752:
77:
658:
3110:
3160:
799:
3184:
3148:
3172:
670:) are independent of the distance to the stars. Stellar locus regression (SLR) was a method developed to eliminate the need for standard star observations in photometric calibrations, except highly infrequently (once a year or less) to measure color terms. SLR has been used in a number of research initiatives. The NEWFIRM survey of the
3121:
643:
Although this formula cannot be directly used to calibrate data, if one has data well calibrated for two given filters, it can be used to calibrate data in other filters. It can be used to measure the effective wavelength midpoint of an unknown filter too, by using two well known filters. This can be
167:
In the stellar locus, stars tend to align in a more or less straight feature. If stars were perfect black bodies, the stellar locus would be a pure straight line indeed. The divergences with the straight line are due to the absorptions and emission lines in the stellar spectra. These divergences can
665:
The color-color diagram of stars can be used to directly calibrate or to test colors and magnitudes in optical and infrared imaging data. Such methods take advantage of the fundamental distribution of stellar colors in our galaxy across the vast majority of the sky, and the fact that observed
823:
for information on band color designations). On a diagram with these axes, stars which fall to the right of the main sequence and the reddening bands drawn are significantly brighter in the K band than main sequence stars, including main sequence stars which have experienced reddening due to
168:
be more or less evident depending on the filters used: narrow filters with central wavelength located in regions without lines, will produce a response close to the black body one, and even filters centered at lines if they are broad enough, can give a reasonable blackbody-like behavior.
276:
779:. As the star continues to contract, a circumstellar disk of dust is formed, and this dust is heated by the star inside. The dust itself then begins to radiate as a blackbody, though one much cooler than the star. As a result, an
836:
in which the protostars are embedded. Color–color diagrams can be used then as a means of studying stellar formation, as the state of a star in its formation can be roughly determined by looking at its position on the diagram.
818:
by interstellar dust are expected to be observed, indicated on the color–color diagram by dashed lines. The typical axes for infrared color–color diagrams have (H–K) on the horizontal axis and (J–H) on the vertical axis (see
155:
of the star can still be determined, as magnitude differences between each color will be unique for that temperature. As such, color-color diagrams can be used as a means of representing the stellar population, much like a
738:
appear on distinct regions of color–color diagrams (carbon stars tend to be redder than expected from their temperature due to the formation of carbon compounds in their atmospheres which absorb blue light).
1025:
High, F. William; et al. (2010). "Optical
Redshift and Richness Estimates for Galaxy Clusters Selected with the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect from 2008 South Pole Telescope Observations".
174:
636:
1137:
726:
to be points, have been identified by studying color-color outliers in cases where one member is off the main sequence. The stages of the evolution of stars along the
972:
High, F. William; et al. (2009). "Stellar Locus
Regression: Accurate Color Calibration and the Real-Time Determination of Galaxy Cluster Photometric Redshifts".
690:
data. Other surveys have used the stellar color-color diagram primarily as a calibration diagnostic tool, including The Oxford-Dartmouth Thirty Degree Survey and
2961:
802:
Color–color diagram of the
Trapezium cluster shows that many cluster members exhibit infrared excess, which is characteristic of stars with circumstellar disks.
1354:
Covey, Kevin R.; et al. (2007). "Stellar SEDs from 0.3 to 2.5 micron: Tracing the
Stellar Locus and Searching for Color Outliers in the SDSS and 2MASS".
710:(2MASS), can be challenging due to the huge number of data produced. For surveys such as these, color-color diagrams have been used to find outliers from the
674:
Deep Wide-Field Survey region used it to arrive at more accurate colors than would have otherwise been attainable by traditional calibration methods, and
1495:
Lada, Charles J.; et al. (2000). "Infrared L-Band
Observations of the Trapezium Cluster: A Census of Circumstellar Disks and Candidate Protostars".
824:
interstellar dust. Of the J, H, and K bands, K is the longest wavelength, so objects which are anomalously bright in the K band are said to exhibit
1192:
Ivezić, Željko; et al. (2007). "Sloan
Digital Sky Survey Standard Star Catalog for Stripe 82: The Dawn of Industrial 1% Optical Photometry".
810:
stars are well known, a theoretical main sequence can be plotted for reference, as is done with the solid black line in the example to the right.
