Mongolian People's Republic

1502: 98: 1921:, with the construction of a large hospital and clinical network and training of staff in Western medicine. The isolation of the country meant that developments in medicine were slow to reach it, though population decline was gradually reversed by the 1930s. The ratio of doctors to the general population increased dramatically; in 1990, there were more than 6,000 physicians, three-quarters of whom were women. The medical care system was accessible at little or no cost even in the most remote areas. State-sponsored maternity rest homes for pastoral women in the final stages of pregnancy helped to lower infant mortality from 109 per 1,000 live births in 1960 to 57.4 in 1990, and maternal mortality by about 25 percent from 1960 to 1990. 82: 195: 1069: 1456:

in 1971, 91 in 1976 and 1981, and 85 in 1986 (in addition to 55, 61, 71, and 65 non-voting candidate members in the same years). Its members were elected at party congresses; the first congress was held in 1921 and followed by one every year from 1923 to 1928, involving relatively frank debate. From 1930 to 1960, only six congresses were held (in 1930, 1934, 1940, 1947, 1954, and 1958), ratifying key decisions which had been made in advance. From 1961 to 1986, the congresses were purely symbolic events, held every five years to coincide with those of the

2210: 711: 1501: 1684: 2095: 1214:) which had withdrawn its recognition of Mongolia's independence and renewed its territorial claim on the country. Mongolia eventually became a member state of the UN in 1961, after the Soviet Union threatened to veto the admission of the newly decolonized states of Africa if the ROC again used its veto. Mongolia established diplomatic relations with its first Western country, the United Kingdom, in 1963, but its diplomatic relations with the United States were not established until 1987, near the end of the 686: 2051:, was staged in 1950. Traditional arts were best preserved as epic poetry, music, and song, which had been passed down by bards and storytellers and first recorded (in printed word and sound) in the 20th century. The state folk song and dance ensemble was established in 1961. Under Soviet influence, European instruments were introduced, foreign works were performed, and Mongolian composers began to write music for orchestras and brass bands. The first full-scale symphonic work, 1805:(NMP) in 1950 and increased to 35 percent in 1985. Trade increased from 10 percent to 26 percent; agriculture, including herding, declined from 68 percent to 20 percent. In 1960, 61 percent of the employed worked in the agricultural sector, decreasing to 33 percent by 1985. GDP figures for Mongolia record growth throughout the 1980s; as late as 1988, the annual increase in GDP amounted to 5.1 percent. In the late 1980s, the stagnation of the economy and the example of 1982:". Much of traditional culture was viewed as "feudal" or "religious", and was officially abandoned in favor of artworks depicting revolutionary heroism, intended to mold the "new man" of the socialist society. The MPRP established systematic censorship of press, publications, and artistic performance. However, there was disagreement and lack of clear direction, reflected in particular by the fluctuating political attitudes toward Mongolia's greatest hero, 990: 2196: 2224: 3080: 1595:

livestock was primarily owned by aristocrats and the monasteries; ownership of the remaining sectors of the economy was dominated by Chinese and other foreigners. The MPR was thus faced with the daunting task of building a modern economy. Socialist collectivization, industrialization, and urbanization ultimately transformed the agrarian, nomadic economy of the 1920s into a developing, agricultural-industrial economy by the late 1980s.

1727:. Both towns, which are today Mongolia's second and third largest, were built in previously uninhabited areas and gained modern power stations, high-rise housing, schools, hospitals, and shops. Industrial development of cities was paralleled by small-scale urbanization of rural communities. Some 300 small permanent settlements were built with a school, clinic, shop, administrative office, police station, and electricity. 1580: 1160: 1858:. Comecon membership enabled import of machinery and vehicles from Eastern Europe in exchange for raw materials, though some 85 percent of trade remained with the USSR. In the 1980s, 1 to 2 percent of trade was opened with Western countries; the value of imports far exceeded that of exports, and the imbalance was funded by long-term loans from the USSR, estimated at 10 billion rubles by 1990. 1001:, Mongolian politics went through several abrupt changes of direction in the 1920s and 1930s. The initial nationalist leadership of the MPRP advanced the slogan "Get rich!" to promote business, which was opposed by the communists. The Fifth Congress in 1926 called for restriction and nationalization of private property. The Seventh Congress in 1928 denounced previous "right opportunism" ( 1672:), with a total of 35,200 workers. They were concentrated in the central and northern regions of the country, where natural conditions were suitable. An average state farm in 1985 had 15,400 hectares of arable land, 92 tractors, 36 grain harvesters, 26,200 head of livestock, and 500 workers. In 1990, the state farms owned 5.1 percent of the country's livestock (1.32 million head) 1930: 1191:, Chinese leaders attempted to present Mongolia's independence as one of Stalin's mistakes. The Soviet response was that the Mongols were free to decide their own fate. Choibalsan died of cancer in Moscow in 1952, and was replaced as prime minister by Tsedenbal. Unlike his predecessor, Tsedenbal was enthusiastic about incorporating Mongolia as a constituent 1692: 1238:. A military build-up on the Sino-Mongolian border began in 1963, and in 1966 the Soviet Union and Mongolia signed a new mutual aid treaty with a secret annex allowing the stationing of Soviet troops and missiles in the country. The Soviet Union increased its investment in the Mongolian economy on a "fraternal" or "elder brother–younger brother" ( 1883:, and the few secular schools trained clerks for local administration. The first government-run primary school was opened in the capital in November 1921, followed by the first secondary school in 1923. The Ministry of Education was established in 1924, and devised a 10-year plan (1926–1936) for the development of education and teacher training. 1664:) were established in 1922–1923, and numbered 10 in 1940. Their numbers increased rapidly with the development of large-scale grain and vegetable farming and the introduction of industrialized methods in the 1970s and 1980s, rising to 25 by 1960 and to 52 by 1985. In 1990, there were 53 state farms and 20 specialized 2072:

the government (building, education, health, and communications) or universities (physics, mathematics, biology, and the social sciences). The Institute of Party History supervised the writing of the history of the MPRP and the translation of Marxist–Leninist classics. There was close cooperation with the

1548:

The third constitution, adopted by the fourth Great Khural in July 1960, proclaimed a state of "workers, collectivized herdsmen, and working intelligentsia" which sought to achieve the "building of socialism and in the future build a communist society"; the preamble declared the MPRP the "guiding and

1455:

The Central Committee was responsible for supervising party affairs and making important policy decisions, including the appointment and removal of party and government leaders. Most of its work was done at plenary meetings, typically held twice a year. The Central Committee's membership numbered 83

977:

and nobles. In 1922, Bodoo was executed as a "counter-revolutionary". After Sükhbaatar's death in 1923, the MPP program was amended so the party could be "purged of oppressor class elements"; after the Bogd Khan's death in 1924, the search for a new incarnation was forbidden. Danzan was executed for

2071:

founded the Committee of Scriptures and Manuscripts, which established national archives in 1927. In 1931, the institute was renamed the Committee of Sciences, and began to undertake studies in botany, agriculture, geography, geology, and mapmaking. Further research institutes were linked either to

1916:

Before the 1920s, Mongolia had no health services apart from what was provided by lamas or shamans, who offered a combination of herbal remedies and incantations, and the population was in decline from untreated sickness. Modern healthcare in Mongolia was developed starting in 1922 under the Soviet

1699:

After a failed attempt in 1931–1935, the government launched eight five-year plans (and one three-year plan) in the period between 1948 and 1990, with the goal of rapidly developing agriculture and industry: 1948–1952 (first), 1953–1957 (second), 1958–1960 (the three-year plan); 1961–1965 (third),

1544:

of the working people and core of all their organizations". New state arms depicted a herdsman on horseback and the heads of a cow, sheep, goat, and camel. Amendments adopted by the ninth Great Khural in February 1949 introduced electoral reform, including a secret ballot, universal suffrage, and

1594:

subsistence society. Farming and industry were almost nonexistent, and transportation and communications were primitive. Most people were illiterate nomadic herders, and a large part of the male labor force lived in the monasteries, contributing little to the economy. Property in the form of

1907:

in 1942. The number of general education schools rose from 331 with 24,000 pupils in 1940, to 359 with 50,000 pupils in 1947. Obligatory eight-year general education (ages eight to 16) was introduced gradually in the 1970s. In 1980, the 113 elementary schools taught grades one to four, 150

