220:(Moldavia and Wallachia). The IDC did draw up an Upper Danubian Navigation Act in November 1857, but it was not accepted multilaterally because of opposition of all the powers except Austria. It was, however, applied to parts of the river by conventions between Austria, Bavaria, and Württemberg. The river-bordering states, Krehbiel stressed in his 1918 article, "were eager to get control of the river into their own hands", but the non-riparian states were "loath to lose control." As a result, the CED was constantly strengthened, and the IDC never came into power, but "was presently abandoned."
261:
77:
383:
576:
359:
616:
224:
624:
internationally, the
Romanian government began an internal propaganda campaign in 1926 to nationalize the Sulina channel, even without the concurrence of the other nations. Spokesmen claimed the CED had failed to keep the channel clear, resulting in a situation where only empty boats could cross it; the commission replied that the silt had piled up during the war when Romania had full control.
245:
vessels, thanks to a provision in the Treaty of Paris that each of the powers had "the right to station, at all times, Two Light
Vessels at the Mouths of the Danube." What resulted was the establishment of the CED as "an international financial agent with considerable independence . . . the novel prerogative was that it could go into the money market and contract loans."
482:
time were Russia, then in the first years of rule by the
Bolsheviks, and Turkey. It took six months, but on July 23, 1921, the basic convention was signed. It followed to a large extent the temporary framework built just after the war. The European Commission of the Danube was re-established, and all the old treaties and regulations were confirmed.
432:
160:
232:
basis for an opinion as to the best way to attack the river problem; it found river traffic paralyzed." At the end of the two years, Sir
Charles Hartley, war comrade of Stokes, had been appointed chief engineer (a post he was to hold for forty-nine years) but large-draft vessels were unable to sail unimpeded up the
354:
In the end, a new scheme was adopted for the IDC — Austria, Romania, Serbia, and
Bulgaria would each have a representative on the IDC, and each of the members of the other commission, the CED, would serve alternating terms on the IDC for six months at a time. Austria would be chair, but with no tie-breaking vote.
531:(Wilson's wartime chief of railroads). His report was issued in August 1925, stating that the river fleet carried 25 percent more tonnage than before the war, but traffic was only 56 percent of normal. This reduction was largely due to an economic depression but also by the breakup of Austria-Hungary's large
464:
as commander. The Allies' Supreme
Committee decided on May 22, 1919, that "despite the existing uncertainty concerning the frontiers and the ownership of the floating material, normal conditions of traffic on the Danube should be established as soon as possible", and an Inter-Allied Danube Commission
443:
continued to meet together. After
Romania attacked Austria-Hungary in 1916, the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey) kept the commission in operation for a short time — but without the British and the French. Indeed, the Germans attempted to legalize a commission that would
194:
designate and to cause to be executed the Works necessary below
Isatcha, to clear the mouths of the Danube, as well as the neighbouring parts of the Sea, from the sands and other impediments which obstruct them, in order to put that part of the River and the said parts of the Sea in the best possible
373:
In 1881, the interested countries gathered at Galatz to promulgate another treaty, or, as it was termed, a public act, that spelled out details of the CED's relations with
Romania, which was striving for more authority. It was then that Russia withdrew her territory from the EDC's jurisdiction — the
275:
On
November 2, 1865, a public act signed by Austria, Britain, France, Italy, Prussia, Russia, and Turkey placed the CED, its officers, works and establishments "under the protection of international law" (Article I). Two annexes were appended — one on navigation regulations and the other on a tariff
231:
The CED gradually extended its power until it became an international entity glimmering in what Blackburn called "the twilight of statehood." It expanded its functions until it was ranked "the most successful" such agency until the League of Nations. At the start, though, it had no funds, "it had no
138:
Stanford University history professor Edward Krehbiel suggested in 1918 that other "international administrative agents" like the Danube Commission would eventually be created to handle specific problems. Their activities would "develop a whole body of rules which will in effect be the foundation of
627:
Meanwhile, Romania resorted to a lawsuit to assert its jurisdiction over an upriver stretch. It noted that the jurisdiction of the CED had been extended up the river from Galatz to Ibraila by the Treaty of London of 1883, in the framing and signing of which Romania had not participated. In 1921 two
623:
In 1924, Romania suggested that the activities of the commission be limited; that country would be charged with trial and punishment of shipping violators, similar to the method used by the newer, upriver International Danube Commission. This suggestion also was rejected by the other powers. Balked
448:
countries; above Braila, control was to be "in the hands of the countries bordering the river", that is, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Romania obtained the right to keep warships on the river; this led, as a reaction, to the
353:
The powers agreed that regulations would be formulated for the upriver stretch from Galatz to the Iron Gates by a "mixed" European commission, "assisted by Delegates of the Riverain States, and placed in harmony with those which have been or may be issued for the portion of the river below Galatz."
