1138:
747:
1511:
40:
866:
1451:
825:
900:
1495:
1470:
458:
337:
1526:
1108:
Campaign had greater success in rural areas. In rural areas, public rallies were held where citizens were encouraged to wear colorful clothing. In 1935, the colonial government decided it wished to replicate the success of the rural efforts in the cities, and began stepping up their enforcement of the policies there. Police officers and public officials would spray or stamp ink on offenders, who were also often denied services like food rations and education. Despite this, the practice continued.
1439:
423:
this guise and must do no work... Should a king die, the whole nation would be compelled to don this mourning garb, or rather they would be compelled to dress in white... Once during a period of ten years, three kings died, necessitating a constant change of dress on the part of the people and a great outlay of money... Tradition has it, therefore, that, to be ready for the caprice of their kings in the future, the people adopted white as their national color.
249:
156: clothing of the people), on a daily basis. Many Korean people, from infancy through old age and across the social spectrum, dressed in white. They only wore color on special occasions or if their job required a certain uniform. Early evidence of the practice dates from around the 2nd century BCE. It continued until the 1950–1953
880:
who did the household's laundry. Multiple estimates of the economic cost of maintaining the clothes were calculated. These debates uniformly concluded that wearing white clothes was economically inefficient; these figures were later frequently cited by the colonial government to discourage the wearing of the clothes.
820:
issued a ban on white clothing during wintertime, but this order was largely ignored. More and more roles began requiring the use of non-white clothing. Officials were effectively prohibited from wearing white clothing in the Gapsin dress reform of 1884. Beginning in 1910, increasing numbers of grade
1092:
Nam counted a total of 106 policies against the practice from 1920 to 1936. Reasons provided for these restrictions generally aligned with reasons given in debates amongst Korean intellectuals, although contemporary and current scholars have argued that assimilation of
Koreans into Japanese identity
879:
Debates around the practice intensified during the
Japanese colonial period. Some Korean intellectuals that opposed the practice saw it as a relic of a bygone era. Others noted that the time required for the clothes' upkeep hurt economic productivity, and that the labor particularly burdened women,
422:
The custom of wearing white so extensively as they do has also been accounted for by tradition. Mourning is a serious business in Korea, for on the death of a father the son must lay aside his gay robes and clothe himself in unbleached cotton of a very coarse texture... For three years he must wear
402:
The reason for the practice is not known with certainty, although it is said by Korean scholars to be a mix of symbolism and tradition. The Korean preference for the color white is found in art, myth, legend, folklore, clothing, food, and more. Choi Nam-Sun said: "The ideal of whiteness was one of
1172:
After the war, both Koreas were among the poorest countries in the world. Koreans could no longer afford to maintain their white clothes, let alone afford food. In black markets, Koreans traded and highly valued U.S. military clothes, which they inconspicuously dyed other colors in order to avoid
163:
It is not known when, how, or why the practice came about; it is also uncertain when and how consistently it was practiced. It possibly arose due to the symbolism of the color white, which was associated with cleanliness and heaven. The
Japanese colonial view controversially attributed the Korean
444:
Above all, some people pointed out that Yanagi's opinion was grounded on a misapprehension: Yanagi had mistaken
Koreans' favourite casual white clothes—made of thin raw silk or cotton—for mourning garb, and misinterpreted white as a symbol of pathos. Some argued that Yanagi held a narrow view of
1107:
By the 1920s, the practice varied based on location. A 1926 survey by the
Governor-General of Chōsen found that 50–60% people wore white in large towns and areas with access to main rail lines, while 70–95% of people in isolated rural areas wore white. Cho Heejin argues that the Colored Clothes
1137:
465:
There is some uncertainty over the times and places where the practice was observed. The practice is reportedly not clearly observable in
Goguryeo-era tomb murals. Some documentary evidence suggests the practice was not consistently observed during the Joseon period; the scholar
1412:
emerged during the 1880s to highlight the concept of a distinct and homogeneous
Japanese identity. Koreans adopted and kept it, in spite of the fact that Japan ended up abandoning it in the short term to accommodate the assimilation of its non-Japanese colonial subjects.
746:
1510:
1185:
saw the clothes as a symbol of Korean stubbornness. Yanagi Sōetsu reportedly viewed the color white as feminine. In the 1980s, South Korean democratic movements adopted the clothes as a symbol of democracy, pro-reunification sentiment, and
171:
Westerners, who began visiting the peninsula in the 19th century, viewed the practice as a curiosity. Japanese colonialists and a number of
Koreans saw it as a frivolous practice, partly because of the maintenance the practice demanded.