714:
stellar population. Once these outliers are identified, they can then be studied in more detail. This method has been used to identify ultracool
644:
useful to recover information on the filters used for the case of old data, when logs are not conserved and filter information has been lost.
2993:
171:
Therefore, in most cases the straight feature of the stellar locus can be described by
Ballesteros' formula deduced for pure blackbodies:
2968:
2287:
787:
compared to stars on the main sequence. Each of these effects is distinct from the reddening of starlight which occurs as a result of
1245:
Burgasser, Adam J.; Cruz, Kelle L.; Kirkpatrick, J. Davy (2007). "Optical
Spectroscopy of 2MASS Color-selected Ultracool Subdwarfs".
903:
1596:
2680:
846:
157:
2594:
2973:
2610:
1629:
1298:
Gizis, John E.; et al. (2000). "New
Neighbors from 2MASS: Activity and Kinematics at the Bottom of the Main Sequence".
814:
scattering is also well understood, allowing bands to be drawn on a color–color diagram defining the region in which stars
751:
337:
3020:
2887:
1550:"Interpreting infrared color-color diagrams – Circumstellar disks around low- and intermediate-mass young stellar objects"
3003:
2954:
2929:
2222:
2307:
1591:
2944:
2924:
3204:
3138:
3008:
2939:
2909:
895:
783:
is observed for the star. Even without circumstellar dust, regions undergoing star formation exhibit high infrared
128:
755:
The optical image (left) shows clouds of dust, while the infrared image (right) displays a number of young stars.
3015:
2892:
2869:
2451:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1078:
Schlafly, Edawrd F.; et al. (2010). "The Blue Tip of the
Stellar Locus: Measuring Reddening with the SDSS".
164:
will inhabit different parts of the diagram. This feature leads to applications within various wavelength bands.
140:
2158:
2032:
1667:
703:
691:
112:
2354:
1133:"The Oxford-Dartmouth Thirty Degree Survey – I. Observations and calibration of a wide-field multiband survey"
3209:
2934:
2484:
2394:
2336:
2262:
1833:
1759:
727:
707:
640:
Note that the slope of the straight line depends only on the effective wavelength, not in the filter width.
1709:
76:
3095:
3075:
2847:
2842:
2635:
2584:
2389:
2379:
2052:
1850:
1818:
1692:
815:
723:
683:
161:
144:
2949:
2919:
2914:
2904:
2832:
2620:
1786:
661:
A schematic illustration of the stellar locus regression method of photometric calibration in astronomy.
152:
136:
96:
2067:
42:
typically observe at narrow bands around certain wavelengths, and objects observed will have different
271:{\displaystyle C-D={\frac {\nu _{\text{c}}-\nu _{\text{d}}}{\nu _{\text{a}}-\nu _{\text{b}}}}(A-B)+k,}
3090:
2988:
2978:
2827:
2795:
2589:
2384:
2369:
1682:
1561:
1514:
1469:
1426:
1373:
1317:
1264:
1211:
1156:
1097:
1044:
991:
938:
675:
127:, and the wavelength of peak intensity is inversely proportional to temperature, a relation known as
116:
71:
1929:
1460:
Struck-Marcell, Curtis; Tinsley, Beatrice M. (1978). "Star formation rates and infrared radiation".
3188:
2690:
2550:
2533:
2204:
2106:
792:
54:. On color–color diagrams, the color defined by two wavelength bands is plotted on the horizontal
3176:
3164:
3085:
3046:
2998:
2983:
2897:
2837:
2760:
2670:
2640:
2630:
2574:
2496:
2187:
1823:
1622:
1530:
1504:
1442:
1416:
1389:
1363:
1333:
1307:
1280:
1254:
1227:
1201:
1174:
1146:
1113:
1087:
1060:
1034:
1007:
981:
954:
928:
866:
820:
806:
Color–color diagrams allow for these effects to be isolated. As the color–color relationships of
772:
667:
88:
1407:
Ortiz, Roberto; et al. (2005). "Evolution from AGB to planetary nebula in the MSX survey".
58:, and the color defined by another brightness difference will be plotted on the vertical axis.
