enlightenment
3939:
3935:
3931:
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3923:
3922:Denis Diderot
3919:
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3626:miscegenation
3623:
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3597:
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3576:domaine royal
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3444:, and in the
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3408:
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3380:jurisprudence
3376:
3375:July Monarchy
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3079:death penalty
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2940:November 2022
2932:
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2911:
2908:
2904:
2901: â
2900:
2896:
2895:Find sources:
2889:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2873:This section
2871:
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2649:
2648:July Monarchy
2645:
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2623:
2621:
2615:
2611:
2606:
2599:
2597:
2593:
2587:
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2580:King Louis XV
2577:
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2541:
2537:
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2508:
2503:
2495:Legal context
2494:
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2472:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2452:
2447:
2443:
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2418:
2417:Tyler Stovall
2414:
2409:
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2397:
2392:
2387:
2385:
2384:Jewish people
2381:
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2267:
2266:One-drop rule
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2245:
2244:Statelessness
2242:
2241:
2240:
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2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2208:
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2187:United States
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2047:
2044:
2043:
2033:
2032:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2017:Jim Crow laws
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1976:
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1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
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1944:
1941:GreekâTurkish
1939:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1928:
1927:
1923:
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1917:Fascist Italy
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1911:
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1841:Environmental
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1667:Slave catcher
1665:
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1596:Forced labour
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1441:Abolitionists
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1044:
1043:comfort women
1041:
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1027:
1026:Chukri System
1024:
1022:
1019:
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914:Latin America
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898:
895:
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889:
888:
885:
883:
880:
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871:
868:
866:
865:interregional
863:
861:
858:
856:
853:
851:
850:prison labour
848:
846:
843:
841:
838:
836:
833:
831:
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820:United States
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664:
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649:
646:
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640:
636:
635:
632:
631:White slavery
629:
627:
624:
622:
621:Slave raiding
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
600:
597:
596:
595:
592:
590:
589:Corvée labour
587:
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568:
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560:
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440:
437:
435:
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430:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
405:Abbasid harem
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
382:
381:
378:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
350:
349:
348:Barbary Coast
346:
342:
339:
338:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
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298:
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293:
292:
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258:
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117:
115:
112:
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107:
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100:
97:
95:
92:
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87:
85:
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81:
78:
73:
72:
68:
64:
63:
60:
56:
55:Forced labour
52:
48:
44:
43:
36:
30:
26:
22:
6452:Lachine Raid
6194:
6189:Maréchaussée
6187:
6111:Terre-Neuve
6016:Fort Detroit
5996:Fort Rouillé
5969:Terre-Neuve
5875:Ohio Country
5716:. Retrieved
5712:the original
5707:
5696:
5675:Le Code noir
5674:
5661:
5639:. Retrieved
5634:
5625:
5613:. Retrieved
5609:the original
5604:
5594:
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5577:
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5365:the original
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5084:
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4734:the original
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4674:the original
4669:
4660:
4625:
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4599:
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4583:
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4555:the original
4545:
4531:(3): 32â49.