134:
in Ohio, wrote in 1945 that international river commissions were organized on the collegiate principle, composed of "persons appointed by the contracting states, representing them and having to act in conformity with the instructions of their states." They were, he concluded, objects, not subjects,
481:
The conference convened in Paris in September 1920 to draw up a definitive statute for the river. Represented were Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Romania, and Yugoslavia, Absent from a full-dress Danubian conference for the first
657:
In 1938, a committee of experts inspected the Sulina and found it was almost impassable by that time. In August of that same year, the regime of the two commissions was swept away by rise of German power on the river. A series of treaties put control in the hands of the Germans, who maintained it
505:
was beginning to fade. As it stands the Statute is a somewhat unsatisfactory compromise between broad conceptions and narrow-mindedness. Its text gave rise to varying interpretations and some of its important stipulations were therefore not applied, as had been hoped, in the best interests of the
155:
The establishments of the CED were guaranteed to be neutral (promulgated in 1865) and free of the restraints of the territorial authorities. It owned and operated a hospital for seamen of all countries, and it flew a flag ("composed of five parallel strips . . . arranged in the following order of
607:
Of course the acceptance of this proposal would have meant the end of effective control of the Danube, for the Commission, far from the mouths of the Danube and charged with new tasks, would have hardly been able to fulfill its primary tasks, and the actual control of the Lower Danube would have
252:. But it secured money by issuing bonds, offering the river tolls as security. "To be sure, the rate of 10 per cent was high, but the significant fact is that the joint agent of the nations was developing a real identity and personality. Its venturesomeness was rewarded with complete solvency.
244:
Funds were borrowed from Turkey to pay for improvements, but they came irregularly. Sometimes the CED had to contract short-term, high-rate loans. By 1860, though, traffic had increased enough so the commission could fix a tariff and get a good amount of money. There was no opposition from the
92:
The European Commission of the Danube was the first — and for a long time the only — international body to have serious police and juridical powers over private vessels and individual people, and it was seen in 1930, for example, by history professor Glen A. Blackburn of the United States as a
287:
The unique provision of the 1865 act was that either of the two annexes could be changed by a majority vote of the commission but the changes would be automatically binding on the member nations, without need for additional consent. Duties of the officers were spelled out, neutrality of the
418:
Detailed and liberal rules drawn up in this convention for the Danube between Ibraila upstream to the Iron Gate were never applied. Romania did not agree, "and the stretch of the Danube was administered by each riparian state, with due regard, however, to the principle of free navigation."
472:
Peace treaties imposed by the Allies set up new regulations for the river: The old European Commission resumed its power over the mouths of the river, but its membership was "temporarily" limited to Britain, France, Italy, and Romania (excluding, then, Russia and Turkey). In addition, an
514:
specialist with the U.S. State Department, wrote in 1949 that just as the Paris conference in 1856, had striven to block "Russian domination" in Southeastern Europe after the Crimean War, so the 1921 convention "stood for an effort to block the resurgence of German or Russian power."
393:
In 1883, Austria, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Turkey were represented at another conference, this time in London. A majority decided to admit Romania and Serbia in a consultative capacity only and that Bulgaria could be represented only through Turkey, the nominal
97:
Without territorial possessions, it is nevertheless a distinct international entity, possessing sovereignty over the broad waters of the Danube. . . . These entirely discretionary functions need the sanction of no group of nations, and there is no appeal from the edicts of the
199:
At the end of the two years, the powers that signed the treaty were to "pronounce the dissolution of the European Commission", and the so-called "permanent", upstream, IDC was then to extend its supervision to the Lower Danube. The latter commission was supposed to consist of
587:
said he would insist on the mouths being "exclusively controlled by Romanian officials." This statement led to a break with Austria-Hungary, and Carol was forced late in the year to dispatch a message of " 'deep regret' for the offense that had been given to Austria."
