1357:
regime in 1945. To be admitted to full French citizenship, when that is possible, the Muslim had to renounce Qur'anic law and promise to follow the law of the
Republic. There were important differences such as on polygamy, arranged marriage, divorce, and inequality between man and woman in matters. In 1874, a list of infractions punishable by French justice is made on the Indigénat on matters such as an unauthorised meeting or disrespectful act. In 1860s, the Indigénat regime was being debated. Napoléon III, dreamed of an Arab Kingdom in Algeria, which was very unpopular for French settlers. After the Empire fell, the Republic tried to simplify naturalisation procedures and even a mass naturalisation, but that provoked massive outrage from settlers. The local authorities also dragged their feet to complicate the task of Muslums wanting to naturalise. That caused between 1865 and 1915 only 2396 Muslims in Algeria to naturalise.
1100:, and in some areas, forced contract labour continued as a staple of the colonial economy, such as if private enterprises could not attract sufficient workers or for projects of colonial officials. In the interwar period, the demand for forced labour increased massively. Even the most well-intentioned officials often believed in 'forced modernization' (supposing that 'progress' would result only from coercion), and French-created 'chiefs' also enjoyed tremendous coercive power. That resulted in enrichment for chiefs and the French, and harsh conditions for African labourers.
45:
172:
1365:, the Law of 4 February 1919 reformed the procedure for full naturalisation. That reform disappointed the Muslims, and only 1204 of them in Algeria naturalised from 1919 to 1930. Lyautey, followed the negotiations with the settlers, noted, "I consider the situation incurable. The French farming settlers have a full Gerry mentality, with the same theories on inferior races worth exploiting without mercy. They have no humanity or intelligence." (Weil Patrick,
1693:« L’indigène musulman est français ; néanmoins il continuera à être régi par la loi musulmane. Il peut être admis à servir dans les armées de terre et de mer. Il peut être appelé à des fonctions et emplois civils en Algérie. Il peut, sur sa demande, être admis à jouir des droits de citoyen français ; dans ce cas, il est régi par les lois civiles et politiques de la France » (article 1 of the 1865
1164:
1055:
punishments must be signed by the colonial governor, but that was almost always done after the fact. Corporal punishment was outlawed, but still used regularly. Although these powers were periodically reformed, in practice they became arbitrary and frequently used. More than 1,500 infractions reported officially were punished by the
1382:
25 francs to 15, and summary imprisonment was capped at five days. In practice, though, summary punishment continued at the discretion of local authorities. In French-controlled
Cameroon, during 1935 there were 32,858 prison sentences for these 'administrative' offenses, compared to 3,512 for common law offenses.
1406:
had been formalised by the local decree of 25 November 1912. Duration and conditions varied, but as of 1926, all able-bodied men were required to work for no longer than eight days at a stint in
Senegal, ten in Guinea and twelve in Soudan and Mauritania. Workers were supposed to be provided with food
1381:
were reformed over time. The formal right of caucasian civilians to exercise summary punishment was eliminated by the decree of 15 November 1924. This decree reduced the headings by which subjects could be summarily punished to 24, which was later further reduced to 12. Maximum fines decreased from
1319:
Resistance, while common, was usually indirect. Huge population shifts occurred in France's
African colonies, especially when large conscription or forced labour drives were implemented by particularly-zealous officials and when many African slaves were emancipated by the French authorities following
845:
decreed the treatment of subject peoples, but it was in
Algeria during the 1830s and 1840s that the French government began actively to rule large subject populations. It quickly realised that it was impractical in areas without a French population, and French experiences with large groups of subject
1497:: their (even-future) children would still be subject to the Indigénat. The loi Lamine Guèye of 7 April 1946 formally extended citizenship across the empire, indigènes included. Third, the law of 20 September 1947 eliminated the two-tier court system and mandated equal access to public employment.
1239:
and was not bound to heed the advice of even his own appointed assistants. Beyond that, there was no functioning appeals process though in theory, the colonies' governor had to sign off on all decisions that imposed punishments greater than those allowed for summary sentences. Historians examining
1207:
courts. While Muslim courts had some real local relevance behind them, the French history of chief-creation was to replace traditional chiefs with
Africans who would be dependent upon the French. Consequently, customary courts often served simply to increase the power of official chiefs. What was
1054:
was free to impose summary punishment under any of 34 (later 12) headings of infractions specified by the code, ranging from murder to 'disrespect' of France, its symbols, or functionaries. Punishment could range from fines, to 15 days in prison or immediate execution. The statute stated that all
1986:
See Klein, pp. 132–137, 208–209, 237–240. As the title indicates, Klein is concerned with the persistence of
African slavery under French rule. He argues that customary law and French-appointed chiefs allowed formal slavery to continue in some areas up to the 1920s and the social relationship to
1356:
In practice, the Indigénat regime put in place from 1830 clearly appeared to be a favour done to the vanquished
Algerians. They were not bound to respect French laws or French jurisdiction. They followed Qur'anic justice served according to Qur'anic custom until the abolishment of the Indigénat
915:"The indigenous Muslim is French; however, he will continue to be subjected to Muslim law. He may be admitted to serve in the terrestrial and marine armies. He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria. He may, on his request, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a
1360:
The indigenous got a limited vote and participated notably in Muslim electoral colleges for municipal councils and had a minority of seats. However, the Muslim population was often the majority. Muslims were a fifth of the council until 1919, when they became a third. After the
968:
The Franco-Algerian philosopher Sidi
Mohammed Barkat described the legal limbo: "Not really inclusion nor in fact exclusion, but the indefinite hanging on for some future inclusion". He argued that the legal limbo allowed the French to treat the colonised as a less-than-human
1492:
Legally, the Indigénat was dismantled in three phases. The ordinance of 7 May 1944 suppressed the summary punishment statutes, and offered citizenship to those who met certain criteria and would surrender their rights to native or Muslim courts. The citizenship was labeled
943:("foreigners"). The opposition was keen to give the same right to Muslims, but the French settlers did not want to equip the natives with rights equal to their own, primarily for demographic reasons. Moreover, it was at Algeria's request for an 1889 Act restoring the
1216:, with the Commandant relying upon his native subofficials to interpret and formalize oral traditions of which the French had little knowledge. Civil cases that came to the attention of the French officials were tried by an administrator-judge in a
1323:
Whole villages fled during the roadbuilding campaign during the 1920s and the 1930s, and colonial officials gradually relaxed the use of forced labour. Rober
Delavignette, a former colonial official, documented the mass movement of some 100,000
2325:
80:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge (XXG).