890:
The scholar Hyung Gu Lynn argued that the clothes became a symbol of low social status by the 1920s. Magazines and newspapers displayed pictures of business owners in western-style suits, while factory workers wore white clothing.
315:. They wear no color but white. Even when they use a color, it's an almost colorless jade. What makes everyone, regardless of gender or age, wear white? There are many countries and nations in the world, but none are like Joseon.
886:
According to a 1990 tally by scholar Nam Yun-Suk, between 1898 and 1919, there were fifteen policies enacted to either ban or discourage the exclusive wearing of white clothes. Four of these were between 1910 and 1919.
737:
In spite of these efforts, white clothing remained widespread until the middle of the 20th century. These efforts may have sometimes been resisted by people dying their clothes in extremely light shades of other colors.
1494:
323:(960–1279), the average person was restricted to only wearing white clothing. However, the practice was eventually lifted. There are several records of Chinese observers ridiculing the Korean practice of wearing white.
411:. Some modern scholars see it as a result of psychology, specifically pressure to conform to social norms, with Soh drawing a comparison to how modern South Koreans adopt trends with significant speed and uniformity.
1104:. The government embarked on a campaign to change the public image about the clothes. Flyers were handed out in public spaces that characterized the clothes as forbidden, embarrassing, and a hassle to maintain.
295:
While wearing white is not unique to
Koreans, the extent of their commitment to the practice has been described as unique. For example, the clothing historian Soh Hwang-Oak wrote that while the
175:
This practice has developed a number of symbolic interpretations. The rigorous defense of the practice and effort needed to maintain it have been seen as symbolic of Korean stubbornness. The
504:
Writings from the Joseon ruling class are often disparaging towards the practice. This may have, in part, been motivated by a preference for blue clothing because it aligned better with
2154:
1165:, some nationalists appealed to symbolism of the white clothes that had once unified the nation. Reunification efforts, including North Korea's invasion of the South in the 1950–1953
440:
and scholar Park Jong-Hong have written that
Japanese colonialists were deliberately attempting to portray Koreans negatively to justify Japanese colonial rule. Ihn-Bum Lee wrote:
920:
1469:
915:
1450:
851:", meaning "swan", possibly in reference to their white clothing. These emigrants continued wearing white until the 1910s, when they assimilated more into Russian culture.
39:
281:, meaning "clothing of the people". Until the mid-20th century, many Koreans wore white clothes regularly. They only wore clothes with color on special occasions, such as
773:
Resentment towards Western clothing developed, not because of its association with the West, but because of its association with Japan. During the late Joseon period and
1141:
Elderly Korean women, wearing white, waiting for a bus in the aftermath around the end of the Korean War period. Other people in the picture are wearing color. (1953)
1525:
1158:
800:(impromptu militia). The rebellion finally ended in August 1896, when many of these orders were suspended. The result of this period was the development of wearing
1129:. During the rally, officials warned Koreans that their white clothes would make them highly-visible targets for bombers, and advised them to start wearing color.
461:
Painting of envoys from the Three Kingdoms of Korea (from left to right, Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo) to China, wearing clothing of various shades (7th century)
1119:
were enacted to maximize economic output. It applied the greatest amount of pressure on the enforcement of the ban beginning around 1940. In July 1945, amidst
1438:
883:
Japanese people generally had negative views on the practice. They viewed it, and many other Korean practices, as backwards and fixated on the past.
785:. The brutality of the attack sparked domestic and international shock and disgust. Shortly after the assassination, a series of orders (notably the
2530:
2356:
933:
began efforts to ban the practice of wearing white clothes, in what has been dubbed the "Colored Clothes Campaign" or White Clothes Ban Movement (
164:
penchant for white clothing to mourning. The practice was persistently maintained and defended; it survived at least 25 pre-colonial and over 100
2421:
2401:
1689:
2584:
782:
445:
Korean culture and ignored such characteristic products of Korean culture as 18th-century landscapes, old tomb murals, folk painting, etc.
311:
While China and especially Japan are using so many different colors in their dresses, there is no such trend in the neighboring country,
865:
824:
2594:
2589:
817:
481:
reveres the color blue, so the average citizen wears blue. Men do not wear white clothes, unless they are wearing layered clothing or
899:
51:
2159:
796:) were issued, one of which allowed the wearing of Western clothes. These directly inspired violent resistance in the form of a
2599:
1588:『우리나라는 푸른색을 숭상해 백성이 대부분 푸른 옷을 입는다. 남자는 겹옷과 장삼이 아니면 일찍이 이유없이 흰옷을 입지 않았고, 여자는 치마를 소중히 여기는데 더욱 흰색을 꺼려 붉은색과 남색 외에는 모두 푸른 치마를 둘렀다.』
767:
1644:
1315:
1250:
1116:
436:
299:
often wear white, they generally layer other colored clothing or accessories on top of their white clothes. By contrast, the
97:
1517:
930:
350:
909:
1421:
1101:
407:
describes white clothing as a symbol of cleanliness. White is also sometimes associated with sunlight and heaven in the
2579:
1154:
336:
904:
1424:, as a reaction to the colonization of Korea. It symbolized a unique Korean identity, with millennia of continuity.