288:
buildings, records, and funds was ordered, and certain portions of Turkish territory were reserved for exclusive use of the CED. Its life was extended for another five years, but Russia protested that this "should be the outside limit not to be exceeded in any case."
296:
In 1871 at a conference in London, Russia agreed with Austria-Hungary, Britain, Germany, Italy, and Turkey to extend the commission's term for another twelve years, which coincided with the redemption period of a large loan floated in 1865. The conference also:
523:
The European Commission, again ensconced in its quarters at Galatz, found things very bad indeed at the mouths of the Danube after the war. Silt had choked the channel again, and it seemed as though attempts to improve the situation was continually going awry.
658:
until the Nazi retreat in 1944 and ultimate defeat in 1945. In 1948, a Danube river conference was held, and a new treaty was adopted, putting governance of the river under commissions composed only of the riparian powers, ending more than four decades of
444:
have perpetually excluded the Allied powers. on May 7, 1918, they concluded a separate peace with the Romanians, changing the EDC into a Commission of the Mouth of the Danube; its competence was maintained, but membership was restricted to Danubian or
559:, large United Kingdom shipholders, have obtained a virtual monopoly. . . . It operates a steamer service from British ports to the Levant , the Black Sea and to Sulina, Galatz and Braila, where British tonnage has long been preponderant.
147:
In regard to the CED, he noted that the tariffs were to be settled by a majority vote of the commissioners and that "Majority rule results in making law for the minority, and . . . it therefore represents a truly profound abasement of
422:
As conditions in the delta improved, shipping increased and more funds were received by the CED. Conditions improved: There were 111 shipwrecks of seagoing vessels between 1861 and 1881, but only five wrecks between 1909 and 1929
1131:"Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube between Galatz and Braila, Advisory Opinion of 8 December 1927", Permanent Court of International Justice. Includes a history of international regulation on the Danube.
546:
of New York City to suggest, in particular, the reduction of "dues which it has imposed." British interests since 1918 had turned the Danube into a virtual European Thames. Before the war, reported Clair Price of the
628:
vessels collided in the disputed sector, and the CED's inspector assumed police and jurisdictional powers over Romania's protest. The case was taken to the League of Nations, which in 1926 sent the matter to the
493:
of its own; it was obliged to surrender transgressors to the territorial authorities for trial and punishment. Members included all the riparian states, as well as Great Britain, France, Italy, and Romania.
1107:
833:
Krehbiel, p. 45. "It is another illustration of the compelling force of an international joint agent that Austria did not exercise the right she undoubtedly possessed to withdraw from the whole affair."
873:
The British chairman of the CED, Sir John Stokes, had "urged the British government to secure in perpetuity European control over the mouths of the Danube by means of the commission." Veitch, p. 426.
1194:
591:
The country renewed its demands in 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference and in 1921 at the Danube Conference. On both instances, it was overruled. Romania changed tactics, but not motives, at the
1031:
102:
The lower section of the Danube, he continued, was "more than an internationalized river" because the CED wielded independent administrative powers. He concluded that the commission:
567:, the Danube Navigation Co., was organized, and astute financial maneuvering gave to Furness, Withy "the practical control of the traffic of the navigable length of the Danube."
632:
at the request of Britain, France, Italy, and Romania. The latter country lost on all counts. The court decided the CED's powers "extend over the whole of the maritime Danube."
118:. . . It is safe to predict that the need for protecting the integrity of the commission will some day lift it out of the twilight of statehood and accord it full membership in
1199:
374:
left bank of the Kilia, over which the CED had so far not exercised its right of control. Russia's action was a last-minute affair, done through a reservation to the treaty.
56:
in the middle, and the St. George in the south and which was originally designed to last for only two years. Instead, it lasted eighty-two years. A separate commission, the
563:
The company had obtained this monopoly by refinancing the war-stricken prewar firms, most of which were owned by Austrian or Hungarian interests (the losers in the war). A
414:
Accede to Russia's request regarding the Kilia — that is, allow that country and Romania joint control over the branch, provided the CED reviewed any plans for improvement.