4528:
4524:
4514:
4505:
4492:
4483:
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4468:
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4439:
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4411:
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4356:
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4335:
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4309:
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4275:
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4163:j.ctt1287k58
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3884:
3880:
3872:
3861:
3835:
3819:
3818:In fact, an
3813:
3786:
3779:
3770:
3767:Michel BĂ©gon
3756:
3744:
3731:Christianity
3707:Henry Hawley
3704:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3657:
3649:
3641:Creolization
3630:
3618:free persons
3615:
3604:
3591:
3583:
3575:
3557:
3509:
3477:
3471:
3430:grace period
3423:
3412:
3403:Ledru-Rollin
3392:
3388:emancipation
3384:abolitionist
3364:
3346:
3315:
3303:Massiac Club
3296:
3294:
3254:
3213:
3211:
3178:
3166:
3135:
3128:
3114:
3110:
3102:
3091:
3083:fleur-de-lis
3068:
3024:Slaves were
2946:
2937:
2927:
2920:
2913:
2906:
2894:
2874:
2856:Prohibitions
2850:
2817:conventicles
2806:
2799:
2782:
2749:
2730:
2715:
2695:
2689:
2665:
2652:field slaves
2627:
2619:
2609:
2588:
2576:Phillippe II
2573:
2569:Michel BĂ©gon
2553:
2533:
2531:
2498:
2479:
2462:
2431:
2404:
2388:
2355:
2338:
2336:
2148: /
2138:
2095:Saudi Arabia
1987:South Africa
1970:Nazi Germany
1931:
1925:
1924:
1843: /
1672:Slave patrol
1509:Freedom suit
1485:Sierra Leone
1475:Colonization
1391:Abolitionism
1371:BahĂĄÊŒĂ Faith
1344:Christianity
1294:Saudi Arabia
1150:Penal Labour
1115:Blackbirding
1021:Debt bondage
1009:penal system
906:
835:Contemporary
825:Field slaves
813:U.S. Natives
772:South Africa
643:Galley slave
616:Slave market
606:House slaves
579:Blackbirding
557:Conscription
481:21st century
444:Umm al-walad
288:Muslim world
257:Emancipation
161:Wage slavery
141:Penal labour
119:Wife selling
109:Bride buying
94:Conscription
84:Child Labour
77:Contemporary
25:
6581:Slavery law
6551:1685 in law
6306:Amerindians
6269:1666 census
6178:Officiality
6173:Provostship
6060:Governments
6041:Castle Hill
5963:New Orleans
5939:Ăle Royale
5918:Quebec City
5866:(1713â1763)
5854:(1662â1713)
5852:Terre-Neuve
5848:(1608â1763)
5842:(1604â1713)
5635:Le Monde.fr
5580:(in French)
5421:Le Monde.fr
5324:(in French)
4762:(in French)
4551:"Code noir"
4101:Black Codes
4091:Slave codes
3957:During the
3747:Alan Watson
3663:Development
3572:crown lands
3560:slave trade
3442:Puerto Rico
3342:institution
3252:, in 1724.
3222:Petit-GoĂąve
2992:Punishments
2899:"Code Noir"
2561: [
2507:Philippe II
2451:in absentia
2380:Catholicism
2239:Citizenship
2207:Residential
2090:Gulf states
2012:Black Codes
1900:Pass system
1824:Allegations
1687:court cases
1564: [
1514:Slave Power
1502:Manumission
1349:Catholicism
1224:Afghanistan
965:Puerto Rico
877:The Bahamas
855:Slave codes
658:Shanghaiing
648:Impressment
540:Slave Coast
420:Qajar harem
380:Concubinage
353:slave trade
6495:Categories
6379:Sulpicians
6336:card money
6264:Population
6158:Intendancy
6121:Louisiane
6026:Fort Condé
5949:Louisiane
5943:Louisbourg
5908:Port Royal
5864:Ăle Royale
5758:New France
5718:7 November
5605:Creoleways
5106:10 October
4346:3 December
4315:6 December
4281:4 December
4259:: 363â408.
4119:References
4059:: 363â408.
3816:canon law.