1517:

lines. The land, water, and mineral wealth of the country were nationalized. The constitution contained a declaration of the rights of the people, equality before the law, and suffrage at age 18 (with the exception of "feudalists" and Buddhist lamas resident in the monasteries). The

1325:

urged accelerated reforms to overcome the party's "dogmatic interpretation of socialism", declared that "authoritarianism and intellectual indolence" undermined national "renewal", and described Tsedenbal as "willful and unprincipled". In that same year, Mongolia participated in the

1233:

in 1955. China provided economic support to Mongolia by building factories and apartment blocks, and thousands of Chinese laborers were involved in the projects until they were withdrawn in 1962 in an unsuccessful bid to pressure Mongolia to break with the USSR during the

1046:, for example, were accused of counter-revolution and shot in Moscow in 1937 and 1941, respectively. Buddhist institutions were nearly all destroyed, their property appropriated, and the lamas killed or secularized. In March 1939, Choibalsan, Stalin's close ally, became 1986:. Common subjects of "socialist realism" included heroic shepherds and workers, and figures from history such as Sükhbaatar and Choibalsan (a prominent example being the monumental equestrian statue of Sükhbaatar which today stands in the center of Ulaanbaatar's 1319:. Unlike Tsedenbal, Batmönkh agreed with the Soviet leadership on normalizing Sino-Soviet relations; between 1987 and 1992, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Mongolia, which enabled both countries to normalize relations with China. In 1988, the MPRP newspaper 1281:. Tsedenbal was expelled from office by Batmönkh and the MPRP Politburo in August 1984, on the pretext of "old age and mental incapacity" in a move with full Soviet backing, and he retired to Moscow; Batmönkh took over as the party leader and head of state. 1854:. In the 1920s, the Mongolian government drove foreign merchants out of the country and introduced a foreign trade monopoly. Mongolia traded only with the USSR until the establishment of relations with China after World War II, which ceased after the 1960s 1704:(Comecon) in 1958 as an observer, and became a member in June 1962. It received large amounts of economic, financial, and technical assistance through the council from the USSR and Eastern Europe, in the forms of credits, advisers, and joint ventures. 1005:) and dismissed several leaders. In 1929, the state began expropriating monastery property and tried to force herdsmen into collective farms and communes. During 1930–1932, there were uprisings led by the lamas of several monasteries, the 1029:

saw mass arrests of top party and state leaders, lamas, soldiers, and citizens on false charges of "counter-revolution" and spying for Japan. Some 20,000 to 35,000 Mongols were executed in Mongolia and the USSR in a campaign organized by

1536:. It proclaimed a state of "herdsmen, workers, and intelligentsia" taking a "non-capitalist road of development for the future transition to socialism". It added "counter-revolutionaries" to the list of disenfranchised, and declared the 869:

and built monasteries, which grew rich and powerful. Its administrators also impoverished and oppressed the Mongols, and pursued colonization of Inner Mongolia in the 19th century. In the early 20th century, the implementation of the

1122:

in February 1945, the "Big Three" Allied powers (the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union) decided the terms of the planned Soviet entry into the war against Japan, which included a recognition of the

1087:. In 1934, Mongolia and the USSR made a verbal agreement on mutual aid in case of invasion, followed by a formal agreement in 1936. In May 1939, Japanese forces first skirmished with Soviet and Mongolian troops at the 4226: 1811:

in the Soviet Union led Mongolian leaders to undertake a program of reform which developed the economy in a market direction, which ultimately led to the end of the socialist republic and the turn to capitalism.

1009:

and was brutally suppressed, and herdsmen began to slaughter their livestock or herd their animals across the border. At the direction of the Comintern, the MPRP expelled the perpetrators of the "left deviation"

1798:. The main industries were mining, electricity generation, production of building materials, and processing of livestock produce (meat, wool, and hides) into semi-finished goods, foodstuffs, and consumer goods. 1452:. Thereafter, the chairman of the eight-member presidium of the (People's) Great Khural became the head of state. From 1974 to 1990, the maximum leader held this position and that of party general secretary. 1182:

privately hoped for Outer Mongolia's reintegration with China, and he was rebuffed by Soviet leadership after raising the question in 1949 and again in 1954, the year after Stalin's death. In 1956, after

1175: 2739: 2672: 1959:('Truth'), founded in 1920 and still published today, served as a mouthpiece of the People's Great Khural, Council of Ministers, and MPRP Central Committee. The party also published the monthly journal 962:

entered Mongolia, and in February 1921 drove out the Chinese and restored the Bogd Khan. The MPP made a provisional government at its first congress on 1 March, and that July cavalry under Sükhbaatar,

1842:. It became the sole legal currency in 1928. The bank was transferred to the Mongolian government in 1935, and renamed the State Bank of the Mongolian People's Republic in 1954. Circulation of the 1846:

was strictly controlled by the MPR government with Soviet backing, and its foreign exchange rate was artificially fixed. In the 1960s, for example, it was valued by the State Bank at an rate of 1

1603:

The first attempt to collectivize livestock herding began in 1929. By the end of 1930, nearly 30 percent of all poor and middle herdsmen's households had been forced to join collective farms (

97: 1790:

in the 1930s; there were no large-scale developments until the building of Darkhan and Erdenet in the 1960s and 1970s, which was accompanied by efforts to modernize provincial towns such as

1460:

and the creation of five-year plans. The next MPRP congress was due for 1991, but the protests of 1990 forced an extraordinary congress in April 1990, which claimed a membership of 94,750.

1349:, the MPRP leadership resigned in March, and Batmönkh was replaced as head of state and general secretary. Tsedenbal was expelled from the MPRP. In May, the constitution was amended by the 2624:

Liu Xiaoyuan, Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911–1950 (Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Press, 2006)

2872:

Jianyong, Feng. "The 1911 Revolution and the Frontier: The 'Political Game' and 'State-Building' in Outer Mongolia during the 1911 Revolution 辛亥革命とフロンティア外モンゴルにおける政治のゲームと国家建設." (2014).

3858: 2113:. With Soviet technical aid and training, it received weapons, motor vehicles, communications equipment, and aircraft. Mongolian and Soviet troops clashed with Japanese forces in the 1899:

was decreed in March 1941, but only came into general use from January 1946. Starting in 1937, increasing numbers of Mongolian students were sent to the Soviet Union for training in

4492: 3863: 978:"bourgeois tendencies" that year. The MPP declared a socialist "non-capitalist path of development", was renamed the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), and joined the 970:. Bodoo was appointed prime minister, while the Bogd Khan was allowed to remain on the throne. In November, a Mongolian delegation traveled to Soviet Russia and signed a treaty. 194: 1625:, which were run by member councils, rose from 165 in 1952 to a peak of 727 in 1958, comprising 108,200 households (75 percent of the total). The number of livestock owned by 4507: 4487: 1420:

replaced the chairman with three co-secretaries to weaken the party's ability to resist its directives. In 1940, the presidium was replaced by a political bureau (Politburo;

1496: 480: 1553:

and ears of wheat. Amendments adopted by the 11th People's Great Khural in March and May 1990 removed references to the MPRP's "guiding" role from the preamble, instituted

4324: 4409: 4216: 1330:, making its final appearance as a communist nation. In 1989, Mongolian newspapers called for an "objective and realistic evaluation" of Mongolian–Soviet relations. 2623: 1103:. Mongolia did not join the war directly, but provided the Soviets with volunteers and materiel, and the country's economy was marshalled to support the war effort. 3115: 1891:, minister of education in 1926–1929, played a key role. A nationwide cultural offensive was declared in 1930–1931 following the government's decision to adopt the 1188: 81: 4532: 4052: 506: 1038:, minister of internal affairs and commander-in-chief. Under communist repression, an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show. Prime Ministers 1136: 2763: 2696: 2029:

in 1938 but generally concentrated on full-length feature films about heroes from Mongolian history. There were co-productions with Soviet filmmakers, such as

1574: 4101: 3665: 4502: 4314: 3994: 1401: 2168:

Mongolian army ranks and uniform were similar to their Soviet counterparts. As in the Soviet military, there was an army political directorate and deputy

1549:

directing force of society and the state". The Great Khural was renamed the People's Great Khural. New state arms replaced the four animal heads with a

4246: 3981: 2923: 1545:

direct elections. In 1951, the Little Khural was abolished and the Great Khurals were renumbered. In 1956, the Council of Ministers was restructured.