3036:
2521:
2461:
2434:
2414:
2214:
1998:
1986:
1813:
1793:
1747:
1729:
1697:
899:
851:
833:
811:
120:
887:
3152:
2864:
2817:
2767:
2755:
2733:
2728:
2655:
2615:
2562:
2344:
2267:
2242:
2136:
2057:
1781:
1742:
1569:
1522:
1477:
1434:
1430:
1381:
1325:
1272:
1219:
1164:
1105:
1052:
999:
946:
735:
132:
46:
in each band. The difference in brightness between two bands is referred to as an object's
3051:
2854:
2723:
2567:
2538:
2479:
2474:
2349:
2077:
2042:
1976:
1922:
1917:
1862:
1672:
825:
780:
679:
657:
55:
1565:
1518:
1473:
1377:
1321:
1268:
1215:
1160:
1101:
1048:
995:
942:
3113:
2879:
2718:
2545:
2516:
2491:
2424:
2113:
1981:
1867:
1769:
1659:
1649:
1109:
1056:
768:
1603:
Near-Infrared Photometric Variability of Stars Toward the Chamaeleon I Molecular Cloud
1003:
832:
in nature, with the excess radiation at long wavelengths caused by suppression by the
334:
is a constant depending on the central wavelength and width of the filters, given by:
3198:
3065:
2859:
2822:
2790:
2665:
2374:
2197:
2168:
2146:
1764:
1737:
1714:
1615:
1602:
1169:
1132:
1064:
958:
807:
711:
1534:
1446:
1393:
1337:
1284:
1231:
1178:
1117:
1011:
3125:
2800:
2750:
2745:
2645:
2528:
2511:
2469:
2429:
2364:
2247:
2192:
2173:
2153:
2131:
2123:
1966:
1959:
1798:
1719:
1702:
950:
17:
294:
are the magnitudes of the stars measured through filters with central frequencies
147:
in a few bands. Thus by comparing the magnitude of the star in multiple different
1438:
682:. The blue-tip method is closely related to SLR, but was used mainly to correct
3041:
2740:
2713:
2705:
2695:
2675:
2650:
2579:
2501:
2257:
2232:
2227:
2141:
2101:
2062:
2027:
2010:
2005:
1677:
861:
776:
731:
719:
148:
124:
47:
2625:
2322:
2295:
2272:
2252:
2237:
2089:
1993:
1971:
1949:
1944:
1808:
788:
784:
108:
67:
43:
39:
35:
123:
curve. The overall shape of a black-body curve is uniquely determined by its
2812:
2660:
2444:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2359:
2312:
2302:
2096:
2072:
2047:
1954:
1905:
1838:
1828:
1803:
1776:
1752:
1687:
829:
798:
34:
is a means of comparing the colors of an astronomical object at different
2805:
2506:
2180:
1939:
1912:
1509:
1421:
1312:
1259:
1206:
1151:
892:
Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics: Basic stellar observations and data
764:
715:
3080:
2555:
2317:
2084:
2037:
2020:
2015:
1934:
3070:
3058:
2277:
2163:
856:
740:
3120:
1574:
1549:
1526:
1481:
1385:
1329:
1276:
1223:
919:
Ballesteros, Fernando J. (2012). "New insights into black bodies".
1368:
1092:
1039:
986:
933:
797:
750:
656:
75:
2439:
2419:
1638:
687:
671:
1611:
2785:
702:
Analyzing data from large observational surveys, such as the
91:
of main sequence and supergiant stars in what is called a
757:
Credit: C. R. O'Dell-Vanderbilt University, NASA, and ESA
1607:
80:
Effective temperature of a black body compared with the
3136:
340:
177:
3029:
2878:
2776:
2704:
2603:
2460:
2335:
2213:
2122:
1849:
1728:
1658:
630:
270:
1138:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
115:of light emitted by stars conforms closely to a
27:Astronomical diagram graphing two colour indices
139:. Obtaining complete spectra for stars through
1623:
8:
678:used SLR in the measurement of redshifts of
1855:
1630:
1616:
1608:
1573:
1548:Lada, Charles J.; Adams, Fred C. (1992).
1508:
1420:
1367:
1349:
1347:
1311:
1258:
1205:
1168:
1150:
1131:MacDonald, Emily C.; et al. (2004).
1091:
1038:
985:
932:
613:
600:
588:
575:
568:
556:
546:
540:
524:
511:
499:
486:
479:
475:
463:
453:
447:
430:
420:
414:
404:
392:
382:
376:
357:
339:
235:
222:
210:
197:
190:
176:
1597:Color-Color and Color-Magnitude Diagrams
3143:
877:
763:Color–color diagrams are often used in
119:curve, also referred to sometimes as a
743:also appear as color-color outliers.