1103:
Plantations, forestry operations and salt mines in Senegal continued to be operated by forced labour, mandated by the local commandant and provided by official chiefs until the 1940s. Forced agricultural production was common in
1155:, and if they showed insubordination or disloyalty, they could still, like all Africans, be imprisoned for as many as ten years for 'political offences' by French officials, subject to a signature of the Minister of Colonies.
479:
1478:. The declaration at Brazzaville, more revolutionary for its discussion of the issue rather than any formal process, declared the "progressive suppression" of the code de l'indigénat but only after the end of the war.
2770:
2318:
1108:
from the 19th century until the Second World War, mandated sometimes by the central French government (rubber until 1920, rice during the Second World War), sometimes for profit (the cotton plantations of
2567:
1438:
government in the decrees of 11 March and 20 March 1937 created the first labor regulations on work contracts and the creation of trade unions, but they remained largely unenforced until the late 1940s.
1265:(in French law, the judge is also the prosecutor) may have worked in France but was hardly trusted by educated Africans. That may explain why French Africans' demand for access (promoted by politician
2121:(Paris, Editions Amsterdam, 2005) propose, afin de rendre compte des massacres coloniaux de mai 1945 et d'octobre 1961, une analyse des dimensions juridiques, symboliques et politiques de l'indigénat.
743:, were diverse and fluctuating sets of laws and regulations characterized by arbitrariness which created in practice an inferior legal status for natives of French colonies from 1881 until 1944–1947.
2311:
1223:
Matters deemed especially serious by the French officials or matters for which the colonial power had any interest were handled by a French administrator-judge. All criminal cases were handled by a
884:). In the "mixed" communes, where Muslims were a large majority, government was exercised by officials, most of whom were appointed but some elected. The governments included representatives of the
90:
1231:(the lowest post held by caucasians) with the assistance of two local notables and two caucasian officials or (in practice) anyone whom the administrator-judge chose. They could be appealed to the
1657:
was promulgated by the French government for Algeria on 28 June 1881. It was officially abolished during 1946, but parts of it remained in force until independence during the early 1960s. The
973:, but still subject to a humanising mission. They would become fully human only when they had cast off all the features that the French would use to define them as part of the mass of the
2763:
1121:, infamous for its 19th-century forced rubber cultivation by private fiat, the French government administration was bound legally to provide labour for its rubber concessionaires in
984:
enabled French authorities to subject a large alien population to their rule by legal separation and a practice of indirect institutions to supplement a tiny French governing force.
1269:) to both local and French courts was so strong and why so few who managed to meet the requirements of citizenship chose to pursue it but abandoned themselves to French justice.
1143:
In addition, native sub-officials, such as the appointed local chiefs, made use of forced labour, compulsory crops and taxes in kind at their discretion. As the enforcers of the
1906:, Vol. 27, No. 3 (1986) Details the 1926 decree allowing long-term forced labour for the building of a vast irrigation system for a largely unpopulated area that was never used.
2560:
2054:
Echenberg, Myron J.: Paying the Blood Tax: Military Conscription in French West Africa, 1914–1929 in the Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1975), pp. 171-192
1240:
the court records have found that governors were asked for approval after the fact and in all but a minuscule number of cases signed off on whatever their commandants decided.
996:
grew from circumstances of the colonial rule of North Africa, it was in sub-Saharan Africa and Indochina that the code became formalised. As French rule expanded during the "
2756:
927:, but as few people were willing to abandon their religious values, it had the opposite effect. By 1870, fewer than 200 requests had been registered by Muslims and 152 by
1147:, they were also partly beneficiaries. Still, they themselves were very much subject to French authority when the French chose to exercise it. It was only in 1924 that
2280:
1661:
of 14 July 1865 implemented many of the elements of the future Code d'Indigénat in Algeria, and prior to 1887, other colonial subjects lived under similar conditions.
2553:
1508:. Thus, any children of colonial parents born in French-ruled territory became French citizens. All others were by then full citizens of their respective nations.
315:
581:
1419:) by the French West Africa decree of 12 September 1930 in which able-bodied men were assessed a high monetary tax, which they could pay via forced labor.
474:
3313:
3046:
1117:), and sometimes on the personal whim of the local commandant, such as one official's attempt to introduce cotton into the Guinean highlands. Unlike the
876:
A royal ordinance of 1845 created three types of administration in Algeria. In areas that Europeans comprised a substantial part of the population, the
1481:
The small political representation from the colonies after the war made ending the indigénat as a primary goal even though the men were drawn from the
3014:
1288:
were subject to customary and arbitrary law if they stepped outside the Four Communes. It was only through a protracted battle by Senegalese Deputy
571:
520:
378:
100:
Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.
576:
561:
108:
1885:
Jean Suret-Canele, pp.233, 247-248,253-256. Detailing forced contracts as long as two years (paid only at the end of contract) in Côte d'Ivoire,
1389:
and reached their high point during the Second World War, but it was decolonisation which saw a real drop in taxes paid without representation.
1284:
who complied with the rigorous demands of those seeking French citizenship from the outside would be able to exercise French rights. Even then,
447:
3248:
2689:
2136:
699:
2273:
3192:
2730:
2579:
2093:
546:
198:
1670:
Isabelle Merle, "Retour sur le régime de l'indigénat : Genèse et contradictions des principes répressifs dans l'empire français",
839:
was created first to solve specific problems of administering Algeria during the early-to-mid-19th century. In 1685, the French royal
2116:
3371:
2884:
2244:
2225:
2040:
1974:
1924:
1840:
1820:
1309:
924:
496:
1110:
3356:
2874:
279:
1902:
Myron Echenberg, Jean Filipovich: "African Military Labour and the Building of the Office du Niger Installations, 1925–1950" in
1511:
Full voting representation and full French legal, labour, and property rights were never offered to the entire sujet class. The
3361:
2844:
2266:
1594:
911:, which changed the situation by allowing Algerian Jews and Muslims full citizenship on request. Its first article stipulated:
873:, were not considered French prior to the royal decree of 24 February 1834. However, they still did not have full citizenship.