3723:Charles II
3717:passed by
3645:endogamous
3633:Versailles
3600:Cape Verde
3480:legal void
3334:Martinique
3332:, because
3326:Guadeloupe
3269:régnicoles
3257:New France
3218:Martinique
3181:manumitted
3144:under the
2910:newspapers
2877:references
2809:Protestant
2774:Pernambuco
2499:The title
2475:cane sugar
2446:Plantation
2356:Black code
2162:Mauritania
2066:Roma walls
1992:Bantustans
1836:Xenophobia
1702:J.Q. Adams
1692:Washington
1662:Slave name
1611:convention
1586:Common law
959:Encomienda
755:Seychelles
740:Mauritania
663:Slave ship
530:Panyarring
525:New France
174:Historical
6576:Louis XIV
6374:Ursulines
6369:Grey Nuns
6364:RĂ©collets
6281:Canadiens
6276:Habitants
6226:Voyageurs
6216:Fur trade
6195:Code Noir
6075:Intendant
5973:Plaisance
5895:Towns and
5858:Louisiana
5802:1663â1759
5797:1608â1662
5792:1534â1607
5704:"Slavery"
5578:Mediapart
5489:0769-0886
5294:0003-4436
5066:cite book
4652:191475428
4644:1630-7305
4026:(now the
3844:Louis XVI
3809:catechism
3797:enfeoffed
3751:Roman law
3611:mulattoes
3588:Louis XIV
3498:from the
3399:Lamartine
3338:Mascarene
3250:Louisiana
3246:Mauritius
3057:Code noir
2999:hamstring
2786:Code noir
2769:Code noir
2753:Code noir
2734:Code noir
2699:Code noir
2690:Code noir
2671:Code noir
2631:Code noir
2610:Code noir
2592:Code noir
2544:Louis XIV
2527:Louisiana
2515:Louis XIV
2502:Code noir
2484:Code noir
2466:Code noir
2457:Code noir
2408:Code noir
2341:Code noir
2276:Ethnicity
2192:Academies
2117:Uthapuram
1997:Pass laws
1933:Indigénat
1926:Code Noir
1892:Australia
1870:Redlining
1697:Jefferson
1354:Mormonism
1289:Palestine
1103:Australia
1033:Indonesia
924:Lei Ăurea
907:Code Noir
887:Caribbean
860:Treatment
599:Treatment
572:Devshirme
434:Odalisque
252:In Russia
193:Babylonia
181:Antiquity
35:Code Noir
6480:Category
6331:Currency
6291:Acadians
6125:Governor
6115:Governor
6105:Governor
5928:Montreal
5897:villages
5833:Colonies
5681:Archived
5322:La Croix
5058:61296166
4869:, 1969,
4822:, 2010,
4537:25611830
4471:: 56â62.
4442:: 45â74.
4373:: 41â60.
4340:Archived
4276:Le Monde
4135:(2003).
4065:See also
4047:(1996).
3995:Le Monde
3947:vagrants
3905:hegemony
3895:Opinions
3838:mortmain
3622:Barbados
3545:laborers
3529:Barbados
3488:Antilles
3395:Cremieux
3285:de facto
3162:bequeath
3150:baptized
3138:chattels
2791:baptized
2746:Religion
2722:usufruct
2676:fixtures
2511:John Law
2489:Antilles
2391:enslaved
2294:Category
2214:Xinjiang
2157:Malaysia
2150:barriers
2061:Slovenia
1982:Rhodesia
1807:Overview
1781:a series
1779:Part of
1729:Iron bit
1719:40 acres
1682:breeding
1497:Freedman
1332:Religion
1192:Portugal
1077:Thailand
1067:Maldives
1062:Malaysia
1055:Kwalliso
999:Booi Aha
951:Restavek
931:Colombia
902:Trinidad
892:Barbados
782:Zanzibar
730:Ethiopia
611:Saqaliba
505:Database
456:Saqaliba
217:Ancillae
47:a series
45:Part of
6326:Alcohol
6316:Plaçage
6311:Slavery
6257:Society
6204:Economy
6183:Bailiff
6101:Acadie
6066:Canada
5933:DĂ©troit
5914:Canada
5904:Acadie
5765:History
5677:(1685)
5344:archive
5258:archive
5184:, 1985.
5172:, 1940.
4609:. 1868.