2285:
2257:
2574:
1199:
860:
428:
176:
165:
457:
2569:
2310:
505:
1549:
345:
2604:
1554:
786:
1329:
1264:
111:
1780:
939:). Nam Yun-Suk counted the number of policies that prohibited or discouraged white clothes as follows:
777:(1897–1910) periods, efforts were made to reform the Korean state and society. These were often led by
427:
Japanese scholar Toriyama Kiichi said that Koreans began wearing white because they were sad after the
781:. However, in 1895, anti-Japanese sentiment exploded after Japan, together with Korean collaborators,
1162:
770:. Afterwards, Western clothing was introduced to Korea in significant quantities for the first time.
644:
553:
472:
379:
340:
Painting of Korean peasants showing deference to a nobleman on horseback, all dressed in white (1815)
1123:
and Japan's impending loss of the war, a rally was held by the colonial government–backed newspaper
188:
1146:
684:
634:
415:
2390:
Lee, Ihn-Bum (1 January 2011), "On the Debate about the Colour White", in Sasaki, Ken-ichi (ed.),
2452:
2034:
1883:
1382:
1120:
1097:
832:
654:
516:
Before the Japanese colonial period, there were at least 25 white clothes prohibition decrees (
2548:
2510:
2477:
2444:
2417:
2397:
2378:
1902:
1875:
1695:
1685:
1150:
1125:
724:
710:
698:
598:
563:
500:
and are reluctant to wear white, so the only color they wear other than blue is red or indigo.
1754:
482:
2538:
2502:
2368:
1867:
1855:
1187:
869:
A drawing by American Constance J.D. Coulson of Korean women washing clothes and performing
797:
751:
664:
608:
495:
304:
2490:
2465:
1417:
also has a similar connotation; it can be literally translated as "born of the same womb".
467:
2531:"Development and Change of Saekbokwha (Wearing Colored Clothes) Policy in Colonial Period"
588:
369:
363:
143:
17:
2262:
1957:
1203:
836:
791:
674:
620:
2563:
2357:"Joseon in Color : "Colored Clothes Campaign" and the "White Clothes Discourse""
1907:
1887:
1182:
774:
1112:
763:
431:. Yanagi Sōetsu similarly attributed the wearing of white to historical suffering.
320:
237:
2373:
1725:
1378: White-clothed Compatriots), began to be used to describe the Korean people.
2411:
2391:
2038:
2028:
1679:
804:
or other traditional Korean clothing as a symbol of resisting foreign influence.
354:, and dates to the third century CE. It reported that people of the Korean state
1959:
Korean Tales: Being a Collection of Stories Translated from the Korean Folk Lore
844:
828:
573:
236:, were coined to promote a distinct Korean identity, primarily as a reaction to
215:
2506:
1639:
2260:[ Before and After Korea's 1945 Liberation, Seen Through Newspapers].
1871:
1166:
408:
296:
259:
157:
2552:
2543:
2514:
2481:
2448:
2382:
1879:
1699:
489:
418:
wrote in 1889 that he viewed the practice as having its origins in mourning:
449:
Yanagi later abandoned his view that white is the color of sorrow in Korea.
248:
1500:
First South Korean president Syngman Rhee and Korean independence activist
1181:
The clothes have been interpreted in various ways over time. The historian
813:
families tended to dress children in color, while adults dressed in white.
2284:
Eichengreen, Barry; Perkins, Dwight H.; Shin, Kwanho (November 19, 2012).
348:
period. The earliest known mention of the practice is in the Chinese text
1785:
1173:
detection. The practice of wearing white clothes ended around this time.