551:
469:
2894:
1504:
did not become real during 1962, when most of the colonies had become independent and French law adopted the notion of double
3219:
2361:
2356:
1573:
1451:
1292:
and his help recruiting thousands of Africans to fight in World War I that legal and voting rights were restored to even the
928:
274:
1276:
were not free from summary law. During 1908, most African voters in Saint-Louis were eliminated from the rolls, and in the
2124:
Benton, Lauren: Colonial Law and Cultural Difference: "Jurisdictional Politics and the Formation of the Colonial State" in
1726:
1067:
Along with the punishments were a set of methods for extracting value from colonial subjects. In Africa, they included the
3007:
344:
121:
Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Knowledge (XXG) article at ]; see its history for attribution.
1000:", the government found itself nominal ruler of some 50 million people with only a tiny retinue of French officials. The
861:
capitulated to France stipulated that France undertook not to infringe the freedom of people or their religion. The term
3106:
2867:
2620:
1266:
541:
3366:
3187:
2862:
2849:
2185:
1735:
1333:
1093:
in this period were performed by forced labour, including work on roads and mines and in fields of private companies.
767:
645:
386:
3224:
817:
are often grouped other oppressive measures that were applied to the native population of the French empire, such as
2532:
1873:
452:
33:
2967:
3376:
3111:
2972:
2735:
692:
588:
2191:
De l'indigénat - Anatomie d'un «monstre» juridique : Le droit colonial en Algérie et dans l'Empire français
1694:
3000:
2954:
2453:
1758:
Ni vraiment une inclusion ni tout à fait une exclusion, mais le report indéfini d'une pleine inclusion annoncée
1138:
1122:
795:
430:
322:
116:
137:
2189:
356:
188:
155:
673:
2926:
2779:
2679:
2669:
2600:
2576:
2334:
2289:
2017:
G. Wesley Johnson. "The Ascendancy of Blaise Diagne and the Beginning of African Politics in Senegal". In
1609:
1604:
1599:
1471:
1455:
1435:
266:
234:
85:
3386:
3381:
3086:
2816:
2610:
1536:
655:
536:
486:
420:
1936:
Babacar Fall, "Manifestations of Forced Labor in Senegal: as Exemplified by the Société des Salins du
1004:
specified that territory seized must be ruled actively, or other powers were welcome to seize it. The
2081:
Patrick Manning: Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa 1880–1985. Cambridge University Press (1988) pp.50-56
1568:
685:
668:
508:
491:
219:
215:
3282:
3101:
2605:
2438:
2399:
2343:
2112:
1524:
997:
932:
625:
566:
291:
239:
229:
2072:
Jean Suret-Canele. French Colonialism in Tropical Africa 1900–1945. Trans. Pica Press (1971) p.333
1385:
Head taxes had been increasing well above inflation from the First World War right through to the
1126:
2947:
2857:
2806:
2712:
2699:
2630:
2428:
2379:
2371:
2203:
Le code de l'indigénat en Afrique occidentale française et son application au Dahomey (1887-1946)
2175:
1399:
1329:
1262:
1172:
1105:
1090:
936:
916:
846:
people had also convinced many that both direct rule and eventual assimilation were undesirable.
791:
396:
339:
334:
329:
224:
193:
163:
1584:
1515:
of 1956 extended more rights, including consultative 'legislatures' for the colonies within the
171:
1489:
was the culmination of this process, and repealed the courts and labour laws of the Indigénat.
3234:
3229:
3177:
3116:
2921:
2904:
2527:
2522:
2248:
2240:
2221:
2152:
2144:
2036:
1970:
1920:
1890:
1886:
1836:
1816:
1711:, ed. by Kevin Shillington, 3 vols (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005), I pp. 50-52 (at p. 51).
1486:
1467:
1408:
1040:
1001:
799:
740:
635:
524:
503:
130:
112:
2090:
1407:
if they were working more than 5 km from home, but that was often ignored. In 1930, the
1220:
for which the administrator-judge was an appointed African notable (other than local chief).
3268:
3238:
3096:
2836:
2801:
2481:
2167:
1868:, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Dec., 1976) Suret-Canale, Jean. 1966. "La Fin de la Chefferie en Guinée",
1528:
1520:
1386:
1118:
775:
630:
593:
1175:, c. 1920. Note the native judges are wearing traditional French judges' hats. A uniformed
947:, French citizenship being awarded to anyone born in France, not being applied to Muslims.
3287:
3258:
3023:
2916:
2899:
2433:
2411:
2233:
Qu'est-ce qu'un Français? : histoire de la nationalité française depuis la Révolution
2097:
1962:
1730:
1362:
1081:(often arbitrary monetary taxes, food and property requisitioning, market taxes), and the
723:
531:
425:
284:
1559:) became legally parts of France and only then was the category of French subject ended.
1864:
Andrew, C. M. and Kanya-Forstner, A. S.: "French Business and the French Colonialists",
1787:
France and the Algerian Conflict: Issues in Democracy and Political Stability, 1988–1995
1551:
gained independence during the 1970s. Those parts of the empire that remained (Mayotte,
1163:
17:
3274:
3214:
3208:
2811:
2662:
2653:
2615:
2491:
2416:
2384:
2351:
1475:
1447:
1337:
1192:
958:
830:
459:
349:
1187:
were assigned to two separate court systems. After their creation by Governor-General
3350:
3263:
3169:
3136:
3056:
2911:
2504:
2421:
2394:
1619:
1556:
1552:
1539:
of 1958 resulted in independence for most of the rest of empire in 1959 to 1962. The
1463:
1443:
1289:
1258:
1250:
1013:
1009:
818:
759:
640:
618:
556:
464:
391:
2942:
2796:
2788:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2389:
2118:
Le Corps d'exception: les artifices du pouvoir colonial et la destruction de la vie
1770:
1754:
le Corps d'Exception: les artifices du pouvoir colonial et la destruction de la vie
1614:
1532:
1516:
1325:
1188:
980:
In practical terms, by continuing the fiction that the "indigenous is French", the
908:
1589:
1482:
1398:
system was reformed because of international criticism and popular resistance. In
1305:
1245:
1774:
3126:
2674:
2461:
1944:, edited by Abebe Zegeye and Shubi Ishemo (New York: Hans Zell Publishers, 1989)
1937:
1855:, edited by Abebe Zegeye and Shubi Ishemo (New York: Hans Zell Publishers, 1989)
1723:
1459:
1020:
without having to extend the rights of Frenchmen to the people who lived there.