143:
offers an organ through which nations can approach one another on the basis of common or united action, instead of as rivals, as is the case in an ambassadorial conference.
809:
489:(upriver) was finally given a permanent status, made a subject of international law like the EDC, and provided with regulations that gave it life. It, however, had no
338:, and she took over an old strip of Bessarabia detached from her in 1856. This placed Russia again on the banks of the Danube. The other Danubian arrangements were:
535:
area. Hines scored the "petty attitudes" of the multitude of free governments and complained of the frontier formalities and the exclusion of non-nationals from
156:
colour: — red, white, blue, white, and red, the blue strip having a height double that of each of the other strips, and bearing in white the letters 'C.E.D.' ")
411:
Prolong the term of the CED for twenty-one years, after which it would continue for three-year periods, unless changes were proposed by one of the major powers.
599:
were discussed. On this occasion, Romania suggested that the powers of the CED should be expanded; it would also be given control over the Bosporus and the
527:
Economic affairs along the entire river were so bad that the League of Nations instituted in 1922 an inquiry by a special committee, headed by an American,
439:
The European Commission of the Danube, the CED, continued functioning during at least the first two years of the war, and delegates from the Allies and the
473:
International Commission was thenceforth to regulate traffic on the Upper Danube from Ulm to Braila. A general conference was planned for the future.
1084:
629:
20:
727:
1189:
195:
state for Navigation.... It is understood that the European Commission shall have completed its task . . . within the period of two years.
592:
183:
335:
1146:
1162:
408:
Authorize the establishment of the reorganized "mixed" commission (the IDC), with the hope that Romania and Bulgaria would agree.
276:
of "navigation dues to be levied at the mouth of the Danube." The new tariff, principally the work of John Stokes, established a
236:. These meager results led the powers to extend the life of the commission for another two years, over the objection of Austria.
190:, the commission hastened to get the job done within the two years originally allotted by the treaty. It was under a mandate to:
331:. It replaced Turkey as the sovereign power on the delta and was given a seat on the CED. Turkey remained a member of the body.
1096:
1090:
648:
497:
Otto Popper of Bratislava, secretary of the IDC in 1920–29, said this about the statute when viewing it twenty years later:
435:
Map showing the Danube Commission during World war I after the Treaty of Bucharest and treaty of Berlin in green and yellow.
583:
Meanwhile, Romania desired the outright abolition of the CED, having made the suggestion for the first time in 1881, when
449:
internationalization of the river between Ulm and the Black Sea after the war. The same stipulations were included in the
260:
314:
Extended the neutrality spelled out in the Treaty of 1865 to the staff of the CED, as well as the buildings and works.
1126:, Volume 1, U.S. Government Printing Office, 121 pp. Includes "Selected List of Books and Articles," Appendix I.
501:
Unfortunately this fundamental document was drafted during a period when much of the original spirit of Wilson's
995:, page 37, Division of Social Sciences, College of Letters and Science, University of California, Riverside, 1957
539:. Despite the existence of the EDC and the IDC, the situation had "changed but little since the end of the war."
1120:
652:
465:
was formed under Troubridge. Later in the year, non-enemy states were admitted on an equal footing with the
328:
217:
31:
728:
Edward Krehbiel, "The European Commission of the Danube: An Experiment in International Administration",
76:
938:
131:
1039:. Collection of Advisory Opinions, Series B, No. 14. Leyden, Netherlands: A.W. Sijthoff. p. 69.
382:
1110:, for the organization established in 1998 and charged with environmental and ecological activities
536:
249:
864:
France, at war with Germany, did not send a delegate until March 13, when the fighting had ceased.
584:
1142:
1101:
461:
127:
119:
636:
532:
456:
These treaties were negated upon Allied victory. In November 1918 the victors established a
301:
Rejected Britain's suggestion to extend the commission's jurisdiction farther up the river.
1184:
564:
528:
502:
201:
187:
791:
De Somogyi, Joseph, "The Historical Development of the Danubian Problem to the Present",
752:
398:. Serbia accepted, but Romania and Bulgaria protested, taking no part in the conference.