778:
383:
2456:
2432:
2466:"A study on the transitional process of clothes in modern Korean women"
2433:"Fashioning Modernity: Changing Meanings of Clothing in Colonial Korea"
1532:
1477:
871:
809:
254:
127:
1320:
1255:
848:
102:
1501:
1283:
1218:
759:
583:
548:
391:
312:
283:
132:
65:
46:
403:
the most important factors in Korean art and culture." The Chinese
1299:
1234:
1136:
1115:, Japan made sweeping changes in Korea. Policies such as the 1938
898:
745:
387:
355:
335:
303:
was deliberately worn without decoration. The Japanese art critic
81:
1575:『나라에서는 옷을 입을 때 흰색을 숭상하여, 흰색 포목으로 만든 통 큰 소매의 도포와 바지를 입고 가죽신을 신는다.』
358:(2nd century BCE – 494 CE) primarily wore white. The text reads:
1856:"The white-clad people: The white hanbok and Korean nationalism"
160:, after which the resulting poverty caused the practice to end.
434:
Korean scholars have disagreed with them. Park Seong-su of the
362:
In Buyeo, white clothing is revered, so they wear wide-sleeved
1405:) became popular due to the rise of the related Japanese term
2491:"The People of White Clothes(白衣民族) from Modern Perspectives"
2286:"From Miracle to Maturity: The Growth of the Korean Economy"
821:
schools began requiring that students wear black uniforms.
1096:
However, restrictions were again resisted; after the 1919
2101:
2099:
1334:
1269:
378:
The practice has also been attested to the Korean states
116:
914:, with "色服" (색복; colored clothing) written on it. Now a
1726:"[김동욱 기자의 세계사 속 경제사] 한민족이 백의민족이 될 수밖에 없었던 이유는?"
1444:
A French drawing of a Korean in mourning clothes (1894)
762:
period (1392–1897), Korea was under a strict policy of
1684:. Heidelberg: Heidelberg Springer. pp. 272, 275.
2203:
2201:
2050:
2048:
2010:
2008:
816:
In 1906, the Korean government, at the advice of the
2155:"국가등록문화재 색복 장려 깃발 (⾊服 奬勵 깃발) : 국가문화유산포털 - 문화재청"
1971:
1969:
1927:
1925:
916:
National Registered Cultural Heritage of South Korea
227:
200:
1328:
1314:
1298:
1282:
1277:
1263:
1249:
1233:
1217:
110:
96:
80:
64:
59:
374:made from white linens, as well as leather shoes.
2030:Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852-1912
479:
442:
420:
360:
309:
1681:An introduction to Chinese history and culture
1516:Women's mourning clothes from Joseon Dynasty,
453:Uncertainty over time and place of observation
1093:could have been another unstated motivation.
126:Until the 1950s, a significant proportion of
8:
2495:International Journal of Costume and Fashion
1586:
1573:
1369:
1363:
1349:
1305:
1289:
1240:
1224:
934:
523:
517:
221:
212:
194:
186:
147:
87:
71:
2311:"Korea's Path from Poverty to Philanthropy"
1390:
1375:
1355:
344:Koreans have worn white clothing since the
153:
2033:. Columbia University Press. p. 517.
1903:"[정종수의 풍속 엿보기] 왜 우리 민족을 백의민족이라 했나"
530:
38:
2542:
2437:Journal of International and Area Studies
2372:
766:. This finally ended in 1876, when Japan
506:traditional color associations from China
2470:Journal of the Korean Society of Costume
1475:Korean women, wearing white, performing
941:
905:banner from the Colored Clothes Campaign
864:
823:
494:(Buddhist robes). Women cherish wearing
456:
247:
1603:
1566:
1434:
1358: White-clothed People), sometimes
807:By the late Joseon period, upper-class
319:For some period of time in the Chinese
258:), where everyone is wearing white, by
1962:. G. P. Putnam's sons. pp. 19–20.
1207:
531:
508:, where east is associated with blue.
29:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1420:These terms developed, alongside the
7:
2141:
2066:
2054:
2014:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1748:
1746:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1642:[The White Clothed People].
1625:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1535:house, National Folk Museum of Korea
512:Pre-colonial era prohibition efforts
2410:Lee, Samuel Songhoon (2015-12-17).
2333:
2243:
2231:
2219:
2207:
2192:
2180:
2129:
2117:
2105:
2090:
2078:
1999:
1987:
1975:
1943:
1931:
1665:
847:. Russians gave them the nickname "
27:Ancient to modern cultural practice
2413:Hanbok: Timeless Fashion Tradition
845:Korean emigrants moved into Russia
818:Japanese Resident-General of Korea
25:
238:Japanese assimilationist policies
52:United States expedition to Korea
2160:Cultural Heritage Administration
1524:
1509:
1493:
1468:
1449:
1437:
768:forced Korea to open its borders
477:wrote in the 19th century that:
1100:protests, there was a spike in
742:Joseon to Korean Empire periods
307:wrote in 1922 of the practice:
1854:Lee, Yeseung (November 2022).