631:{\displaystyle k=-2.5\log _{10}\left}
7:
1599:(examples of color-color diagrams)
553:
543:
427:
417:
143:is much more involved than simple
25:
3182:
3170:
3158:
3146:
3119:
3109:
3108:
1170:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08014.x
99:than a black body with the same
107:Although stars are not perfect
256:
244:
1:
3021:Timeline of stellar astronomy
1110:10.1088/0004-637X/725/1/1175
1057:10.1088/0004-637X/723/2/1736
886:Böhm-Vitense, Erika (1989).
781:excess of infrared radiation
135:allows determination of its
2681:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
1004:10.1088/0004-6256/138/1/110
847:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
828:. These objects are likely
158:Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
3226:
2595:Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism
1439:10.1051/0004-6361:20040401
1409:Astronomy and Astrophysics
951:10.1209/0295-5075/97/34008
896:Cambridge University Press
65:
3104:
1858:
1645:
1080:The Astrophysical Journal
1027:The Astrophysical Journal
160:, and stars of different
131:. Thus, observation of a
2974:With multiple exoplanets
1592:Stellar Locus Regression
1497:The Astronomical Journal
1194:The Astronomical Journal
974:The Astronomical Journal
692:Sloan Digital Sky Survey
1760:Asymptotic giant branch
1431:2005A&A...431..565O
771:regions. Stars form in
728:asymptotic giant branch
708:2 Micron All Sky Survey
666:stellar colors (unlike
653:Photometric calibration
129:Wien's Displacement Law
3096:Tidal disruption event
2585:Circumstellar envelope
1819:Luminous blue variable
803:
760:
662:
632:
272:
104:
2621:Effective temperature
1554:Astrophysical Journal
1462:Astrophysical Journal
1247:Astrophysical Journal
884:Figure modeled after
801:
754:
660:
633:
273:
153:effective temperature
137:effective temperature
111:, to first order the
97:ultraviolet radiation
79:
3091:Planet-hosting stars
2969:With resolved images
2940:Historical brightest
2870:Photometric-standard
2796:Solar radio emission
2590:Eddington luminosity
2370:Triple-alpha process
2308:Thorne–Żytkow object
1683:Young stellar object
1356:Astronomical Journal
1300:Astronomical Journal
676:South Pole Telescope
338:
175:
117:black-body radiation
72:Black-body radiation
2915:Highest temperature
2686:Color–color diagram
2551:Protoplanetary disk
2355:Proton–proton chain
2033:Chemically peculiar
1566:1992ApJ...393..278L
1519:2000AJ....120.3162L
1474:1978ApJ...221..562S
1378:2007AJ....134.2398C
1322:2000AJ....120.1085G
1269:2007ApJ...657..494B
1216:2007AJ....134..973I
1161:2004MNRAS.352.1255M
1102:2010ApJ...725.1175S
1049:2010ApJ...723.1736H
996:2009AJ....138..110H
943:2012EL.....9734008B
921:Europhysics Letters
793:interstellar medium
791:off of dust in the
767:astronomy to study
684:Galactic extinction
668:apparent magnitudes
93:color-color diagram
32:color–color diagram
18:Color-color diagram
2920:Lowest temperature
2671:Photometric system
2641:Absolute magnitude
2575:Circumstellar dust
2188:Stellar black hole
1824:Stellar population
1710:Herbig–Haro object
867:Infrared astronomy
821:infrared astronomy
804:
761:
663:
628:
330:respectively, and
268:
105:
95:. Stars emit less
3205:Stellar evolution
3134:
3133:
3037:Substellar object
3016:Planetary nebulae
2435:Luminous red nova
2345:Deuterium burning
2331:
2330:
1814:Instability strip
1794:Wolf-Rayet nebula
1748:Horizontal branch
1693:Pre-main-sequence
852:Stellar evolution
834:reflection nebula
812:Interstellar dust
686:predictions from
620:
616:
603:
591:
578:
562:
559:
549:
531:
527:
514:
502:
489:
469:
466:
456:
436:
433:
423:
398:
395:
385:
242:
238:
225:
213:
200:
121:thermal radiation
16:(Redirected from
3217:
3187:
3186:
3185:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3151:
3150:
3149:
3142:
3126:Stars portal
3124:
3123:
3112:
3111:
2768:Planetary system
2691:Strömgren sphere
2563:Asteroseismology
2284:Black hole star
1856:
1782:Planetary nebula
1743:Red-giant branch
1632:
1625:
1618:
1609:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1512:
1510:astro-ph/0008280
1503:(6): 3162–3176.