755:
613:
57:
3325:
3076:
3066:
3061:
2648:
2587:
2206:, Thèse de doctorat d'Histoire, Université Paris 7-Denis diderot, 2007, 574 p.
1086:
1017:
787:
435:
210:
3331:
1634:
1624:
1578:
1512:
841:
650:
440:
371:
366:
361:
300:
244:
2509:
1851:
Babacar Fall and Mohamed Mbodj, "Forced Labor and Migration in Senegal" in
1394:
1069:
919:; in this case, he is subject to the political and civil laws of France."
2821:
2658:
2638:
2258:
2252:
1628:
1548:
1505:
1454:
put pressure on the colonial system, but it was the promises made at the
1114:
880:
elected mayors and councils for self-governing "full exercise" communes (
807:
779:
888:(great chieftains) and a French administrator. The indigenous communes (
3319:
3071:
2707:
2643:
2499:
2443:
2179:
2156:
2140:
1544:
1540:
1345:
1195:
in 1904, most legal matters were processed officially by the so-called
1028:
1024:
858:
850:
783:
763:
751:
750:
was introduced by decree, in various forms and degrees of severity, to
514:
119:
to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is
892:), remote areas that were not adequately pacified, remained under the
865:("native") was already in use in 1830 to describe locals who, whether
2684:
2595:
2404:
2218:
The French Empire Between the Wars: Imperialism, Politics and Society
1204:
870:
866:
771:
2171:
2148:
1707:
Murray Steele, 'Algeria: Government and Administration, 1830-1914',
1008:
was the method by which France ruled all its territories in Africa,
1257:) were subject to a small French court system, operating under the
2826:
2717:
1162:
1096:
Demands for taxes and forced labour varied according to the local
205:
2201:
1519:. Within three years, this was replaced by the referendum on the
1450:, the political pressure of the French left and groups like the
1203:
or some other French-recognized native authority or were Muslim
803:
77:
3157:
3034:
2996:
2752:
2549:
2307:
2262:
1243:
Those Africans who had obtained the status of French citizens (
965:
and by organising the seizure or appropriation of their lands.
853:
became the first modern French colony. The treaty in which the
2063:
R. Delavignette, Les vrais chefs de l'empire. Galliard (1941).
1942:
Forced Labor and Migration: Patterns of Movement within Africa
1853:
Forced Labor and Migration: Patterns of Movement within Africa
854:
38:
2162:
Julien, C. A.: "From the French Empire to the French Union".
2091:
Le corps d’exception : questions à Sidi Mohammed Barkat
1876:, where example orders from Comandants de Cercle are quoted.
1336:
to escape forced labor, while the investigative journalist
1769:
For more on the contemporary effects see Barkat. Also see
89:
to this template: there are already 1,484 articles in the
1739:(LDH), March 6, 2005 - URL accessed on January 17, 2007
1500:
Applied in fact only very slowly, the abrogation of the
2211:
France and the Africans, 1944–1960: A Political History
2019:
Africa: Journal of the International African Institute
1773:, dans l'ornière du droit colonial, 22 November 2005,
1527:
resulted in independence for the different regions of
1427:
It was, in fact, political processes that doomed the
73:
3247:
3186:
3168:
3125:
3085:
3045:
2989:
2935:
2883:
2835:
2787:
2698:
2629:
2586:
2490:
2452:
2370:
2342:
2296:
1523:in which colonies could vote for independence The
1485:class of full French citizens. The passage of the
1458:of 1944, the crucial role of the colonies for the
1893:for cotton plantations, forestry and public works
1296:with the Loi Blaise Diagne of 29 September 1916.
2166:, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Oct. 1950), pp. 487–502.
931:. The 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870
32:"Indigenat" redirects here. For other uses, see
1917:Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa
1800:French Colonialism in Tropical Africa 1900–1945
1724:le code de l’indigénat dans l’Algérie coloniale
1344:fleeing to Gold Coast and 2 million fleeing to
1340:claims that the figures were closer to 600,000
1674:, Summer 2002, Vol. 20, No. 2, note 13, p. 93.
1235:, where the administrator-judge was the local
1031:for example) were not affected by the regime.
115:accompanying your translation by providing an
64:Click for important translation instructions.
56:expand this article with text translated from
3008:
2764:
2561:
2319:
2274:
1872:, Vol. VII, No. 3, pp. 459-493. retrieved at
1835:Cambridge University Press (1995); pp. 83-87
693:
8:
1719:
1717:
1631:status in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
1462:during the Second World War and the looming
821:, requisitions, capitation (head tax), etc.
2021:, Vol. 36, No. 3 (Jul., 1966), pp. 235–253.
1833:Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville
3200:
3165:
3154:
3042:
3031:
3015:
3001:
2993:
2771:
2757:
2749:
2568:
2554:
2546:
2326:
2312:
2304:
2300:
2281:
2267:
2259:
2126:Comparative Studies in Society and History
1798:For this section, see: Jean Suret-Canale.
700:
686:
150:
27:1881–1947 French colonial laws for natives
1111:Compagnie Française d'Afrique Occidentale
2220:. Manchester University Press, (2005).
1125:and settler-owned cotton plantations in
1646:
1452:League for Human Rights and Popular Aid
1261:as practiced in France. The lack of an
1199:. They were courts convened by village
1073:(forced labour for specific projects),
162:
2033:Colonial West Africa: Collected Essays
1967:Colonial West Africa: Collected Essays
1775:Website of Section de Toulon de la LDH
1672:French Politics, Culture & Society
939:to Algerian Jews, followed in 1889 by
94:
2100:, mouvement-egalite.org, 14 June 2006
1802:. Trans. Pica Press (1971) pp.331-341
1415:, but France substituted a work tax (
722:
7:
2135:. Northwestern Univ. Press. (1968)
1919:. Cambridge University Press (1998)
2731:French colonization of the Americas
1085:(forced conscription to the native
1059:in Moyen Congo in 1908–1909 alone.