1645:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
1587:
1574:
1504:. Kim is wearing white. (1947)
1370:
1364:
1350:
1306:
1290:
1241:
1225:
1117:State General Mobilization Law
935:
524:
518:
437:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
252:Painting of Korean wrestling (
222:
213:
195:
187:
168:regulations and prohibitions.
148:
88:
72:
1:
2396:, NUS Press, pp. 70–74,
2374:10.25024/review.2011.14.1.001
2309:Oh, Kongdan (June 14, 2010).
1755:"'백의민족' 옷 색깔은?…"흰색 아닌 소색입니다""
1518:National Folk Museum of Korea
1482:
1457:
1344:In the early 1920s, the term
783:assassinated the Korean queen
405:Romance of the Three Kingdoms
351:Records of the Three Kingdoms
263:
2361:The Review of Korean Studies
1956:Horace Newton Allen (1889).
1456:Korean commoners at a well (
1422:Korean independence movement
1102:Korean independence activism
931:Japanese colonial government
929:Beginning in the 1920s, the
875:to keep clothes clean (1910)
532:List of prohibition decrees
528:) across several centuries.
291:Comparison to other cultures
44:Korean negotiators in white
2585:Aftermath of the Korean War
2537:(in Korean) (16): 681–730.
1335:
1321:
1270:
1256:
382:(1st to 4th centuries CE),
228:
201:
117:
103:
2621:
2507:10.7233/ijcf.2011.11.2.025
1781:"한민족은 '백의민족'? 원조는 따로 있습니다"
1197:
1151:it was immediately divided
858:
582:
2595:History of Asian clothing
2590:National symbols of Korea
2258:"신문으로 보는 1945년 해방 前後의 한국"
1872:10.1177/09213740221117811
1210:
1200:Korean ethnic nationalism
1121:Allied air raids on Japan
861:Korea under Japanese rule
547:
37:
32:
2544:10.36093/ks.2010..16.022
1155:rule of the Soviet Union
895:Colored Clothes Campaign
855:Japanese colonial period
232:), both roughly meaning
18:Colored Clothes Campaign
2489:Soh, Hwang-Oak (2011).
2431:Lynn, Hyung Gu (2004).
1550:List of Korean clothing
843:Also around this time,
414:The American physician
398:Reason for the practice
390:(57 BCE – 935 CE), and
346:Three Kingdoms of Korea
177:Korean ethnonationalist
33:White clothing in Korea
2600:Clothing controversies
2027:Keene, Donald (2002).
1555:Fashion in South Korea
1194:"White-clothed people"
1142:
1111:With the beginning of
926:
876:
840:
755:
502:
462:
447:
425:
376:
341:
317:
270:
2464:Nam, Yun-Suk (1990).
2355:Kim, Seokhee (2011).
1678:Zhang, Qizhi (2015).
1153:and placed under the
1140:
902:
868:
827:
749:
460:
429:Mongols invaded Korea
339:
251:
166:Japanese colonial era
2529:Cho, Heejin (2010).
2256:정, 진석 (2015-07-20).
1901:정, 종수 (2020-05-31).
1779:김, 종성 (2011-03-11).
1753:이, 주상 (2023-06-11).
1316:Revised Romanization
1251:Revised Romanization
1212:White-clothed People
787:Short Hair Ordinance
779:pro-Japanese Koreans
750:In a predecessor to
277:is sometimes called
234:white-clothed people
98:Revised Romanization
2416:. Seoul Selection.
2290:www.hks.harvard.edu
2246:, pp. 695–696.
2222:, pp. 692–693.
2120:, pp. 690–692.
2108:, pp. 688–689.
1381:Both terms express
1163:combat the division
1147:Korea was liberated
1133:End of the practice
943:
533:
386:(37 BCE – 668 CE),
136:, sometimes called
2580:Korean nationalism
1383:ethnic nationalism
1161:. In an effort to
1143:
1098:March 1st Movement
942:
927:
877:
841:
833:Primorskaya Oblast
756:
463:
342:
271:
2423:978-1-62412-056-5
2403:978-9971-69-500-2
2336:, pp. 13–14.
2039:10.7312/keen12340
2002:, pp. 37–38.
1946:, pp. 31–32.
1860:Cultural Dynamics
1691:978-3-662-46482-3
1668:, pp. 27–28.