1492:
1486:
1485:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1424:
1422:astro-ph/0411769
1404:
1398:
1397:
1371:
1362:(6): 2398–2417.
1351:
1342:
1341:
1315:
1313:astro-ph/0004361
1306:(2): 1085–1099.
1295:
1289:
1288:
1262:
1260:astro-ph/0610096
1242:
1236:
1235:
1209:
1207:astro-ph/0703157
1189:
1183:
1182:
1172:
1154:
1152:astro-ph/0405208
1145:(4): 1255–1272.
1128:
1122:
1121:
1095:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1042:
1033:(2): 1736–1747.
1022:
1016:
1015:
989:
969:
963:
962:
936:
916:
910:
909:
882:
736:planetary nebula
637:
635:
634:
629:
627:
623:
622:
621:
619:
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243:
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162:spectral classes
133:stellar spectrum
21:
3225:
3224:
3220:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3183:
3181:
3171:
3169:
3159:
3157:
3147:
3145:
3137:
3135:
3130:
3118:
3100:
3025:
2994:Milky Way novae
2930:Smallest volume
2874:
2855:Radial velocity
2778:
2772:
2724:Common envelope
2700:
2599:
2568:Helioseismology
2539:Bipolar outflow
2480:Microturbulence
2475:Convection zone
2456:
2350:Lithium burning
2337:Nucleosynthesis
2327:
2209:
2118:
1845:
1724:
1673:Molecular cloud
1654:
1641:
1636:
1588:
1583:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1459:
1458:
1454:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1353:
1352:
1345:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1077:
1076:
1072:
1024:
1023:
1019:
971:
970:
966:
918:
917:
913:
906:
885:
883:
879:
875:
843:
826:infrared excess
749:
724:photometrically
722:, which appear
700:
680:galaxy clusters
655:
650:
609:
596:
595:
584:
571:
570:
552:
542:
536:
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520:
507:
506:
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459:
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231:
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217:
206:
193:
192:
173:
172:
74:
64:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3223:
3221:
3213:
3212:
3210:Star formation
3207:
3197:
3196:
3192:
3191:
3179:
3167:
3155:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3128:
3116:
3105:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3006:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2925:Largest volume
2922:
2917:
2912:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2884:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2782:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2770:
2765:
2764:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2743:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2710:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2636:Magnetic field
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2607:
2605:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2571:
2570:
2560:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2546:Accretion disk
2543:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2522:Alfvén surface
2519:
2517:Stellar corona
2514:
2509:
2504:
2494:
2492:Radiation zone
2489:
2488:
2487:
2482:
2472:
2466:
2464:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2341:
2339:
2333:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2290:
2282:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2230:
2225:
2219:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2190:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2171:
2161:
2151:
2150:
2149:
2139:
2134:
2128:
2126:
2120:
2119:
2117:
2116:
2114:Blue straggler
2111:
2110:
2109:
2099:
2094:
2093:
2092:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2030:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1969:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1952:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1872:Main sequence
1870:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1851:Classification
1847:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1787:Protoplanetary
1779:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1745:
1740:
1734:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1706:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1664:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1652:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1627:
1620:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1600:
1594:
1587:
1586:External links
1584:
1582:
1581:
1575:10.1086/171505
1540:
1527:10.1086/316848
1487:
1482:10.1086/156057
1452:
1415:(2): 565–574.
1399:
1386:10.1086/522052
1343:
1330:10.1086/301456
1290:
1277:10.1086/510148
1253:(1): 494–510.
1237:
1224:10.1086/519976
1200:(3): 973–998.
1184:
1123:
1070:
1017:
980:(1): 110–129.
964:
911:
904:
898:. p. 26.