575:
52:, which had authority over the three mouths of the river — the Chilia in the north, the
659:
511:
440:
324:
213:
405:
Extend the jurisdiction of the CED from Galatz some twenty miles upstream to Ibraila .
358:
68:
and was supposed to be permanent, but it was not formally organized until after 1918.
1178:
635:
Romania finally achieved effective control of the Lower Danube in May 1939, when the
556:
209:
179:
53:
1129:
615:
469:; the group met with some success in reopening the river, despite the difficulties.
248:
In 1866, the commission found itself in financial trouble because of the just-ended
450:
65:
223:
327:
since 1861, was admitted to an expanded CED as a free country as a result of the
619:
A 2004 photo of the Sulina Channel of the Danube River, leading to the Black Sea
600:
596:
466:
149:
35:
1033:
Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube Between Galatz and Braila
307:
Gave Austria the authority to set up a toll-collecting agency at the dangerous
308:
107:
1168:
1169:
Summary history of the Danube River commissions, 1856–1948, by Edgar Martin.
445:
347:
304:
Agreed to a "reassembling of the Riverain Commission" — but at no set time.
175:
174:
The CED began its work by fixing the seat of the commission in the port of
395:
64:, was authorized to control commerce and improvements upriver beyond the
159:
343:
323:
In 1878, Romania, which had been an autonomous principality within the
269:
233:
205:
38:. One of these international commissions, the most successful, was the
84:, Tulcea county, Romania, built by the European Commission along with
1136:
265:
81:
1171:
Includes a photograph of a Danube River Commission medal dated 1931.
431:
614:
490:
430:
381:
357:
222:
158:
85:
75:
110:
member of the family of nations because its existence is largely
686:
Glen A. Blackburn, "International Control of the River Danube",
555:
the Danube was in the hands of riverain groups, but since then
1108:
International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River
1087:, for events from earliest times to the Treaty of Paris in 1856
1030:
Permanent Court of International Justice (December 8, 1927).
699:"Experience and Techniques in International Administration",
919:
H. Charles Woods, "The Danube as an International Highway",
1078:
A series of articles on this subject in chronological order
993:
The European Commission of the Danube: An Historical Survey
810:"The Navigation of the Danube," February 2, 1858, page 7.
808:
of London correspondent reported on this contretemps at
389:, British-built dredger of the Danube Commission in 1911
401:
After a month of discussion, the delegates decided to:
1195:
Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty
662:presence in the control of the important waterway.
639:(concluded on 18 August 1938) entered into force.
139:the super-state itself." The commission, he said:
1138:The European Commission of the Danube, 1856–1948
363:Southeastern Europe after the Congress of Berlin
126:To the contrary, Joseph L. Kunz, a professor of
897:
895:
883:
881:
879:
855:, London, Oxford University Press, 1920, p. 427
342:The jurisdiction of the CED was extended from
954:John C. Campbell, "Diplomacy on the Danube",
8:
851:Robert Hamilton Veitch, "Stokes, Sir John",
820:Krehbiel, p. 44. See a similar statement in
787:
785:
783:
781:
779:
227:Mouths of the Danube as shown on an 1867 map
1200:International organizations based in Europe
853:Dictionary of National Biography, 1901–1911
682:
680:
678:
676:
674:
178:and ordering temporary improvements of the
723:
721:
719:
717:
715:
713:
711:
709:
1163:Sir John Stokes, "The Danube Commission."
933:
931:
929:
1085:Internationalization of the Danube River
915:
913:
911:
909:
630:Permanent Court of International Justice
574:
259:
80:Commemorative plaque at a lighthouse in
21:Internationalization of the Danube River
670:
458:Commandement de la Navigation du Danube
311:section to pay for improvements there.
1008:, January 25, 1925, section 8, page 4
186:, Crimean War veteran of the British
16:International river management bodies
7:
773:Treaty of Paris, 1856, Article XVIII
742:Treaty of Galatz, 1881, Article VIII
570:
453:between Germany and Russia in 1918.
1165:Includes a map of the Danube basin.