1342:
1341:
1330:McCune–Reischauer
1265:McCune–Reischauer
1090:
1089:
831:wearing white in
735:
734:
124:
123:
112:McCune–Reischauer
16:(Redirected from
2612:
2575:Culture of Korea
2556:
2546:
2518:
2485:
2460:
2427:
2406:
2393:Asian Aesthetics
2386:
2376:
2337:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2235:
2229:
2223:
2217:
2211:
2205:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2168:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2133:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2103:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2043:
2042:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1964:
1963:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1851:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1794:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1750:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1722:
1711:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1638:Park, Seong-su.
1635:
1591:
1590:
1589:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1571:
1528:
1513:
1497:
1487:
1484:
1472:
1462:
1459:
1453:
1441:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1367:
1366:
1357:
1353:
1352:
1338:
1324:
1309:
1308:
1293:
1292:
1273:
1259:
1244:
1243:
1228:
1227:
1208:
1188:anti-Americanism
944:
938:
937:
924:
913:
795:
758:For much of the
752:Namdaemun Market
543:Date of attempt
534:
527:
526:
521:
520:
493:
476:
268:
265:
231:
225:
224:
219:
218:
204:
198:
197:
192:
191:
155:
151:
150:
120:
106:
91:
90:
75:
74:
42:
30:
21:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2610:
2609:
2570:Korean clothing
2560:
2559:
2528:
2525:
2488:
2463:
2430:
2424:
2409:
2404:
2389:
2354:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2319:
2317:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2294:
2292:
2283:
2282:
2278:
2269:
2267:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2242:
2238:
2230:
2226:
2218:
2214:
2206:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2179:
2175:
2166:
2164:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2140:
2136:
2128:
2124:
2116:
2112:
2104:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2077:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2053:
2046:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1967:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1942:
1938:
1930:
1923:
1914:
1912:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1853:
1852:
1801:
1792:
1790:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1764:
1762:
1752:
1751:
1744:
1735:
1733:
1724:
1723:
1714:
1704:
1702:
1692:
1677:
1676:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1651:
1649:
1637:
1636:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1594:
1585:
1581:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1546:
1541:
1540:
1539:
1536:
1529:
1520:
1514:
1505:
1498:
1489:
1485:
1473:
1464:
1460:
1454:
1445:
1442:
1430:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1389:(ethnos, race;
1310:
1294:
1245:
1229:
1206:
1196:
1179:
1135:
918:
907:
897:
863:
857:
789:
744:
730:
718:
716:
704:
692:
690:
628:
626:
614:
514:
487:
470:
455:
416:Horace N. Allen
400:
334:
329:
293:
266:
246:
92:
76:
55:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2618:
2616:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2535:Korean Studies
2524:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2486:
2461:
2428:
2422:
2407:
2402:
2387:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2326:
2301:
2276:
2263:Monthly Chosun
2248:
2236:
2234:, p. 694.
2224:
2212:
2210:, p. 104.
2197:
2195:, p. 103.
2185:
2173:
2146:
2134:
2132:, p. 101.
2122:
2110:
2095:
2093:, pp. 29.
2083:
2081:, p. 685.
2071:
2059:
2044:
2019:
2004:
1992:
1980:
1965:
1948:
1936:
1921:
1893:
1866:(4): 271–296.
1799:
1771:
1742:
1712:
1690:
1670:
1658:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1579:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1552:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1537:
1530:
1523:
1521:
1515:
1508:
1506:
1499:
1492:
1490:
1474:
1467:
1465:
1455:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1340:
1339:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1304:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1288:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1278:Alternate term
1275:
1274:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1239:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1223:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1204:Names of Korea
1195:
1192:
1178:
1175:
1134:
1131:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1071:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1040:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1020:
1016:
1015:
1012:
1008:
1007:
1004:
1000:
999:
996:
992:
991:
988:
984:
983:
980:
976:
975:
972:
968:
967:
964:
960:
959:
956:
952:
951:
948:
896:
893:
856:
853:
837:Russian Empire
798:righteous army
743:
740:
733:
732:
727:
721:
720:
713:
707:
706:
701:
695:
694:
687:
681:
680:
677:
671:
670:
667:
661:
660:
657:
651:
650:
647:
641:
640:
637:
631:
630:
623:
617:
616:
611:
605:
604:
601:
595:
594:
591:
586:
580:
579:
576:
570:
569:
566:
560:
559:
556:
551:
545:
544:
541:
538:
513:
510:
454:
451:
399:
396:
333:
330:
328:
325:
292:
289:
287:for weddings.
245:
242:
122:
121:
114:
108:
107:
100:
94:
93:
86:
84:
78:
77:
70:
68:
62:
61:
57:
56:
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2617:
2606:
2605:Folk costumes
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2554:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2419:
2415:
2414:
2408:
2405:
2399:
2395:
2394:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2335:
2330:
2327:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2302:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2277:
2265:
2264:
2259:
2252:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2174:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2147:
2144:, p. 83.