961:by creating specific penalties for
25:
1789:, Ashgate Publishing, 2003, p. 3.
1310:Assimilation (French colonialism)
1815:. Lynne Rienner (2004) pp 48-51
1369:, Paris, Grasset, 2002, p. 241)
1280:, the government said that only
903:was implemented by the Algerian
318: population exchange
170:
43:
3225:French domains of the Holy Land
2133:West Africa Under Colonial Rule
1709:Encyclopedia of African History
1595:French citizenship and identity
1208:deemed customary differed from
1089:units). Many major projects in
896:, direct rule by the military.
3220:French domains of Saint Helena
2337:in Africa and the Indian Ocean
1904:The Journal of African History
1813:Politics in Francophone Africa
1574:Assimilation (French colonial)
1077:(taxes paid in forced labor),
125:You may also add the template
1:
2128:, Vol. 41, No. 3 (Jul., 1999)
1987:survive through independence.
1752:Sidi Mohammed Barkat (2005).
1035:In practice: Africa 1887–1946
923:That was intended to promote
802:in 1912, and the Mandates of
164:Racial and ethnic segregation
2955:Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa)
2186:Le Cour Grandmaison, Olivier
1387:economic crisis of the 1930s
3195: and Antarctic Lands
2096:September 27, 2007, at the
1352:Indigénat regime in Algeria
988:Expanding empire: 1887–1904
138:Knowledge (XXG):Translation
127:{{Translated|fr|Indigénat}}
97:will aid in categorization.
3403:
2024:For the background of the
1870:Journal of African History
1637:(1956 Overseas Reform Act)
1303:
1225:tribunaux du premier degré
1218:tribunaux du premier degré
1136:
1038:
882:communes de plein exercice
828:
72:Machine translation, like
34:Indigenat (disambiguation)
31:
3308:
3203:
3164:
3153:
3112:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
3041:
3030:
2973:French East India Company
2963:
2748:
2736:French West India Company
2726:
2545:
2518:
2303:
1627:, recognition of foreign
1249:) or those born into the
1179:stands in the background.
58:the corresponding article
3372:French Equatorial Africa
3251: the Indian Ocean
2014:For Blaise Diagne, see:
1953:Suret-Canele, pp.230-233
1785:Camille Bonora-Waisman,
1367:Qu'est-ce qu'un Français
1139:Cercle (French colonial)
1123:French Equatorial Africa
796:French Equatorial Africa
724:[kɔddəlɛ̃diʒena]
521:West Bank settlement law
18:Code de l'indigénat
3357:Legal history of France
3159:Uninhabited territories
2670:Saint Kitts & Nevis
2235:, Paris, Grasset, 2002
1151:were exempted from the
1063:Taxes and forced labour
907:of 14 July 1865, under
825:Introduction in Algeria
727:"native code"), called
296:French colonial empire
189:Anti-miscegenation laws
136:For more guidance, see
3362:French colonial empire
3089: collectivities
2927:Sanjak of Alexandretta
2780:Former French colonies
2577:Former French colonies
2335:Former French colonies
2290:French overseas empire
1940:Kaolack 1943–1956" in
1866:The Historical Journal
1610:French rule in Algeria
1605:French nationality law
1600:French Colonial Empire
1470:that all made the new
1456:Brazzaville Conference
1191:and Secretary General
1180:
921:
325: in Europe
235:Housing discrimination
3036:Inhabited territories
2968:France–Asia relations
2523:Somaliland (Djibouti)
2164:International Affairs
1537:French Fifth Republic
1377:Some elements of the
1166:
1137:Further information:
1039:Further information:
935:, which granted full
913:
730:régime de l'indigénat
720:French pronunciation:
656:Racial discrimination
480:South Asian labourers
413:Contemporary examples
109:copyright attribution
3314:overseas departments
3249:Scattered Islands in
3130: collectivity
2588:French North America
2113:Barkat, Sidi Mohamed
2035:: Routledge (1978)
1811:Le Vine, Victor T.,
1237:Commandant du cercle
1052:commandant de cercle
509:Palestinian enclaves
340:Portugal & Spain
220:Institutional racism
3283:Juan de Nova Island
3170:North Pacific Ocean
2782:in Asia and Oceania
1969:, Routledge (1978)
1736:Human Rights League
1695:Code de l'indigénat
1525:First Indochina War
1502:code de l'indigénat
1474:reorient France to
1229:chef du subdivision
1023:The protectorates (
998:Scramble for Africa
982:Code de l'Indigénat
952:Code de l'Indigénat
901:Code de l'indigénat
715:Code de l'indigénat
626:Forced assimilation
260:Historical examples
240:Exclusionary zoning
230:Forced displacement
3367:French West Africa
3188:Overseas territory
2713:France Antarctique
2700:Equinoctial France
2663:Dominican Republic
2209:Mortimer, Edward,
2200:Manière, Laurent,
2131:Crowder, Michael:
1729:2007-03-14 at the
1442:The journalism of
1400:French West Africa
1263:adversarial system
1181:
1173:French West Africa
1106:Sub-Saharan Africa
1091:French West Africa
937:French nationality
890:communes indigènes
810:in 1923 and 1924.
792:French West Africa
448:Bosnia–Herzegovina
397:Separate but equal
335:Partition of India
330:Pale of Settlement
225:Ethnic nationalism
194:Crime of apartheid
117:interlanguage link
3344:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3304:
3303:
3300:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3239:Amsterdam Islands
3230:Kerguelen Islands
3178:Clipperton Island
3149:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3117:Wallis and Futuna
2985:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2885:Mandate for Syria
2875:Kouang-Tchéou-Wan
2837:Indochinese Union
2744:
2743:
2541:
2540:
2454:Equatorial Africa
2216:Thomas, Martin:
2031:Michael Crowder.