4020:Maroons
3875:ennoble
3864:Colbert
3775:Colbert
3771:MĂ©moire
3763:Colbert
3759:statute
3609:and 25
3537:tobacco
3521:Flemish
3500:Spanish
3311:serfdom
3299:of 1789
3277:Acadian
3242:RĂ©union
3230:Cayenne
3194:legatee
3190:de jure
3169:seizure
3105:larceny
3033:Freedom
2924:scholar
2712:serfdom
2628:In the
2600:Summary
2584:RĂ©gence
2398:in the
2366:in the
2364:slavery
2299:Commons
2232:Related
2202:Schools
2197:Housing
2172:Myanmar
2167:Morocco
2140:Hafrada
2122:Muslims
2078:Schools
2056:Romania
1896:Canada
1707:Lincoln
1580:Related
1480:Liberia
1366:Judaism
1304:Tunisia
1279:Morocco
1269:Lebanon
1234:Bahrain
1229:Algeria
1197:Romania
1162:Denmark
1155:Slavery
1089:Vietnam
760:Somalia
750:Nigeria
725:Comoros
653:Pirates
562:Ghilman
495:Bristol
385:history
358:pirates
247:History
136:Peonage
59:slavery
5958:Biloxi
5953:Mobile
5846:Canada
5840:Acadia
5641:31 May
5615:31 May
5584:31 May
5530:
5487:
5427:31 May
5401:30 May
5371:31 May
5328:31 May
5292:
5242:31 May
5056:
5046:
4925:32â49.
4851:30 May
4792:30 May
4766:30 May
4740:30 May
4708:
4680:30 May
4650:
4642:
4589:30 May
4535:
4161:
4151:
3890:Impact
3848:renter
3805:Jesuit
3541:indigo
3434:Brazil
3401:, and
3330:Guiana
3328:, and
3234:Guiana
3158:minors
3094:public
2926:
2919:
2912:
2905:
2897:
2815:slave
2778:Brazil
2726:pledge
2717:Digest
2634:, the
2129:Israel
2085:Cyprus
1628:owners
1264:Kuwait
1259:Jordan
1212:Sweden
1202:Russia
1187:Poland
1182:Norway
1004:Laogai
989:Brunei
984:Bhutan
946:revolt
919:Brazil
882:Canada
845:partus
830:female
715:Angola
584:Coolie
567:Mamluk
520:Nantes
500:Brazil
429:Cariye
264:Thrall
232:Kholop
198:Greece
6301:MĂ©tis
5984:Forts
5100:(PDF)
5093:(PDF)
4915:1022.
4902:1024.
4648:S2CID
4533:JSTOR
4502:(PDF)
4461:(PDF)
4215:(PDF)
4159:JSTOR
4112:Panis
3990:expel
3822:serfs
3668:Goals
3517:métis
3504:Dutch
3318:Haiti
3265:Crown
2931:JSTOR
2917:books
2813:pagan
2636:slave
2565:]
2219:Yemen
2182:Sudan
2112:India
2051:Italy
1831:Caste
1655:songs
1650:films
1568:]
1524:songs
1361:Islam
1339:Bible
1314:Yemen
1309:Qatar
1299:Syria
1274:Libya
1239:Egypt
1207:Spain
1177:Malta
1050:Korea
1038:Japan
1016:India
994:China
941:Haiti
801:Aztec
777:Sudan
745:Niger
637:Naval
510:Dutch
439:Qiyan
425:Jarya
400:Harem
242:Serfs
188:Egypt
6388:Wars
6136:Laws
5720:2016
5643:2022
5617:2022
5586:2022
5528:ISBN
5513:176.
5485:ISSN
5454:site
5429:2022
5403:2022
5373:2022
5330:2022
5290:ISSN
5244:2022
5132:vol.
5108:2022
5076:link
5072:link
5054:OCLC
5044:ISBN
4853:2022
4794:2022
4768:2022
4742:2022
4706:ISBN
4682:2022
4640:ISSN
4591:2022
4348:2021
4317:2021
4283:2021
4149:ISBN
3735:sued
3551:and
3539:and
3438:Cuba
3232:and
2903:news
2758:Jews
2731:The
2704:serf
2525:and
2337:The
2271:Race
1606:laws
1468:U.S.
1463:U.K.
1401:U.S.
1396:U.K.
1284:Oman
1254:Iraq
1249:Iran
936:Cuba
840:maps
735:Mali
720:Chad
306:Baqt
203:Rome
99:Debt
57:and
5475:doi
5280:doi
5142:528
5027:141
4976:37.
4953:doi
4873:375
4630:doi
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