1393:(MPRP). While formally a democratic republic with regular elections, in reality, its elections were pre-decided and its government alternated between 2059:. The National Symphony Orchestra was founded in 1957. The 1970s and 1980s saw the development of Soviet-style dance bands and popular music groups. 4497: 4384: 4349: 4298: 4083: 2992: 1908:"incomplete" secondary education schools for grades one to nine, and 108 (267 by 1990) "complete" secondary education schools for grades one to 11. 1128: 4467: 3731: 2073: 874:, aimed at further Qing integration of Outer Mongolia, led to anti-Manchu mutinies and uprisings. In late 1911, the Qing dynasty collapsed in the 1440:), equivalent to a prime minister. The council oversaw cabinet-level ministries, which numbered 42 by 1981. Before it was abolished in 1951, the 1700:

1966–1970 (fourth), 1971–1975 (fifth); 1976–1980 (sixth), 1981–1985 (seventh), and 1986–1990 (eighth). Mongolia first attended a meeting of the

1487:

of the total ballot for parties in the legislative election; three-quarters of its members were required to be People's Great Khural deputies.

1127:" in Mongolia (which was still internationally recognized as part of China). In August 1945, the Soviet Union used Mongolia as one base for its 4372: 4006: 3899: 3736: 1148: 890:. The new state called on the Mongols of Inner Mongolia to join it, and sought international recognition. In 1912, it signed a treaty with the 493: 1131:. The build-up brought 650,000 Soviet troops and large amounts of equipment to the country; the MPA played a limited role. The ROC, headed by 1091:. That July, Japan launched an unsuccessful attack across the river, and in August, Soviet and Mongolian troops under General (later Marshal) 4344: 3343: 2856: 2847: 2816: 1533: 2641: 3743: 3292: 1964: 1068: 4221: 4196: 2550: 4517: 1433: 1362: 523: 3159: 1786:, east of Ulaanbaatar, made the Nalaikh mine obsolete. Mongolia had no manufacturing industries before the building of the Ulaanbaatar 4389: 4078: 4016: 3623: 3203: 2936: 2576: 2133:. The army was renamed the Mongolian People's Army in 1955. During the 1970s and 1980s, Mongolia received modern equipment, including 1449: 1337:), young people began demonstrating for political freedom in Ulaanbaatar. In January 1990, anti-MPRP rallies were held by student and 301: 2126: 903: 789: 754: 4512: 4364: 4191: 4011: 3934: 3336: 2757: 2690: 2477: 1026: 801: 4171: 4096: 3976: 2304:

was used before 1941 and is now used unofficially as an auxillary alphabet alongside Mongolian Cyrillic and the Traditional script.

4482: 4251: 4062: 3658: 3285: 3127: 1353:, which deleted references to the MPRP's "guiding role" in society, legalized opposition parties, and established the office of 4256: 3042: 1006: 963: 1975:('Literature and Art'), which dispensed ideological guidance. Mongolradio was established in 1933, and Mongolteleviz in 1967. 4472: 4176: 3566: 3397: 2507: 1513:

in November 1924, proclaimed the Mongolian People's Republic and the transfer of political power to the working people along

4278: 3961: 3889: 4288: 4186: 3966: 3379: 3302: 3181: 2952: 2916: 2077: 2000:, a design depicting a Mongol rider jumping from feudalism to socialism, was reproduced in murals and as a stamp design. 1774:, near Ulaanbaatar, in the 1930s and linked to the capital by a narrow-gauge railway line. The development of large-scale 1192: 1171: 1095:, encircled and destroyed the Japanese forces. In April 1941, the USSR and Japan concluded a neutrality pact. That June, 4527: 4332: 4031: 4021: 3790: 3421: 3100: 3064: 3047: 3027: 2118: 1290: 1108: 967: 879: 813: 793: 777: 467: 134: 2525: 4377: 4057: 3651: 3495: 3485: 3326: 3142: 2289: 1484: 183: 4429: 4283: 2806: 1946: 1537: 1390: 931: 762: 4143: 4026: 3825: 3264: 3208: 3149: 3132: 3105: 3069: 2257: 2242: 2089: 1904: 1720: 1464: 1112: 1047: 959: 643: 624: 346: 4522: 4394: 4266: 3551: 3505: 3280: 3164: 3137: 2138: 1107:, MPRP general secretary and second to Choibalsan, rose to prominence, inspecting aid deliveries and touring the 926:

government in August 1919. That November, ROC troops entered the capital and overthrew the Bogd Khan. During the

2016: 1903:; Mongolia's first vocational school opened in 1938. Higher education in Mongolia began with the opening of the 1683: 1254: 1198:

Mongolia's foreign relations outside of the USSR and PRC were initially limited to the Soviet satellites of the

4337: 4261: 3894: 3795: 3523: 3480: 3433: 3384: 3314: 3246: 3057: 3032: 3022: 2982: 2909: 2301: 2237: 1562: 1370: 1063: 895: 846: 825: 691: 568: 536: 1350: 1342: 1274: 1178:

guaranteed Outer Mongolia's independence, but ended Choibalsan's hopes for reuniting it with Inner Mongolia.

4201: 3971: 3706: 3369: 3319: 2162: 2114: 2094: 2056: 2048: 2040: 1712: 1222: 1140: 1088: 979: 585: 293: 2639:"New Documents on Mongolia and the Cold War," Cold War International History Project Bulletin no. 16 (2008) 2025: 1195:. This proposal was met with strenuous opposition from other MPRP members, and was subsequently abandoned. 4477: 4419: 4414: 4354: 3805: 3748: 3694: 3689: 3546: 3331: 3269: 3037: 2004: 1779: 1532:

The second constitution, adopted by the eighth Great Khural in June–July 1940, was closely modeled on the

1258: 1226: 1072: 1035: 1018:) was taken by moderate leadership. Collectivization of livestock herders was completed in the 1950s (see 939: 927: 797: 378: 333: 3389: 1830: 1479:), elected indirectly by the People's Great Khural. The People's Great Khural also elected the 50-member 1311:(openness and accountability); the atmosphere of reform prompted the same policies in Mongolia, known as 608: 3929: 3800: 3465: 3407: 3307: 3297: 3259: 3088: 3007: 2122: 1554: 1472: 1354: 883: 551: 162: 1514: 273: 4448: 4424: 4181: 4091: 3914: 3842: 3810: 3760: 3755: 3584: 3556: 3234: 2957: 2247: 2110: 2020: 1987: 1938: 1934: 1918: 1847: 1802: 1795: 1787: 1611:). After uprisings, these collectives were disbanded in 1932 and replaced by voluntary cooperatives ( 1266: 1163: 1104: 1100: 935: 805: 635: 366: 265: 4211: 3919: 3770: 3723: 3711: 3616: 3515: 3402: 3374: 3357: 3122: 2944: 2201: 2169: 2158: 2106: 1653:

council were merged. The national Union of Production Associations was founded in 1967 to regulate

1558: 1480: 1358: 1327: 982:. The 1924 constitution founded the Mongolian People's Republic (MPR), and its capital was renamed 837: 412: 3169: 2808:

Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949

2599: 1978:

Under political pressure, traditional Mongolian arts were suppressed in favor of Soviet-inspired "

1432:) from 1954 to 1981. Until 1974, the maximum leader of Mongolia was the head of government as the 4206: 3785: 3775: 3536: 3490: 3475: 3470: 3251: 3079: 2779: 2712: 2638: 2352: 2334: 2173: 2068: 1526: 1374: 1270: 930:, Mongolian revolutionaries made contact with the Bolsheviks in Siberia, and in 1920 founded the 915: 817: 785: 428: 290: 237: 103: 2749: 2682: 1949:, media in Mongolia was strictly controlled. The main source of information was the state-owned 1278: 2572: 2172:, whose function was to ensure loyalty to the MPRP. The army maintained close ties with Soviet 973:

A split began to emerge between nationalists and communists in the MPP, whose members included

4359: 4113: 4001: 3879: 3780: 3632: 3597: 3571: 3561: 3541: 3500: 3196: 3191: 2852: 2812: 2753: 2686: 2546: 2473: 2150: 1979: 1963:('Party Life'), which discussed theoretical matters. Other official publications included the 1900: 1855: 1791: 1724: 1338: 1296: 1262: 1235: 1184: 1144: 919: 875: 871: 809: 1621:), of which there were 91 in 1940. Collectivization was achieved in the 1950s; the number of 3904: 2977: 2745: 2678: 2634: 2371: 2277: 2229: 2154: 1880: 1821: 1334: 1119: 1039: 866: 753:. After a period of dispute over sovereignty, its independence was officially recognized by 320: 87: 1824:(Mongolbank) was founded in June 1924 as the Mongolian Trade and Industry Bank, which held 796:, the Mongolian People's Republic was established in 1924. It was led from 1939 to 1952 by 3946: 3443: 3186: 3017: 2791: 2724: 2645: 2357: 2098: 2031: 1896: 1888: 1775: 1386: 1369:

was approved, and the herding cooperatives and state farms were broken up and privatized.