2143:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2123:
2119:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2084:
2080:
2075:
2072:
2069:, p. 79.
2068:
2063:
2060:
2057:, p. 85.
2056:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2023:
2020:
2017:, p. 78.
2016:
2011:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1993:
1990:, p. 73.
1989:
1984:
1981:
1978:, p. 72.
1977:
1972:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1960:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1937:
1934:, p. 71.
1933:
1928:
1926:
1922:
1910:
1909:
1908:Seoul Shinmun
1904:
1897:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1775:
1772:
1760:
1756:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1731:
1727:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1683:
1682:
1674:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1659:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1640:"백의민족 (白衣民族)"
1634:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1583:
1580:
1570:
1567:
1560:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1534:
1531:Diorama of a
1527:
1522:
1519:
1512:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1491:
1480:
1479:
1471:
1466:
1452:
1447:
1440:
1435:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1411:
1408:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1361:
1347:
1337:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1184:
1183:Choe Nam-seon
1176:
1174:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1159:United States
1156:
1152:
1148:
1139:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
994:
993:
989:
986:
985:
981:
978:
977:
973:
970:
969:
965:
962:
961:
957:
954:
953:
949:
946:
945:
940:
932:
922:
917:
911:
906:
901:
894:
892:
888:
884:
881:
874:
873:
867:
862:
854:
852:
850:
846:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
819:
814:
812:
811:
805:
803:
799:
793:
788:
784:
780:
776:
775:Korean Empire
771:
769:
765:
761:
753:
748:
741:
739:
728:
726:
723:
722:
714:
712:
709:
708:
702:
700:
697:
696:
688:
686:
683:
682:
678:
676:
673:
672:
668:
666:
663:
662:
658:
656:
653:
652:
648:
646:
643:
642:
638:
636:
633:
632:
624:
622:
619:
618:
612:
610:
607:
606:
602:
600:
597:
596:
592:
590:
587:
585:
581:
577:
575:
572:
571:
567:
565:
562:
561:
557:
555:
552:
550:
546:
542:
539:
536:
535:
529:
511:
509:
507:
501:
499:
498:
491:
486:
485:
478:
474:
469:
459:
452:
450:
446:
441:
439:
438:
432:
430:
424:
419:
417:
412:
410:
406:
397:
395:
393:
389:
385:
381:
375:
373:
372:
367:
366:
359:
357:
353:
352:
347:
338:
331:
326:
324:
322:
316:
314:
308:
306:
305:Yanagi Sōetsu
302:
298:
290:
288:
286:
285:
280:
276:
261:
257:
256:
250:
243:
241:
239:
235:
230:
217:
210:
209:
203:
190:
184:
183:
178:
173:
169:
167:
161:
159:
145:
141:
140:
135:
134:
129:
119:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
99:
95:
85:
83:
79:
69:
67:
63:
58:
53:
49:
48:
41:
36:
31:
19:
2534:
2501:(2): 25–36.
2498:
2494:
2473:
2469:
2443:(3): 75–93.
2440:
2436:
2412:
2392:
2364:
2360:
2329:
2318:. Retrieved
2314:
2304:
2293:. Retrieved
2289:
2279:
2268:. Retrieved
2261:
2251:
2239:
2227:
2215:
2188:
2183:, p. 8.
2176:
2165:. Retrieved
2158:
2149:
2137:
2125:
2113:
2086:
2074:
2062:
2029:
2022:
1995:
1983:
1958:
1951:
1939:
1913:. Retrieved
1906:
1896:
1863:
1859:
1791:. Retrieved
1784:
1774:
1763:. Retrieved
1758:
1734:. Retrieved
1729:
1703:. Retrieved
1680:
1673:
1661:
1650:. Retrieved
1643:
1582:
1569:
1486: 1910s
1476:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1406:
1386:
1380:
1360:paegŭidongpo
1359:
1346:paegŭiminjok
1345:
1343:
1336:Paegŭidongpo
1322:Baeguidongpo
1271:Paegŭiminjok
1257:Baeguiminjok
1211:
1180:
1171:
1144:
1124:
1113:World War II
1110:
1106:
1095:
1091:
928:
889:
885:
882:
878:
870:
842:
815:
808:
806:
801:
772:
764:isolationism
757:
736:
515:
503:
496:
483:
480:
464:
448:
443:
435:
433:
426:
421:
413:
404:
401:
394:(918–1392).