876:
874:
871:
870:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
842:
839:
748:
747:Star formation
745:
699:
698:Color outliers
696:
654:
651:
649:
646:
626:
612:
608:
599:
587:
583:
574:
566:
555:
545:
539:
523:
519:
510:
498:
494:
485:
478:
473:
462:
452:
446:
440:
429:
419:
413:
407:
402:
391:
381:
375:
369:
365:
360:
356:
352:
349:
346:
343:
326:
317:
308:
299:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
234:
230:
221:
209:
205:
196:
189:
186:
183:
180:
63:
60:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3222:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3202:
3200:
3190:
3180:
3178:
3168:
3166:
3156:
3154:
3144:
3140:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3115:
3107:
3106:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3086:Intergalactic
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3066:Galactic year
3064:
3060:
3057:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3001:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2945:Most luminous
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2860:Proper motion
2858:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2823:Constellation
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2791:Solar eclipse
2789:
2788:
2787:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2777:Earth-centric
2775:
2769:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2715:
2712:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2564:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2527:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2375:Alpha process
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2148:
2147:Helium planet
2145:
2144:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:Parker's star
2135:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2068:Lambda Boötis
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1834:Superluminous
1832:
1831:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1758:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1738:Main sequence
1736:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1715:Hayashi track
1713:
1711:
1708:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1644:
1640:
1633:
1628:
1626:
1621:
1619:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1491:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1453:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1348:
1344:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1291:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1188:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1127:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
988:
983:
979:
975:
968:
965:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
935:
930:
926:
922:
915:
912:
907:
905:0-521-34869-2
901:
897:
893:
889:
881:
878:
872:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
844:
840:
838:
835:
831:
827:
822:
817:
813:
809:
808:main sequence
800:
796:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
758:
753:
746:
744:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
718:. Unresolved
717:
713:
712:main sequence
709:
705:
697:
695:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
659:
652:
647:
645:
641:
638:
624:
610:
606:
597:
585:
581:
572:
564:
537:
521:
517:
508:
496:
492:
483:
476:
471:
460:
450:
444:
438:
411:
405:
400:
389:
379:
373:
367:
363:
358:
354:
350:
347:
344:
341:
325:
316:
307:
298:
265:
262:
259:
253:
250:
247:
232:
228:
219:
207:
203:
194:
187:
184:
181:
178:
169:
165:
163:
159:
154:
150:
149:color indices
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
102:
98:
94:
90:
87:
83:
78:
73:
69:
61:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3189:Solar System
2989:White dwarfs
2979:Brown dwarfs
2962:Most distant
2910:Most massive
2888:Proper names
2848:Photographic
2801:Solar System
2779:observations
2706:Star systems
2685:
2529:Stellar wind
2512:Chromosphere
2485:Oscillations
2365:Helium flash
2215:Hypothetical
2193:X-ray binary
2132:Compact star
1967:Bright giant
1720:Henyey track
1698:Herbig Ae/Be
1557:
1553:
1543:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1465:
1461:
1455:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1359:
1355:
1303:
1299:
1293:
1250:
1246:
1240:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1142:
1136:
1126:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1030:
1026:
1020:
977:
973:
967:
927:(3): 34008.
924:
920:
914:
891:
888:"Figure 4.9"
880:
830:protostellar
805:
785:luminosities
769:star forming
762:
756:
720:binary stars
701:
664:
648:Applications
642:
639:
323:
314:
305:
296:
170:
166:
141:spectrometry
106:
100:
92:
85:
81:
51:
50:, or simply
44:brightnesses
31:
29:
3177:Outer space
3165:Spaceflight
3042:Brown dwarf
2818:Circumpolar
2696:Kraft break
2676:Color index
2651:Metallicity
2611:Designation
2580:Cosmic dust
2502:Photosphere
2268:Dark-energy
2243:Electroweak
2228:Black dwarf
2159:Radio-quiet
2142:White dwarf
2028:White dwarf
1678:Bok globule
1560:: 278–288.
1468:: 562–566.
1086:(1): 1175.