1246: 1132: 989: 758: 746: 438: 279: 276: 209: 2109:

force against Chinese occupation. It primarily consisted of cavalry under its commander,

1416:) of about 10 members representing the core party leadership. Between 1928 and 1940, the 1249:, sent many of his political rivals into internal exile during his leadership, including 4319: 3884: 2842: 2511: 1876: 1708: 1519: 1366: 1203: 955: 943: 891: 862: 858: 821: 750: 510: 2080:

was founded. Scientific cooperation with the Eastern Bloc was coordinated by Comecon.

4461: 4399: 4153: 3909: 3820: 3699: 3213: 2997: 2962: 1441: 1346: 1250: 1092: 1076: 998: 947: 850: 657: 392: 287: 270: 247: 1579: 1373:, adopted in January 1992 and entering into force in February, created a unicameral 1159: 4293: 4273: 3815: 3218: 3002: 2987: 2215: 2023:. Mongolia's first film studio, set up with Soviet aid in 1935, produced the drama 1992: 1983: 1892: 1510: 1457: 1445: 1299:

became leader of the Soviet Union in March 1985, he began implementing policies of

1199: 1096: 1083:

In 1931–1932, the Empire of Japan invaded Manchuria and set up the puppet state of

1043: 854: 781: 770: 766: 446: 213: 2893: 2076:, whose Mongolian Commission supervised Soviet research on Mongolia. In 1961, the 2003:

The most prominent figure to emerge in modern Mongolian poetry and literature was

1828:(silver dollars). In December 1925, it began issuing Mongolia's own currency, the 17: 2741:

Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists - California Scholarship

2674:

Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists – California Scholarship

2573:"Mongolia Standard Time is GMT (UTC) +8, some areas of Mongolia use GMT (UTC) +7" 2015:

The national theater was established in 1931, represented by such playwrights as

1273:'s death, Tsedenbal was elected in his place as chairman of the presidium of the 1174:(PRC) in 1949, Mongolia transferred its recognition from the ROC to the PRC. The 1170:

Following the CCP's victory in the Chinese Civil War and its proclamation of the

4133: 4118: 3765: 3589: 3154: 3110: 1807: 1541: 1301: 983: 422: 406: 227: 1221:

In the 1950s, relations between the MPR and the PRC improved considerably. The

3012: 2885: 2656: 2191: 1770:, and other precious and rare metals. The first modern coal mine was built at 1179: 1124: 1054:

dictatorship, and initiated further episodes of repression during his tenure.

923: 899: 3674: 2600:"Young monks lead revival of Buddhism in Mongolia after years of repression" 2252: 2181: 2180:

secret police; Mongolia's Interior Ministry secret police and Buryat Mongol

2142: 1417: 1394: 1084: 1051: 887: 396: 2121:

in northern China in 1945, in which Mongolia was an important base. In the

1929: 1629:

rose from 280,500 in 1952 to 16.9 million in 1960, by which the number of

1202:. It was recognized by India in 1955, and that year attempted to join the 4404: 3835: 3528: 3174: 2932: 2130: 1950: 1783: 1767: 1743: 1739: 1550: 1307: 1215: 729: 704: 652: 612: 454: 282: 4148: 3643: 3458: 3448: 3438: 2972: 2967: 2322: 2314: 1955: 1884: 1771: 1716: 1701: 1691: 1321: 1230: 951: 843: 255: 2117:

on Mongolia's eastern border in 1939, and jointly participated in the

1365:

in July, the MPRP gained majorities in both bodies. A transition to a

857:

of China, during which northern and southern Mongolia became known as

3924: 3716: 3576: 3453: 2318: 1751: 1735: 1723:, a joint Mongolian–Soviet enterprise and one of the world's largest 1665: 1617: 1211: 2901: 2184:

agents assisted in its administration under direct Soviet guidance.

1871:

Before the 1921 revolution, religious schools in monasteries taught

1444:, a presidium of five members (from 1927, three) was elected by the 749:

that existed from 1924 to 1992, located in the historical region of

2313:"Mongolian" denotes nationality, which includes minorities such as 2105:

The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Army was founded in 1921 as a

208:Nominal Chinese territory (until 1946) 4138: 4108: 2873: 2146: 2093: 2043:, released as a trilogy in 1970–1973. The first Mongolian ballet, 1928: 1690: 1682: 1591: 1578: 1500: 1225:, which opened in 1949 and linked Moscow with Ulaanbaatar via the 1158: 1067: 988: 4123: 4047: 3989: 2177: 2134: 1872: 1759: 1755: 1747: 1731: 1583: 1207: 1031: 974: 784:

in 1911, and enjoyed brief autonomy before it was seized by the

3647: 2905: 2129:

cavalry fought Mongolian and Soviet troops on the border with

1895:

for Mongolian and eradicate adult illiteracy; adoption of the

1763: 1719:

was founded on a branch railway west of Darkhan to host the

1633:

had decreased to 354 after consolidation. In the 1950s, the

1149:

independence referendum was held in Mongolia in October 1945

765:, and maintained close political and economic ties with the 1135:, was persuaded to recognize Mongolian independence in the 2890:, a joint 1973 Soviet-Mongolian work published in English. 1509:

Mongolia's first-ever constitution, adopted by the first

1385:

From 1924 to 1990, the Mongolian People's Republic was a

1277:(head of state) in 1974, and handed the premiership to 2508:"Russia Still Treats Mongolia Like a Soviet Satellite" 2035:(1936), as well as film versions of classics such as 1229:, was extended to the Chinese border and linked with 1139:

after Stalin promised to refrain from supporting the

1428:); the title of the position was "first secretary" ( 4307: 4239: 4164: 4071: 4040: 3954: 3943: 3872: 3851: 3682: 3514: 3420: 3356: 3233: 3087: 2943: 2161:, founded in 1925, initially ran the civil airline 725: 651: 632: 619: 604: 584: 574: 567: 557: 550: 533: 520: 503: 490: 477: 464: 434: 419: 403: 388: 372: 360: 344: 326: 314: 300: 264: 254: 243: 233: 220: 204: 34: 2811:. Cambridge, England: CUP Archive. p. 214. 1590:At the MPR's foundation in 1924, Mongolia was a 1497:Constitutions of the Mongolian People's Republic 1463:From 1990 to 1992, the head of government was a 2342: 1996:, a style developed in the early 20th century. 1801:Industry accounted for 7 percent of Mongolia's 1075:(left), who led the MPR from 1939 to 1952, and 808:, who allied with the Soviets during the 1960s 184:State Anthem of the Mongolian People's Republic 175: 168: 154: 147: 126: 119: 61: 54: 27:Socialist state in East Asia from 1924 to 1992 4493:States and territories disestablished in 1992 3659: 2917: 2898:, a 1968 Mongolian work published in English. 177:Bügd Nairamdakh Mongol Ard Ulsiin süld duulal 8: 2365: 1147:. In keeping with the treaty, a successful 563:1,564,116 km (603,909 sq mi) 170:Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улсын сүлд дуулал 4508:20th-century disestablishments in Mongolia 4488:States and territories established in 1924 4304: 4161: 3951: 3666: 3652: 3644: 3426: 3362: 3239: 3093: 2924: 2910: 2902: 2887:History of the Mongolian People's Republic 2463: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2413: 1575:Economy of the Mongolian People's Republic 865:, respectively. The Qing dynasty promoted 193: 31: 2750:10.1525/california/9780520243996.001.0001 2683:10.1525/california/9780520243996.001.0001 2411: 2409: 2407: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2393: 2353:[ˈpuk(ə)tˈnæːrəmtəχˈmɔɴɢɞɮartʊɬs] 2011:("Three Sad Hills") remains popular today 1953:news agency. The official MPRP newspaper 1525:of Mongolian independence was adopted as 2547:"Clock changes in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia" 2494:History of Modern Europe A.D. 1789–2002 1448:to select the premier; its chairman was 1129:Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation 816:resulted in reforms which established a 2389: 2269: 1971:('Youth Truth') and the cultural paper 1505:The first Great Khural in November 1924 898:, Mongolia accepted autonomy under the 631: 618: 566: 556: 549: 418: 232: 2787: 2777: 2720: 2710: 2657:Mongolia, Landmine Monitor Report 2000 2344:Bügd Nairamdakh Mongol Ard Uls (BNMAU) 1990:). Some painters combined realism and 1947:Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party 1702:Council for Mutual Economic Assistance 1538:Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party 1391:Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party 763:Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party 4533:Former countries in Mongolian history 2848:Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929-1941 2666: 2664: 2579:from the original on October 13, 2007 2376:Монгольская Народная Республика (МНР) 2351: 2339:Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс (БНМАУ) 1483:, whose seat apportionment reflected 1245:Tsedenbal, a friend of Soviet leader 573: 532: 519: 502: 489: 476: 463: 459: 402: 371: 359: 355: 343: 325: 313: 309: 299: 128:Oron büriin prolietari nar negdegtün! 7: 1965:Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League 1730:Mongolia has industrial reserves of 1434:chairman of the council of ministers 121:Орон бүрийн пролетари нар нэгдэгтүн! 2553:from the original on March 25, 2015 1707:In 1961, the manufacturing town of 1649:administration and chairman of the 1645:, and the positions of head of the 1341:organizations; their spokesman was 1025:From September 1937 to April 1939, 1007:largest of which took place in 1932 950:, and others, across the border at 199:Mongolian People's Republic in 1989 4503:1992 disestablishments in Mongolia 1834:('round'), in silver coins of one 1424:), headed by a general secretary ( 1377:and ended the socialist republic. 1345:. After more demonstrations and a 794:a Soviet-backed revolution in 1921 25: 2506:Sergey Radchenko (26 June 2020). 2470:Historical Dictionary of Mongolia 2367:Moñğolia Halyq Respublikasy (MHR) 2362:Моңғолия Халық Республикасы (МХР) 2067:In November 1921, Buryat scholar 1715:, north of Ulaanbaatar. In 1973, 922:, Mongolia was recognized by the 3078: 2222: 2208: 2194: 1945:Under the one-party rule of the 1746:as well as numerous deposits of 1357:and a standing legislature (the 1305:(restructuring the economy) and 882:under the leadership of the 8th 709: 684: 96: 80: 4498:1924 establishments in Mongolia 2598:Thomas, Natalie (4 June 2018). 2526:"Human Development Report 1992" 2496:, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1875:to read Buddhist scriptures in 1687:Darkhan Railway Station in 1985 1615:) and production associations ( 1430:negdügeer nariin bichgiin darga 1426:yerönkhii nariin bichgiin darga 802:Stalinist purges in the country 4172:Azerbaijan People's Government 1695:Copper mine at Erdenet in 2009 1586:quarter in Ulaanbaatar in 1972 1565:ended the socialist republic. 1561:(a standing legislature). The 1471:) and the head of state was a 966:, captured the capital in the 828:ended the socialist republic. 757:in 1946. Until 1990, it was a 63:Bügd Nairamdakh Mongol Ard Uls 62: 1: 2078:Mongolian Academy of Sciences 1166:led the MPR from 1952 to 1984 1155:Cold War politics (1945–1984) 1014:) in 1932, and a "new turn" ( 997:As in the Soviet Union under 968:Mongolian People's Revolution 56:Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс 2805:Andrew D. W. Forbes (1986). 2468:Sanders, Alan J. K. (2010). 1408:) of its Central Committee ( 1291:Mongolian Revolution of 1990 1193:republic of the Soviet Union 1099:invaded the Soviet Union in 1027:Stalinist purges in Mongolia 1019: 135:Workers of the world, unite! 4468:Mongolian People's Republic 4212:Kurdish Republic of Mahabad 3116:Historical cities and towns 3053:Mongolian People's Republic 2366: 2343: 2321:, while "Mongol" indicates 2292:was used from 1941 onwards. 2280:was used from 1924 to 1941. 1485:proportional representation 1285:Reforms and end (1984–1992) 804:, and from 1952 to 1984 by 739:Mongolian People's Republic 176: 155: 127: 36:Mongolian People's Republic 4549: 4518:Former socialist republics 2243:History of modern Mongolia 2176:military intelligence and 2141:, heavy and anti-aircraft 2139:armored personnel carriers 2087: 2074:Soviet Academy of Sciences 2055:, was composed in 1955 by 2017:Sodnombaljiryn Buyannemekh 1905:Mongolian State University 1721:Erdenet Mining Corporation 1572: 1494: 1412:), which had a presidium ( 1363:first multiparty elections 1288: 1206:(UN), but its request was 1172:People's Republic of China 1115:(MPA) lieutenant general. 1061: 1048:prime minister of Mongolia 964:supported by Soviet troops 960:Roman von Ungern-Sternberg 910:Revolution and early years 835: 524:First democratic elections 4446: 3610: 3429: 3365: 3242: 3096: 3076: 2644:10 September 2008 at the 2375: 2361: 2338: 1679:Industry and urbanization 1210:by the ROC (now based in 896:Treaty of Kyakhta of 1915 880:declared its independence 663: 546: 537:Socialist state abolished 460: 384: 362:• 1924–1928 (first) 356: 340: 316:• 1924–1927 (first) 310: 192: 169: 148: 141: 120: 114: 76: 71: 55: 4513:20th century in Mongolia 3293:Administrative divisions 2983:Eastern Turkic Khaganate 2738:Rossabi, Morris (2005). 2671:Rossabi, Morris (2005). 2575:. Time Temperature.com. 2238:List of socialist states 2165:, established in 1956. 