1887:Congo Brazzaville
1831:Martin, Phyllis:
1495:à titre personnel
1487:loi Lamine Guèye
1468:Malagasy Uprising
1409:Geneva Convention
1320:French conquest.
1233:tribunal criminal
1133:Native governance
1041:Jean Suret-Canale
1002:Berlin Conference
800:French Somaliland
741:French historians
710:
709:
636:Income inequality
149:
148:
65:
16:(Redirected from
3394:
3377:French Indochina
3269:Glorioso Islands
3250:
3201:
3194:
3190:
3166:
3155:
3129:
3102:Saint Barthélemy
3097:French Polynesia
3088:
3048:
3043:
3032:
3017:
3010:
3003:
2994:
2802:Coromandel Coast
2773:
2766:
2759:
2750:
2631:French Caribbean
2611:Terre Neuve
2570:
2563:
2556:
2547:
2328:
2321:
2314:
2305:
2301:
2283:
2276:
2269:
2260:
2238:
2197:
2101:
2088:
2082:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2064:
2061:
2055:
2052:
2046:
2012:
2006:
2003:
1997:
1996:Crowder, p. 142.
1994:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1960:
1954:
1951:
1945:
1934:
1928:
1913:
1907:
1900:
1894:
1883:
1877:
1862:
1856:
1849:
1843:
1829:
1823:
1809:
1803:
1796:
1790:
1783:
1777:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1721:
1712:
1705:
1699:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1675:
1668:
1662:
1659:senatus consulte
1655:Code d'Indigénat
1651:
1543:Islands (except
1529:French Indochina
1521:French Community
1227:directed by the
1197:customary courts
1119:Congo Free State
933:Crémieux decrees
929:Jewish Algerians
905:senatus consulte
726:
721:
702:
695:
688:
631:Gender apartheid
552:Northern Ireland
414:
324:
317:
285:Indian hospitals
280:Separate schools
174:
151:
128:
122:
96:
95:|topic=
93:, and specifying
78:Google Translate
63:
47:
46:
39:
21:
3402:
3401:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3336:
3318:Claimed by the
3292:
3288:Tromelin Island
3259:Bassas da India
3243:
3193:French Southern
3182:
3160:
3141:
3121:
3081:
3049: regions
3037:
3026:
3024:Overseas France
3021:
2977:
2959:
2931:
2917:Greater Lebanon
2887:and the Lebanon
2886:
2879:
2831:
2783:
2777:
2740:
2722:
2694:
2625:
2582:
2580:in the Americas
2574:
2537:
2514:
2486:
2448:
2366:
2338:
2332:
2292:
2287:
2236:
2231:Weil, Patrick,
2195:
2172:10.2307/2607143
2109:
2107:Further reading
2104:
2098:Wayback Machine
2089:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2053:
2049:
2013:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1981:
1963:Michael Crowder
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1935:
1931:
1914:
1910:
1901:
1897:
1884:
1880:
1863:
1859:
1850:
1846:
1830:
1826:
1810:
1806:
1797:
1793:
1784:
1780:
1768:
1764:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1740:
1731:Wayback Machine
1722:
1715:
1706:
1702:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1669:
1665:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1585:Décret Crémieux
1565:
1472:Fourth Republic
1425:
1423:Political moves
1392:Gradually, the
1375:
1363:First World War
1354:
1317:
1312:
1302:
1300:Becoming French
1201:chefs du canton
1177:Guard de Cercle
1169:customary court
1161:
1149:chefs du canton
1141:
1135:
1065:
1048:
1043:
1037:
990:
894:régime du sabre
833:
827:
813:Under the term
719:
706:
661:
660:
609:
608:
599:
598:
416:
415:
412:
404:
403:
262:
261:
252:
251:
184:
183:
145:
144:
143:
126:
120:
66:
48:
44:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3400:
3398:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3349:
3348:
3342:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3328:
3322:
3316:
3312:Also known as
3309:
3306:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3291:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3275:Banc du Geyser
3266:
3261:
3255:
3253:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3215:Crozet Islands
3212:
3204:
3198:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3180:
3174:
3172:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3151:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3139:
3133:
3131:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3093:
3091:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3053:
3051:
3039:
3038:
3035:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3012:
3005:
2997:
2991:
2987:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2951:
2950:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2929:
2924:
2922:Jabal al-Druze
2919:
2914:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2895:State of Syria
2891:
2889:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2871:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2793:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2753:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2690:Virgin Islands
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2654:Saint-Domingue
2651:
2649:The Grenadines
2646:
2641:
2635:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2616:French Florida
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2592:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2575:
2573:
2572:
2565:
2558:
2550:
2543:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2533:Isle de France
2530:
2525:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2496:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2458:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2414:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2376:
2374:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2348:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2323:
2316:
2308:
2298:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2278:
2271:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2229:
2214:
2207:
2198:
2194:, Zones, 2010
2183:
2160:
2129:
2122:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2102:
2083:
2074:
2065:
2056:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2026:Decree of 1912
2023:
2022:
2007:
1998:
1989:
1979:
1955:
1946:
1929:
1915:Martin Klein.