793:Journal of Central European Affairs
764:Treaty of Paris, 1856, Article XVI
544:Commercial and Financial Chronicle
14:
1065:, III (February 1949), pp. 179–80
612:wrote Joseph D. Somogyi in 1948.
40:European Commission of the Danube
1093:, for events during World War II
182:. Under the chairmanship of Sir
1097:Danube River Conference of 1948
1091:Nazi rule over the Danube River
649:Nazi rule over the Danube River
487:International Danube Commission
58:International Danube Commission
45:Commission Européenne du Danube
28:Commissions of the Danube River
1135:Ardeleanu, Constantin (2020).
991:Cited in George L. Garrigues,
958:, XXVII (January 1949), p. 317
945:, CII (November–December 1943)
703:, XXXI (November 1945), p. 50.
571:Romania's struggle for control
88:and completed in November 1870
1:
643:End of the prewar commissions
369:Additional Public Act of 1881
334:Russia was the winner of the
1122:Joseph Perkins Chamberlain,
902:The Annual Register for 1883
888:The Annual Register for 1881
842:Treaty of Paris, Article XIX
822:The Annual Register for 1871
506:river and of its navigation.
19:For events before 1856, see
1190:Inland waterway authorities
730:Political Science Quarterly
1216:
1063:International Organization
646:
18:
690:, XXXXII (September 1930)
595:in 1923, when affairs of
292:London Conference of 1871
164:Modern map of the Danube.
653:Danube Commission (1948)
378:Treaty of London of 1883
319:Treaty of Berlin of 1878
1104:, for events since 1948
1061:"Danubian Conference",
1020:, April 25, 1926, p. 13
970:, August 7, 1925, p. 15
329:Treaty of Berlin (1878)
218:Danubian principalities
106:falls short of being a
93:"unique" organization.
34:after the close of the
30:were authorized by the
620:
610:
608:devolved upon Rumania.
593:Conference of Lausanne
580:
561:
557:Furness, Withy and Co.
508:
436:
390:
365:
272:
228:
197:
166:
145:
135:of international law.
124:
100:
89:
32:Treaty of Paris (1856)
982:, July 24, 1925, p. 1
732:, XXXIII (March 1918)
618:
605:
578:
553:
499:
462:Sir Ernest Troubridge
434:
385:
361:
264:View of the river at
263:
226:
192:
162:
141:
120:the League of Nations
104:
95:
79:
72:International stature
943:Geographical Journal
939:International Regime
923:, CXVI (August 1921)
666:References and notes
542:This report led the
150:national sovereignty
132:University of Toledo
795:, VIII (April 1948)
537:international trade
268:in 1870; a ship in
250:Austro-Prussian War
937:Otto Popper, "The
921:Fortnightly Review
621:
581:
579:Carol I of Romania
510:John C. Campbell,
437:
391:
366:
273:
256:Public Act of 1865
229:
167:
90:
1102:Danube Commission
1080:
336:Russo-Turkish War
210:the Sublime Porte
128:international law
42:, or, in French,
1207:
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1076:
1066:
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1021:
1015:
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1002:
996:
989:
983:
977:
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959:
952:
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941:of the Danube",
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924:
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899:
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862:
856:
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743:
740:
734:
725:
704:
697:
691:
684:
660:Western European
637:Sinaia Agreement
512:Eastern European
284:of measurement.
234:meandering river
1215:
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1115:Further reading
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956:Foreign Affairs
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701:Iowa Law Review
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688:Current History
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601:Dardanelles
282:Danube rule
214:Württemberg
184:John Stokes
98:Commission.
86:river dykes
36:Crimean War
1179:Categories
1124:The Danube
585:King Carol
491:law courts
309:Iron Gates
212:(Turkey),
170:Organizing
1141:. Brill.
824:, p. 283.
533:duty-free
446:Black Sea
108:bona fide
1072:See also
396:suzerain
116:de jure.
114:and not
112:de facto
460:, with
344:Isatcha
270:drydock
240:Finance
206:Bavaria
130:at the
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348:Galatz
266:Braila
176:Galatz
82:Sulina
54:Sulina
48:, the
1037:(PDF)
806:Times
60:, or
1143:ISBN
751:See
651:and
485:The
26:The
346:to
280:or
152:."
62:IDC
50:CED
1181::
928:^
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