1534:1936 Soviet constitution 1064:Mongolia in World War II 1058:World War II (1939–1945) 932:Mongolian People's Party 692:Bogd Khanate of Mongolia 374:• 1990–1992 (last) 328:• 1990–1992 (last) 4483:Soviet satellite states 4222:North Korea (1947–1948) 4217:North Korea (1946–1947) 2258:Tuvan People's Republic 2090:Mongolian People's Army 2041:Chadraabalyn Lodoidamba 1933:Equestrian monument to 1713:Trans-Mongolian Railway 1660:The first state farms ( 1381:Government and politics 1223:Trans-Mongolian Railway 1176:1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty 1141:Chinese Communist Party 1137:1945 Sino-Soviet Treaty 1113:Mongolian People's Army 1079:at Khalkhin Gol in 1939 494:Independence referendum 294:constitutional republic 234:Official languages 3944:Current and historical 3547:Goyol Fashion Festival 3337:Chief of General Staff 2115:Battle of Khalkhin Gol 2102: 2009:Uchirtai gurvan tolgoi 2005:Dashdorjiin Natsagdorj 1942: 1696: 1688: 1637:(rural districts) and 1587: 1557:, and established the 1506: 1259:Tsogt-Ochiryn Lookhuuz 1227:Trans-Siberian Railway 1189:denunciation of Stalin 1167: 1089:Battle of Khalkhin Gol 1080: 1073:Khorloogiin Choibalsan 1036:Khorloogiin Choibalsan 994: 993:Map of the MPR in 1925 986:(meaning "red hero"). 940:Khorloogiin Choibalsan 814:protests for democracy 798:Khorloogiin Choibalsan 334:Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat 4473:Communism in Mongolia 3308:Third neighbor policy 3008:Northern Yuan dynasty 2895:By-Passing Capitalism 2851:. New York: Penguin. 2119:invasion of Manchuria 2097: 1932: 1694: 1686: 1582: 1504: 1351:People's Great Khural 1343:Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 1333:On 10 December 1989 ( 1275:People's Great Khural 1162: 1071: 992: 884:Jebtsundamba Khutuktu 878:, and Outer Mongolia 429:People's Great Khural 163:Mongol Internationale 156:Mongol Intiernacional 4449:History of socialism 3567:Traditional medicine 3286:Constitutional Court 3128:Environmental issues 2958:Prehistoric Mongolia 2248:Politics of Mongolia 2170:political commissars 2057:Luvsanjambyn Mördorj 2049:Bilegiin Damdinsüren 1998:Bypassing Capitalism 1803:net material product 1267:Sampilyn Jalan-Aajav 1261:and others in 1964, 1164:Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal 1105:Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal 1101:Operation Barbarossa 958:cavalry under Baron 918:and outbreak of the 886:, who was named the 826:constitution in 1992 806:Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal 634:• Summer ( 576:• 1992 estimate 367:Balingiin Tserendorj 149:Монгол Интернационал 4528:Totalitarian states 4385:Estonia (1918–1919) 4279:Hungary (1949–1989) 3252:State Great Khural 3043:Soviet intervention 2766:on 14 February 2021 2699:on 14 February 2021 2549:. timeanddate.com. 2492:Rao, B. V. (2006), 2472:. Scarecrow Press. 2202:Soviet Union portal 2159:Mongolian Air Force 1711:was founded on the 1641:were combined into 1559:State Little Khural 1481:State Little Khural 1359:State Little Khural 1328:Seoul Olympic Games 1313:öörchlön baiguulalt 1255:Daramyn Tömör-Ochir 838:History of Mongolia 778:gained independence 468:People's Revolution 413:State Little Khural 379:Dashiin Byambasüren 4350:Byelorussia (1919) 3491:List of Mongolians 3398:Telecommunications 3038:Chinese occupation 2290:Mongolian Cyrillic 2151:attack helicopters 2123:Beitashan Incident 2103: 2069:Tsyben Zhamtsarano 1973:Utga Zokhiol Urlag 1943: 1901:vocational schools 1788:industrial combine 1697: 1689: 1670:tejeeliin aj akhui 1599:Collective farming 1588: 1507: 1422:uls töriin tovchoo 1404:was the chairman ( 1402:leader of the MPRP 1397:and one-man rule. 1375:State Great Khural 1371:A new constitution 1271:Jamsrangiin Sambuu 1168: 1081: 1003:baruun opportunizm 995: 928:Chinese occupation 916:October Revolution 818:multi-party system 800:, who carried out 786:Beiyang government 347:Head of government 18:Communist Mongolia 4455: 4454: 4442: 4441: 4438: 4437: 4235: 4234: 3977:Congo-Brazzaville 3873:Regional variants 3641: 3640: 3606: 3605: 3416: 3415: 3352: 3351: 3344:Political parties 3303:Foreign relations 3229: 3228: 2858:978-1-59420-380-0 2818:978-0-521-25514-1 2127:Republic of China 2111:Damdin Sükhbaatar 2045:Path of Happiness 2037:Transparent Tamir 2026:Norjmaa's Destiny 1988:Sükhbaatar Square 1980:socialist realism 1969:Zaluuchuudyn Ünen 1939:Sükhbaatar Square 1937:in Ulaanbaatar's 1935:Damdin Sükhbaatar 1856:Sino-Soviet split 1816:Banking and trade 1782:near Darkhan and 1563:1992 constitution 1450:the head of state 1438:said naryn zövlöl 1400:Before 1928, the 1361:). At Mongolia's 1339:social democratic 1297:Mikhail Gorbachev 1263:Bazaryn Shirendev 1236:Sino-Soviet split 1185:Nikita Khrushchev 1145:Chinese Civil War 936:Damdin Sükhbaatar 920:Russian Civil War 904:Republic of China 876:Xinhai Revolution 810:Sino-Soviet split 769:, as part of the 735: 734: 721: 720: 717: 716: 697: 696: 481:1924 Constitution 16:(Redirected from 4540: 4523:Communist states 4305: 4162: 3952: 3947:socialist states 3826:African-American 3668: 3661: 3654: 3645: 3626: 3619: 3593: 3592:(New Year's Day) 3580: 3532: 3459:Southern Mongols 3427: 3393: 3363: 3273: 3255: 3240: 3094: 3082: 2978:Rouran Khaganate 2926: 2919: 2912: 2903: 2862: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2789: 2785: 2783: 2775: 2773: 2771: 2762:. Archived from 2735: 2729: 2728: 2722: 2718: 2716: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2695:. Archived from 2668: 2659: 2654: 2648: 2635:Sergey Radchenko 2632: 2626: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2569: 2563: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2530: 2522: 2516: 2515: 2503: 2497: 2490: 2484: 2483: 2465: 2378: 2377: 2369: 2363: 2355: 2350: 2346: 2340: 2332: 2326: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2278:Mongolian script 2276:The traditional 2274: 2232: 2230:Communism portal 2227: 2226: 2225: 2218: 2213: 2212: 2211: 2204: 2199: 2198: 2197: 1838:subdivided into 1822:bank of Mongolia 1662:sangiin aj akhui 1515:Marxist–Leninist 1335:Human Rights Day 1120:Yalta Conference 1040:Peljidiin Genden 867:Tibetan Buddhism 713: 712: 701: 700: 688: 687: 681: 680: 665: 664: 647: 628: 600: 599: 591: 542:12 February 1992 486:26 November 1924 349: 336: 321:Peljidiin Genden 274:Marxist–Leninist 223:and largest city 197: 180: 179: 172: 171: 159: 158: 151: 150: 131: 130: 123: 122: 100: 84: 66: 65: 64: 58: 57: 52: 51: 44: 32: 21: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4542: 4541: 4539: 4538: 4537: 4458: 4457: 4456: 4451: 4434: 4415:Slovakia (1919) 4315:Alsace-Lorraine 4303: 4231: 4160: 4067: 4036: 3945: 3939: 3868: 3847: 3678: 3672: 3642: 3637: 3629: 3622: 3615: 3602: 3591: 3578: 3530: 3510: 3506:Writing systems 3496:Sex trafficking 3486:Public holidays 3412: 3391: 3348: 3327:Law enforcement 3271: 3253: 3225: 3083: 3074: 3070:Modern Mongolia 3065:1990 Revolution 3048:1921 Revolution 3028:1911 Revolution 3018:Dzungar Khanate 2993:Medieval tribes 2939: 2930: 2882: 2869: 2867:Further reading 2859: 2843:Kotkin, Stephen 2841: 2838: 2833: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2804: 2803: 2799: 2786: 2776: 2769: 2767: 2760: 2737: 2736: 2732: 2719: 2709: 2702: 2700: 2693: 2670: 2669: 2662: 2655: 2651: 2646:Wayback Machine 2633: 2629: 2622: 2618: 2608: 2606: 2597: 2596: 2592: 2582: 2580: 2571: 2570: 2566: 2556: 2554: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2528: 2524: 2523: 2519: 2505: 2504: 2500: 2491: 2487: 2480: 2467: 2466: 2391: 2387: 2382: 2381: 2348: 2333: 2329: 2312: 2308: 2302:Mongolian Latin 2300: 2296: 2288: 2284: 2275: 2271: 2266: 2228: 2223: 2221: 2214: 2209: 2207: 2200: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2099:Zaisan Memorial 2092: 2086: 2065: 2032:Son of Mongolia 2021:Donrovyn Namdag 1927: 1914: 1897:Cyrillic script 1889:Erdene Batkhaan 1869: 1864: 1818: 1776:open-pit mining 1681: 1607:) or communes ( 1601: 1577: 1571: 1499: 1493: 1387:one-party state 1383: 1293: 1287: 1279:Jambyn Batmönkh 1269:in 1983. After 1247:Leonid Brezhnev 1157: 1133:Chiang Kai-shek 1066: 1060: 914:After the 1917 912: 842:From 1691, the 840: 834: 792:in 1919. After 776:Outer Mongolia 759:one-party state 747:socialist state 710: 685: 642: 639: 623: 597: 596: 595: 589: 577: 560: 539: 526: 516:25 October 1961 513: 499:20 October 1945 496: 483: 470: 439:Interwar period 425: 409: 375: 363: 345: 332: 329: 317: 286: 224: 210:Satellite state 200: 187: 181: 174: 173: 166: 160: 153: 152: 146: 132: 125: 124: 118: 110: 109: 108: 106: 101: 93: 92: 90: 85: 67: 60: 59: 53: 49: 47: 45: 42: 40: 39: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4546: 4544: 4536: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4460: 4459: 4453: 4452: 4447: 4444: 4443: 4440: 4439: 4436: 4435: 4433: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4395:Hungary (1919) 4392: 4387: 4382: 4381: 4380: 