1908:
1895:
1878:
1857:
1844:
1824:
1804:
1791:
1778:
1762:
1744:
1713:
1700:
1685:
1676:
1663:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1638:
1632:
1622:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1576:
1571:
1569:Armée indigène
1564:
1561:
1476:decolonization
1448:Albert Londres
1424:
1421:
1374:
1371:
1353:
1350:
1338:Albert Londres
1316:
1313:
1301:
1298:
1278:Decree of 1912
1193:Martial Merlin
1160:
1157:
1134:
1131:
1064:
1061:
1047:
1044:
1036:
1033:
989:
986:
959:discrimination
917:French citizen
831:French Algeria
826:
823:
708:
707:
705:
704:
697:
690:
682:
679:
678:
677:
676:
671:
663:
662:
659:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
622:
621:
610:
606:
605:
604:
601:
600:
597:
596:
591:
586:
585:
584:
579:
574:
569:
559:
554:
549:
544:
539:
534:
529:
528:
527:
518:
511:
501:
500:
499:
494:
484:
483:
482:
477:
472:
462:
457:
456:
455:
445:
444:
443:
438:
433:
428:
421:Anti-Romanyism
417:
411:
410:
409:
406:
405:
402:
401:
400:
399:
394:
389:
383:United States
381:
379:United Kingdom
376:
375:
374:
369:
359:
354:
353:
352:
350:Nuremberg Laws
342:
337:
332:
327:
323:Jewish ghettos
320:
313:
312:
311:
304:
294:
289:
288:
287:
282:
277:
269:
263:
259:
258:
257:
254:
253:
250:
249:
248:
247:
242:
232:
227:
222:
213:
208:
203:
202:
201:
191:
185:
181:
180:
179:
176:
175:
167:
166:
160:
159:
158:of articles on
147:
146:
142:
141:
134:
123:
101:
98:
86:adding a topic
81:
70:
67:
53:
52:
51:
49:
42:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3399:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3333:
3329:
3327:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3310:
3307:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3264:Europa Island
3262:
3260:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3189:
3185:
3179:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3156:
3152:
3138:
3137:New Caledonia
3135:
3134:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3090:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3057:French Guiana
3055:
3054:
3052:
3050:
3044:
3040:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3018:
3013:
3011:
3006:
3004:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2962:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2934:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2912:Alawite State
2910:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2882:
2876:
2873:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2781:
2774:
2769:
2767:
2762:
2760:
2755:
2754:
2751:
2747:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2725:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2697:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2680:Saint Vincent
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2571:
2566:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2552:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2517:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2505:Grande Comore
2503:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2422:Four Communes
2420:
2419:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2405:Arguin Island
2403:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2380:Côte d'Ivoire
2378:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2329:
2324:
2322:
2317:
2315:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2284:
2279:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2245:9782246605713
2242:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2226:0-7190-6518-6
2223:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2204:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2099:
2095:
2092:
2087:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2069:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2042:
2041:0-7146-2943-X
2038:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2020:
2016:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2002:
1999:
1993:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1975:0-7146-2943-X
1972:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1925:0-521-59678-5
1922:
1918:
1912:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1882:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1841:0-521-52446-6
1838:
1834:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1821:1-58826-249-9
1818:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1766:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1745:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1689:
1686:
1683:Merle, p. 79.
1680:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1650:
1647:
1641:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1620:Indirect rule
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1557:French Guiana
1554:
1553:New Caledonia
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1496:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1464:Indochina War
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1437:
1436:Popular Front
1432:
1430:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1411:outlawed the
1410:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1390:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1321:
1314:
1311:
1307:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1290:Blaise Diagne
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1259:Code Napoleon
1256:
1252:
1251:Four Communes
1248:
1247:
1241:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1140:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1127:Côte d'Ivoire
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1101:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1071:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1053:
1045:
1042:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1014:New Caledonia
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
987:
985:
983:
978:
976:
972:
966:
964:
960:
957:
953:
950:In 1881, the
948:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
920:
918:
912:
910:
906:
902:
897:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
874:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
847:
844:
843:
838:
832:
824:
822:
820:
816:
811:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
760:New Caledonia
757:
753:
749:
744:
742:
738:
737:
732:
731:
725:
717:
716:
703:
698:
696:
691:
689:
684:
683:
681:
680:
675:
672:
670:
667:
666:
665:
664:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
641:One-drop rule
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
624:
620:
619:Statelessness
617:
616:
615:
612:
611:
603:
602:
595:
592:
590:
587:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
564:
563:
562:United States
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
526:
522:
519:
517:
516:
512:
510:
507:
506:
505:
502:
498:
495:
493:
490:
489:
488:
485:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
467:
466:
463:
461:
458:
454:
451:
450:
449:
446:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
423:
422:
419:
418:
408:
407:
398:
395:
393:
392:Jim Crow laws
390:
388:
385:
384:
382:
380:
377:
373:
370:
368:
365:
364:
363:
360:
358:
355:
351:
348:
347:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
321:
319:
316:Greek–Turkish
314:
310:
309:
305:
303:
302:
298:
297:
295:
293:
292:Fascist Italy
290:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
272:
270:
268:
265:
264:
256:
255:
246:
243:
241:
238:
237:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
217:
216:Environmental
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
200:
197:
196:
195:
192:
190:
187:
186:
178:
177:
173:
169:
168:
165:
161:
157:
153:
152:
139:
135:
132:
124:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
99:
92:
91:main category
88:
87:
82:
79:
75:
71:
69:
68:
61:
59:
54:You can help
50:
41:
40:
35:
30:
19:
3387:Debt bondage
3382:Race and law
3273:
3207:
3107:Saint Martin
2943:New Hebrides
2797:Chandernagor
2789:French India
2621:French Texas
2477:Ubangi-Shari
2472:Middle Congo
2439:James Island
2344:North Africa
2232:
2217:
2210:
2202:
2190:
2163:
2132:
2125:
2117:
2086:
2077:
2068:
2059:
2050:
2032:
2025:
2018:
2010:
2005:Suret-Canale
2001:
1992:
1982:
1977:. pp142-143.
1966:
1958:
1949:
1941:
1932:
1916:
1911:
1903:
1898:
1881:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1852:
1847:
1832:
1827:
1812:
1807:
1799:
1794:
1786:
1781:
1771:Mona Chollet
1765:
1757:
1753:
1747:
1734:
1708:
1703:
1692:
1688:
1679:
1671:
1666:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1615:French Union
1533:Algerian War
1517:French Union
1510:
1501:
1499:
1494:
1491:
1480:
1441:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1416:
1412:
1403:
1393:
1391:
1384:
1378:
1376:
1366:
1359:
1355:
1341:
1328:people from
1322:
1318:
1293:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1271:
1267:Lamine Guèye
1254:
1253:of Senegal (
1244:
1242:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1222:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1200:
1196:
1189:Ernest Roume
1184:
1182:
1176:
1168:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1142:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1068:
1066:
1056:
1051:
1049:
1022:
1005:
993:
991:
981:
979:
974:
970:
967:
962:
955:
951:
949:
945:droit du sol
944:
940:
925:assimilation
922:
914:
909:Napoleon III
904:
900:
898:
893:
889:
886:grands chefs
885:
881:
877:
875:
862:
848:
840:
836:
834:
819:forced labor
814:
812:
747:
745:
735:
734:
729:
728:
714:
713:
711:
523: /
513:
470:Saudi Arabia
362:South Africa
345:Nazi Germany
307:
306:
299:
218: /
113:edit summary
104:
84:
55:
29:
3330:Claimed by
3324:Claimed by
3209:Adélie Land
3127:Sui generis
2858:Cochinchina
2675:Saint Lucia
2429:Upper Volta
2372:West Africa
2237:(in French)
2196:(in French)
1938:Sine-Saloum
1927:pp.208-213.