862:Color index
732:carbon star
125:temperature
109:blackbodies
89:color index
48:color index
40:Astronomers
36:wavelengths
3199:Categories
3004:Candidates
2999:Supernovae
2984:Red dwarfs
2843:Extinction
2631:Kinematics
2626:Luminosity
2604:Properties
2497:Atmosphere
2395:Si burning
2385:Ne burning
2323:White hole
2296:Quasi-star
2223:Blue dwarf
2078:Technetium
1994:Hypergiant
1972:Supergiant
873:References
789:scattering
145:photometry
68:Black body
66:See also:
62:Background
3153:Astronomy
2935:Brightest
2833:Magnitude
2813:Pole star
2734:Symbiotic
2729:Eclipsing
2661:Starlight
2462:Structure
2452:Supernova
2445:Micronova
2440:Recurrent
2425:Symbiotic
2410:p-process
2405:r-process
2400:s-process
2390:O burning
2380:C burning
2360:CNO cycle
2303:Gravastar
1839:Hypernova
1829:Supernova
1804:Dredge-up
1777:Blue loop
1770:super-AGB
1753:Red clump
1730:Evolution
1688:Protostar
1668:Accretion
1660:Formation
1369:0707.4473
1093:1009.4933
1065:119189086
1040:1003.0005
987:0903.5302
959:119191691
934:1201.1809
716:subdwarfs
611:ν
607:−
598:ν
586:ν
582:−
573:ν
554:Δ
544:Δ
522:ν
518:−
509:ν
497:ν
493:−
484:ν
461:ν
451:ν
428:Δ
418:Δ
390:ν
380:ν
364:
348:−
251:−
233:ν
229:−
220:ν
208:ν
204:−
195:ν
182:−
3114:Category
3009:Remnants
2905:Extremes
2865:Parallax
2838:Apparent
2828:Asterism
2806:Sunlight
2756:Globular
2741:Multiple
2666:Variable
2656:Rotation
2616:Dynamics
2507:Starspot
2181:Magnetar
2124:Remnants
1940:Subgiant
1913:Subdwarf
1765:post-AGB
1535:16456003
1447:15147139
1394:17297521
1338:18819321
1285:17307898
1232:26430584
1179:16095072
1118:29269150
1012:16468717
841:See also
816:reddened
765:infrared
694:(SDSS).
3139:Portals
3081:Gravity
3030:Related
2950:Nearest
2898:Chinese
2746:Cluster
2719:Contact
2556:Proplyd
2430:Remnant
2318:Blitzar
2292:Hawking
2248:Strange
2198:Burster
2154:Neutron
2107:Extreme
2058:He-weak
1703:T Tauri
1562:Bibcode
1515:Bibcode
1470:Bibcode
1427:Bibcode
1374:Bibcode
1318:Bibcode
1265:Bibcode
1212:Bibcode
1157:Bibcode
1098:Bibcode
1045:Bibcode
992:Bibcode
939:Bibcode
741:Quasars
113:spectra
3071:Galaxy
3059:Planet
3047:Desert
2955:bright
2893:Arabic
2714:Binary
2534:Bubble
2258:Planck
2233:Exotic
2169:Binary
2164:Pulsar
2102:Helium
2063:Barium
2006:Carbon
1999:Yellow
1987:Yellow
1960:Yellow
1799:PG1159
1533:
1445:
1392:
1336:
1283:
1230:
1177:
1116:
1063:
1010:
957:
902:
857:Nebula
773:clouds
278:where
151:, the
103:index.
3076:Guest
2880:Lists
2761:Super
2415:Fusor
2288:Black
2273:Quark
2253:Preon
2238:Boson
2174:X-ray
2090:Shell
2043:Ap/Bp
1945:Giant
1863:Early
1809:OH/IR
1639:Stars
1531:S2CID
1505:arXiv
1443:S2CID
1417:arXiv
1390:S2CID
1364:arXiv
1334:S2CID
1308:arXiv
1281:S2CID
1255:arXiv
1228:S2CID
1202:arXiv
1175:S2CID
1147:arXiv
1114:S2CID
1088:arXiv
1061:S2CID
1035:arXiv
1008:S2CID
982:arXiv
955:S2CID
929:arXiv
730:from
52:color
2751:Open
2646:Mass
2470:Core
2420:Nova
2313:Iron
2263:Dark
2073:Lead
2053:HgMn
2048:CEMP
1977:Blue
1950:Blue
1868:Late
1650:List
900:ISBN
777:dust
704:SDSS
688:IRAS
672:NOAO
321:and
290:and
84:and
70:and
56:axis
3052:Sub
2786:Sun
2205:SGR
1982:Red
1955:Red
1570:doi
1558:393
1523:doi
1501:120
1478:doi
1466:221
1435:doi
1413:431
1382:doi
1360:134
1326:doi
1304:120
1273:doi
1251:657
1220:doi
1198:134
1165:doi
1143:352
1106:doi
1084:725
1053:doi
1031:723
1000:doi
978:138
947:doi
775:of
734:to
706:or
355:log
351:2.5
101:B−V
86:U−B
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