4375: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4341: 4340: 4335: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4311: 4309: 4302: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4270: 4269: 4264: 4262:Czech Republic 4257:Czechoslovakia 4254: 4249: 4243: 4241: 4237: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4197:Inner Mongolia 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4177:East Turkestan 4174: 4168: 4166: 4159: 4158: 4157: 4156: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4105: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4086: 4081: 4075: 4073: 4069: 4068: 4066: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4044: 4042: 4038: 4037: 4035: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3999: 3998: 3997: 3992: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3958: 3956: 3949: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3937: 3932: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3912: 3907: 3902: 3897: 3892: 3887: 3882: 3876: 3874: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3866: 3861: 3859:United Kingdom 3855: 3853: 3849: 3848: 3846: 3845: 3840: 3839: 3838: 3830: 3829: 3828: 3818: 3816:United Kingdom 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3752: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3740: 3739: 3726: 3721: 3720: 3719: 3709: 3704: 3703: 3702: 3692: 3686: 3684: 3680: 3679: 3673: 3671: 3670: 3663: 3656: 3648: 3639: 3638: 3636: 3635: 3628: 3627: 3620: 3612: 3611: 3608: 3607: 3604: 3603: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3587: 3582: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3526: 3520: 3518: 3512: 3511: 3509: 3508: 3503: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3462: 3461: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3436: 3430: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3410: 3408:Transportation 3405: 3400: 3395: 3387: 3385:Stock Exchange 3382: 3377: 3372: 3366: 3360: 3354: 3353: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3346: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3329: 3324: 3323: 3322: 3312: 3311: 3310: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3289: 3288: 3283: 3275: 3267: 3265:Prime Minister 3262: 3257: 3249: 3243: 3237: 3231: 3230: 3227: 3226: 3224: 3223: 3222: 3221: 3216: 3206: 3204:National parks 3201: 3200: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3179: 3178: 3177: 3172: 3162: 3157: 3152: 3147: 3146: 3145: 3140: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3119: 3118: 3113: 3103: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3072: 3067: 3062: 3061: 3060: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2949: 2947: 2941: 2940: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2921: 2914: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2891: 2881: 2880:External links 2878: 2877: 2876: 2868: 2865: 2864: 2863: 2857: 2837: 2834: 2832: 2831: 2817: 2797: 2788:|website= 2758: 2730: 2721:|website= 2691: 2660: 2649: 2627: 2616: 2590: 2564: 2538: 2517: 2512:Foreign Policy 2498: 2485: 2478: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2379: 2327: 2306: 2294: 2282: 2268: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2219: 2205: 2189: 2186: 2101:in Ulaanbaatar 2088:Main article: 2085: 2082: 2064: 2061: 2007:, whose opera 1926: 1925:Media and arts 1923: 1919:Semashko model 1913: 1910: 1868: 1865: 1863: 1860: 1817: 1814: 1680: 1677: 1600: 1597: 1573:Main article: 1570: 1567: 1527:the state arms 1492: 1489: 1477:yerönkhiilögch 1469:yerönkhii said 1465:prime minister 1382: 1379: 1367:market economy 1289:Main article: 1286: 1283: 1204:United Nations 1156: 1153: 1062:Main article: 1059: 1056: 1034:officials and 1020:§ Economy 1012:züünii nugalaa 954:. In October, 944:Dogsomyn Bodoo 934:(MPP), led by 911: 908: 892:Russian Empire 863:Inner Mongolia 859:Outer Mongolia 836:Main article: 833: 830: 822:market economy 751:Outer Mongolia 733: 732: 727: 723: 722: 719: 718: 715: 714: 707: 698: 695: 694: 689: 677: 676: 671: 661: 660: 655: 649: 648: 640: 633: 630: 629: 621: 617: 616: 606: 602: 601: 592: 582: 581: 578: 575: 572: 571: 565: 564: 561: 558: 555: 554: 548: 547: 544: 543: 540: 534: 531: 530: 527: 521: 518: 517: 514: 511:United Nations 504: 501: 500: 497: 491: 488: 487: 484: 478: 475: 474: 471: 465: 462: 461: 458: 457: 436: 435:Historical era 432: 431: 426: 420: 417: 416: 410: 404: 401: 400: 390: 386: 385: 382: 381: 376: 373: 370: 369: 364: 361: 358: 357: 354: 353: 350: 342: 341: 338: 337: 330: 327: 324: 323: 318: 315: 312: 311: 308: 307: 304: 298: 297: 268: 262: 261: 258: 252: 251: 245: 241: 240: 235: 231: 230: 225: 222: 218: 217: 206: 202: 201: 198: 190: 189: 139: 138: 112: 111: 102: 95: 94: 86: 79: 78: 77: 74: 73: 69: 68: 38: 35: 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4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3996: 3993: 3991: 3988: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3959: 3957: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3942: 3936: 3933: 3931: 3928: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3918: 3916: 3913: 3911: 3908: 3906: 3903: 3901: 3898: 3896: 3893: 3891: 3888: 3886: 3883: 3881: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3871: 3865: 3864:United States 3862: 3860: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3850: 3844: 3841: 3837: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3827: 3824: 3823: 3822: 3821:United States 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3782: 3779: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3754: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3738: 3735: 3734: 3733: 3730: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3718: 3715: 3714: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3701: 3700:New Australia 3698: 3697: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3687: 3685: 3681: 3676: 3669: 3664: 3662: 3657: 3655: 3650: 3649: 3646: 3634: 3631: 3630: 3625: 3621: 3618: 3614: 3613: 3609: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3575: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3552:Horse culture 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3513: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3464: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3441: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3431: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3419: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3376: 3373: 3371: 3368: 3367: 3364: 3361: 3359: 3355: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3335: 3334: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3321: 3318: 3317: 3316: 3313: 3309: 3306: 3305: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3287: 3284: 3282: 3281:Supreme Court 3279: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3268: 3266: 3263: 3261: 3258: 3256: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3211: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3184: 3183: 3180: 3176: 3173: 3171: 3168: 3167: 3166: 3163: 3161: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3135: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3108: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3071: 3068: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3056: 3055: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3016: 3014: 3011: 3009: 3006: 3004: 3001: 2999: 2998:Mongol Empire 2996: 2994: 2991: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2974: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2963:Proto-Mongols 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2927: 2922: 2920: 2915: 2913: 2908: 2907: 2904: 2897: 2896: 2892: 2889: 2888: 2884: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2870: 2866: 2860: 2854: 2850: 2849: 2844: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2820: 2814: 2810: 2809: 2801: 2798: 2793: 2781: 2765: 2761: 2759:9780520243996 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2100: 2096: 2091: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2075: 2070: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2033: 2028: 2027: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1999: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1961:Namyn Amidral 1958: 1957: 1952: 1948: 1940: 1936: 1931: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1911: 