377:
370:
364:
361:
349:
343:
321:Song dynasty
318:
310:
300:
294:
282:
278:
274:
272:
253:
233:
229:baeguidongpo
208:paegŭidongpo
207:
206:
202:baeguiminjok
182:paegŭiminjok
181:
180:
174:
170:
162:
138:
137:
131:
125:
45:
2367:(1): 7–34.
2266:(in Korean)
2163:(in Korean)
2142:Lynn (2004)
2067:Lynn (2004)
2055:Lynn (2004)
2015:Lynn (2004)
1911:(in Korean)
1789:(in Korean)
1761:(in Korean)
1732:(in Korean)
1648:(in Korean)
1461: 1900
1400:people clan
1385:. The term
1126:Keijō Nippō
950:# policies
919: [
908: [
829:Koryo-saram
790: [
488: [
471: [
267: 1780
244:Description
146::
130:wore white
60:Korean name
50:during the
2564:Categories
2476:: 99–117.
2349:In English
2334:Kim (2011)
2320:2023-09-29
2295:2023-09-29
2270:2024-02-15
2244:Cho (2010)
2232:Cho (2010)
2220:Cho (2010)
2208:Nam (1990)
2193:Nam (1990)
2181:Kim (2011)
2167:2024-02-05
2130:Nam (1990)
2118:Cho (2010)
2106:Cho (2010)
2091:Soh (2011)
2079:Cho (2010)
2000:Lee (2015)
1944:Soh (2011)
1915:2023-10-23
1793:2023-10-23
1765:2023-10-23
1736:2023-10-23
1705:4 February
1666:Soh (2011)
1652:2023-09-29
1598:References
1198:See also:
1169:, failed.
1167:Korean War
859:See also:
645:Yeonsangun
554:Chungnyeol
409:Sinosphere
297:Dai people
273:The white
260:Gim Hongdo
158:Korean War
2553:1598-8082
2523:In Korean
2515:2233-9051
2482:1229-6880
2449:1226-8550
2383:1229-0076
2315:Brookings
1888:251363822
1880:0921-3740
1700:909065833
1177:Symbolism
1149:in 1945,
1145:Although
685:Hyeonjong
635:Seongjong
2457:43107104
1988:Lee 2011
1976:Lee 2011
1932:Lee 2011
1786:OhmyNews
1759:SBS News
1544:See also
1407:minzoku.
1157:and the
655:Jungjong
384:Goguryeo
380:Byeonhan
2344:Sources
1533:Yangban
1478:dadeumi
1428:Gallery
1410:Minzoku
1394:
936:백의 폐지운동
872:dadeumi
810:yangban
725:Jeongjo
711:Yeongjo
699:Sukjong
599:Taejong
564:Gongmin
537:Period
484:jangsam
327:History
255:ssireum
128:Koreans
2551:
2513:
2480:
2455:
2447:
2420:
2400:
2381:
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1502:Kim Ku
1415:Dongpo
1387:minjok
1374:;
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1354:;
1284:Hangul
1219:Hangul
839:(1904)
802:minbok
760:Joseon
754:(1904)
665:Seonjo
609:Sejong
584:Joseon
549:Goryeo
522:;
392:Goryeo
332:Origin
313:Joseon
301:minbok
284:hwarot
279:minbok
275:hanbok
226:;
220:;
205:) and
199:;
193:;
179:terms
152:;
144:Korean
139:minbok
133:hanbok
118:Minbok
104:Minbok
66:Hangul
54:(1871)
47:hanbok
2453:JSTOR
2035:JSTOR
1884:S2CID
1561:Notes
1300:Hanja
1235:Hanja
1083:1936
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615:1428
603:1400
593:1398
589:Taejo
578:1382
568:1357
558:1275
540:King
525:白衣禁止令
519:백의금지령
497:chima
492:]
475:]
468:Yi Ok
388:Silla
356:Buyeo
82:Hanja
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1876:ISSN
1730:생글생글
1707:2021
1696:OCLC
1686:ISBN
1391:lit.
1376:lit.
1371:白衣同胞
1365:백의동포
1356:lit.
1351:백의민족
1307:白衣同胞
1291:백의동포
1242:白衣民族
1226:백의민족
1202:and
729:1777
717:1737
715:1725
703:1675
691:1669
689:1669
675:Injo
627:1466
625:1456
621:Sejo
613:1424
371:baji
368:and
365:dopo
223:白衣同胞
196:白衣民族
189:백의민족
154:lit.
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958:2
921:ko
910:ko
903:A
835:,
792:ko
490:ko
473:ko
264:c.
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216:동포
214:백의
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