1741:(in French)
1460:Free French
1373:Dissolution
1330:Upper Volta
1294:originaires
1286:originaires
1282:originaires
1274:originaires
1255:originaires
1183:In Africa,
954:formalised
756:Cochinchina
614:Citizenship
582:Residential
465:Gulf states
387:Black Codes
275:Pass system
199:Allegations
3351:Categories
3326:Madagascar
3235:Saint Paul
3067:Martinique
3062:Guadeloupe
2817:Pondichéry
2528:Madagascar
2400:Mauritania
2141:B000NUU584
1891:Madagascar
1874:Guinee.net
1642:References
1444:André Gide
1417:Prestation
1334:Gold Coast
1315:Resistance
1304:See also:
1087:Tirailleur
1075:Prestation
1046:Punishment
1018:Madagascar
992:While the
899:The first
829:See also:
788:Madagascar
739:by modern
733:or simply
537:Mauritania
441:Roma walls
367:Bantustans
211:Xenophobia
3332:Mauritius
3191: (
2601:Louisiana
2482:Cameroons
1635:Loi Cadre
1625:Indygenat
1579:Code Noir
1513:Loi Cadre
1429:indigénat
1379:Indigénat
1153:Indigénat
1145:indigénat
1083:Blood Tax
1057:indigénat
1006:Indigénat
994:Indigénat
963:indigènes
941:étrangers
849:In 1830,
842:Code Noir
837:Indigénat
815:indigénat
798:in 1910,
794:in 1904,
790:in 1901,
782:in 1898,
778:in 1897,
776:Polynesia
766:in 1887,
758:in 1881,
748:indigénat
736:indigénat
651:Ethnicity
567:Academies
492:Uthapuram
372:Pass laws
308:Indigénat
301:Code Noir
267:Australia
245:Redlining
131:talk page
83:Consider
60:in French
3087:Overseas
3047:Overseas
2905:Damascus
2854:Vietnam
2845:Cambodia
2822:Karaikal
2639:Dominica
2434:Togoland
2253:49647202
2149:68-27618
2094:Archived
1727:Archived
1563:See also
1549:Djibouti
1535:and the
1506:jus soli
1466:and the
1431:system.
1115:Unilever
1079:Head Tax
975:indigène
956:de facto
863:indigène
808:Cameroon
780:Cambodia
669:Category
589:Xinjiang
532:Malaysia
525:barriers
436:Slovenia
357:Rhodesia
182:Overview
156:a series
154:Part of
107:provide
3320:Comoros
3077:Réunion
3072:Mayotte
2990:Present
2948:Vanuatu
2936:Oceania
2708:Berbice
2644:Grenada
2500:Anjouan
2492:Comoros
2444:Albreda
2417:Senegal
2385:Dahomey
2362:Tunisia
2357:Morocco
2352:Algeria
2180:2607143
2028:, see:
1590:Évolués
1545:Mayotte
1541:Comoros
1346:Nigeria
1029:Morocco
1025:Tunisia
859:Algiers
851:Algeria
784:Mayotte
764:Senegal
752:Algeria
674:Commons
607:Related
577:Schools
572:Housing
547:Myanmar
542:Morocco
515:Hafrada
497:Muslims
453:Schools
431:Romania
271:Canada
129:to the
111:in the
2900:Aleppo
2868:Tonkin
2827:Yanaon
2807:Madras
2685:Tobago
2606:Canada
2596:Acadia
2510:Mohéli
2395:Guinea
2297:Former
2251:
2243:
2224:
2213:(1970)
2178:
2157:415070
2155:
2147:
2139:
2039:
1973:
1923:
1839:
1819:
1581:(1689)
1547:) and
1531:. The
1483:Évolué
1413:corvée
1404:corvée
1402:, the
1395:corvée
1342:sujets
1306:Évolué
1246:Évolué
1214:cercle
1210:cercle
1205:Sharia
1185:sujets
1159:Courts
1098:cercle
1070:corvée
1010:Guiana
878:colons
871:Muslim
867:Jewish
772:Tonkin
504:Israel
460:Cyprus
2863:Annam
2718:Inini
2659:Haïti
2467:Gabon
2412:Niger
2390:Sudan
2176:JSTOR
1629:noble
1326:Mossi
1272:Even
768:Annam
594:Yemen
557:Sudan
487:India
426:Italy
206:Caste
74:DeepL
3237:and
2850:Laos
2812:Mahé
2462:Chad
2249:OCLC
2241:ISBN
2222:ISBN
2153:OCLC
2145:LCCN
2137:ASIN
2037:ISBN
1971:ISBN
1921:ISBN
1889:and
1837:ISBN
1817:ISBN
1653:The
1555:and
1446:and
1434:The
1308:and
1113:and
1050:The
1027:and
1016:and
971:mass
835:The
806:and
804:Togo
786:and
774:and
762:and
754:and
746:The
712:The
646:Race
105:must
103:You
2168:doi
1332:to
1212:to
1171:in
869:or
857:of
855:Bey
475:UAE
76:or
62:.
3353::
2661:,
2247:.
2239:.
2188:.
2174:.
2151:.
2143:.
2115:.
1965:.
1756:.
1733:,
1716:^
1348:.
1167:A
1129:.
1012:,
977:.
3197:)
3016:e
3009:t
3002:v
2772:e
2765:t
2758:v
2569:e
2562:t
2555:v
2327:e
2320:t
2313:v
2282:e
2275:t
2268:v
2255:.
2228:.
2182:.
2170::
2159:.
2043:.
1697:)
770:-
718:(
701:e
694:t
687:v
140:.
133:.
36:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