1909: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1887:intellectual 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1866: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1832: 1827: 1823: 1820:The national 1815: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1804: 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1703: 1693: 1685: 1678: 1676: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1619: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1598: 1596: 1593: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1546: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1530: 1528: 1524: 1522: 1516: 1512: 1503: 1498: 1491:Constitutions 1490: 1488: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1461: 1459: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1442:Little Khural 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1414:tergüülegchid 1411: 1407: 1403: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1389:ruled by the 1388: 1380: 1378: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1347:hunger strike 1344: 1340: 1336: 1331: 1329: 1324: 1323: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1309: 1304: 1303: 1298: 1292: 1284: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1265:in 1982, and 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1251:Dashiin Damba 1248: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1165: 1161: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1143:(CCP) in the 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1109:Eastern Front 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1093:Georgy Zhukov 1090: 1086: 1078: 1077:Georgy Zhukov 1074: 1070: 1065: 1057: 1055: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1008: 1004: 1000: 999:Joseph Stalin 991: 987: 985: 981: 976: 971: 969: 965: 961: 957: 956:White Russian 953: 949: 948:Soliin Danzan 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 909: 907: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 847:were ruled by 845: 839: 831: 829: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 774: 772: 768: 764: 761:ruled by the 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 731: 728: 726:Today part of 724: 708: 706: 703: 702: 699: 693: 690: 683: 682: 679: 678: 675: 672: 670: 667: 666: 662: 659: 656: 654: 653:ISO 3166 code 650: 645: 641: 637: 626: 622: 614: 610: 607: 603: 593: 587: 583: 579: 570: 562: 553: 545: 541: 538: 528: 525: 515: 512: 508: 498: 495: 485: 482: 472: 469: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 437: 433: 430: 427: 424: 414: 411: 408: 398: 394: 393:Little Khural 391: 387: 383: 380: 377: 368: 365: 351: 348: 339: 335: 331: 322: 319: 305: 303: 302:Head of state 295: 292: 289: 284: 281: 278: 275: 272: 269: 267: 263: 259: 257: 253: 249: 248:State atheism 246: 242: 239: 236: 229: 226: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 196: 191: 185: 178: 164: 157: 144: 140: 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Retrieved 2541: 2533:hdr.undp.org 2532: 2520: 2501: 2493: 2488: 2469: 2330: 2309: 2297: 2285: 2272: 2216:China portal 2167: 2155:jet fighters 2104: 2066: 2052: 2044: 2036: 2030: 2024: 2012: 2008: 2002: 1997: 1993:mongol zurag 1991: 1984:Genghis Khan 1977: 1972: 1968: 1960: 1954: 1944: 1915: 1893:Latin script 1870: 1851: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1829: 1825: 1819: 1806: 1800: 1729: 1725:copper mines 1706: 1698: 1673: 1669: 1661: 1659: 1657:membership. 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1602: 1589: 1555:a presidency 1547: 1531: 1520: 1511:Great Khural 1508: 1476: 1468: 1462: 1458:Soviet Union 1454: 1446:Great Khural 1437: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1399: 1384: 1332: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1306: 1300: 1294: 1244: 1239: 1220: 1200:Eastern Bloc 1197: 1169: 1117: 1097:Nazi Germany 1082: 1044:Anandyn Amar 1024: 1016:shine ergelt 1015: 1011: 1002: 996: 972: 913: 894:. Under the 872:New Policies 855:Qing dynasty 841: 824:, and a new 775: 771:Eastern Bloc 767:Soviet Union 742: 738: 736: 674:Succeeded by 673: 668: 559:• Total 529:29 June 1990 473:1 March 1921 450: 447:World War II 442: 399:; 1924–1951) 216:(until 1990) 214:Soviet Union 142: 116:Motto: 115: 29: 4308:Short-lived 4165:Short-lived 4134:South Yemen 4119:North Korea 4079:Afghanistan 3796:New Zealand 3791:Netherlands 3370:Agriculture 3270:Government 3155:Gobi Desert 3111:Ulaanbaatar 2836:Works cited 2053:My Homeland 1808:perestroika 1540:to be the " 1302:perestroika 984:Ulaanbaatar 812:. In 1990, 669:Preceded by 423:Lower house 415:(1990–1992) 407:Upper house 389:Legislature 296:(1990–1992) 291:multi-party 285:(1924–1990) 228:Ulaanbaatar 188:(1950–1992) 167:(1924–1950) 107:(1960–1992) 91:(1945–1992) 43:ᠨᠠᠢᠢᠷᠠᠮᠳᠠᠬᠤ 4462:Categories 4420:Tarnobrzeg 4345:Bessarabia 4299:Yugoslavia 4022:Seychelles 4017:Mozambique 4012:Madagascar 3935:Vietnamese 3930:Venezuelan 3920:Nicaraguan 3915:Melanesian 3832:Venezuela 3744:Kuomintang 3737:since 1978 3707:Bangladesh 3683:By country 3677:by country 3579:(festival) 3557:Literature 3392:(currency) 3277:Judiciary 3013:Four Oirat 2770:7 February 2703:7 February 2385:References 2349:pronounced 1967:newspaper 1912:Healthcare 1796:Sükhbaatar 1792:Choibalsan 1643:sum-negdel 1495:See also: 1410:töv khoroo 1180:Mao Zedong 1125:status quo 1050:and led a 900:suzerainty 782:Qing China 569:Population 266:Government 256:Demonym(s) 250:(official) 4378:1939–1940 4333:1918–1919 4102:1982–1992 4097:1979–1992 4092:1975–1979 4088:Cambodia 4063:Nicaragua 3995:1987–1991 3990:1974–1987 3986:Ethiopia 3925:Tanzanian 3806:Sri Lanka 3749:Hong Kong 3732:Communist 3695:Australia 3690:Argentina 3675:Socialism 3529:Biyelgee 3466:Education 3380:Companies 3298:Elections 3272:(cabinet) 3260:President 3182:Mountains 3160:Grassland 3089:Geography 3023:Qing rule 2790:ignored ( 2780:cite book 2723:ignored ( 2713:cite book 2557:March 27, 2335:Mongolian 2323:ethnicity 2253:Mengjiang 2182:Comintern 2143:artillery 2125:in 1947, 1867:Education 1780:Sharyngol 1613:nökhörlöl 1473:president 1418:Comintern 1395:oligarchy 1355:president 1257:in 1962, 1253:in 1959, 1242:) basis. 1085:Manchukuo 1052:Stalinist 980:Comintern 924:Bolshevik 888:Bogd Khan 620:Time zone 580:2,318,000 397:presidium 280:socialist 277:one-party 260:Mongolian 244:Religion 238:Mongolian 72:1924–1992 4430:Würzburg 4405:Naissaar 4369:Finland 4329:Bavaria 4267:Slovakia 4252:Bulgaria 4182:Far East 4129:Mongolia 4041:Americas 3905:European 3836:Chavismo 3801:Pakistan 3633:Category 3585:Religion 3476:Language 3332:Military 3235:Politics 3170:Khövsgöl 2953:Timeline 2937:articles 2933:Mongolia 2845:(2017). 2642:Archived 2577:Archived 2551:Archived 2188:See also 2131:Xinjiang 2107:partisan 2084:Military 1951:Montsame 1826:yanchaan 1784:Baganuur 1768:tungsten 1744:iron ore 1740:fluorite 1605:khamtral 1551:cogwheel 1542:vanguard 1308:glasnost 1216:Cold War 745:) was a 730:Mongolia 705:Mongolia 605:Currency 507:Admitted 455:Cold War 283:republic 4400:Ireland 4390:Galicia 4289:Romania 4247:Albania 4202:Jiangxi 4149:Vietnam 4053:Grenada 4027:Somalia 3910:Israeli 3900:Chinese 3895:Burmese 3890:British 3880:African 3852:History 3843:Vietnam 3811:Tunisia 3761:Finland 3756:Estonia 3617:Outline 3577:Naadam 3542:Cuisine 3531:(dance) 3516:Culture 3449:Buryats 3444:Khalkha 3439:Mongols 3422:Society 3403:Tourism 3390:Tögrög 3375:Banking 3358:Economy 3214:Selenga 3197:Khentii 3192:Khangai 3143:Mammals 3123:Climate 3101:Borders 2973:Xianbei 2968:Xiongnu 2945:History 2824:28 June 2604:Reuters 2372:Russian 2315:Kazakhs 2063:Science 1941:in 1972 1877:Tibetan 1862:Society 1772:Nalaikh 1717:Erdenet 1709:Darkhan 1668:farms ( 1592:nomadic 1569:Economy 1521:soyombo 1240:akh düü 1231:Beijing 1118:At the 952:Kyakhta 906:(ROC). 902:of the 844:Mongols 832:History 535:• 522:• 505:• 492:• 479:• 466:• 421:• 405:• 288:Unitary 271:Unitary 221:Capital 212:of the 143:Anthem: 4410:Saxony 4355:Bremen 4284:Poland 4240:Europe 4207:Kuwait 4187:Fujian 4002:Guinea 3962:Angola 3955:Africa 3771:Greece 3766:France 3728:China 3724:Canada 3717:Lulism 3712:Brazil 3537:Cinema 3471:Health 3454:Oirats 3219:Orkhon 3209:Rivers 3106:Cities 2935: 2874:Online 2855: 2815: 2756: 2689: 2609:6 July 2476: 2358:Kazakh 2319:Tuvans 2157:. 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