124:
2478:, "Computer engineers need not only to understand how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture. Consider the car. A modern car contains many separate computer systems for controlling such things as the engine timing, the brakes and the air bags. To be able to design and implement such a car, the computer engineer needs a broad theoretical understanding of all these various subsystems & how they interact.
1069:"A majority of IS programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but the emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required."
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635:(TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked
43:
1085:
processes within a computer science discipline. The field of
Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society while IS emphasizes functionality over design.
1242:
However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and
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On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments- "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the broad field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual
1238:
One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it
1194:
with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP). One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network
563:
by communication channels that allow the sharing of resources and information. When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a
3313:
Kershner, Ryan J.; Bozano, Luisa D.; Micheel, Christine M.; Hung, Albert M.; Fornof, Ann R.; Cha, Jennifer N.; Rettner, Charles T.; Bersani, Marco; Frommer, Jane; Rothemund, Paul W. K.; Wallraff, Gregory M. (2009). "Placement and orientation of individual DNA shapes on lithographically patterned
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In 1988, a degree program in
Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems
898:
Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software. It is the act of using insights to conceive,
3165:
Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with ... Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core
1254:
is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics. Whereas traditional
1189:
Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects. IBM has created an
1104:
to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several
680:
Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development. However, the term
1263:, and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations. Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in
503:
with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user.
1218:
Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of
153:
and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before
2905:
The Domain of
Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and
239:
In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs, the first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface. Subsequently, a team demonstrated a working
1259:. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as
309:
carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the
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consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically.
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controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.
913:, a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the
872:, and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual
2975:
In 1999, Clemson
University established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... All students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer
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or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst. A programmer's primary computer language
366:, is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of
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term has since been converted to what purports to be concrete use, but without the reinforcement of definition...the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position."
1231:, depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling. It allows individual users or small business to benefit from
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Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute
1267:. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.
413:
System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes
598:, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.
3092:
Hayes, Helen; Onkar Sharma (February 2003). "A decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors".
3725:
Farmakidis, Nikolaos; Youngblood, Nathan; Li, Xuan; Tan, James; Swett, Jacob L.; Cheng, Zengguang; Wright, C. David; Pernice, Wolfram H. P.; Bhaskaran, Harish (1 November 2019).
515:, are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on. For example, a
178:
884:. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates.
665:
Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a
169:
The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of
Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by
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1022:
Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.
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manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software.
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Computer
Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects
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Butterfield, Andrew; Ngondi, Gerard Ekembe NgondiGerard Ekembe; Kerr, Anne (21 January 2016), Butterfield, Andrew; Ngondi, Gerard Ekembe; Kerr, Anne (eds.),
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286:. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable
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and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include
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Computer System engineering has traditionally been viewed as a combination ofboth electronic engineering (EE) and computer science (CS).
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1202:. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup. Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine
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The idea for the first NATO Software
Engineering Conference, and in particular that of adopting the then practically unknown term
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to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the
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From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields
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were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.
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677:, but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine.
294:. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to
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The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and
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1425:"Computing Careers & Disciplines: A Quick Guide for Prospective Students and Career Advisors (2nd edition, ©2020)"
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focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.
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752:, etc.) is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with
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Horodecki, Ryszard; Horodecki, Paweł; Horodecki, Michał; Horodecki, Karol (17 June 2009). "Quantum entanglement".
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Berl, A.; Gelenbe, E.; Girolamo, M. Di; Giuliani, G.; Meer, H. De; Dang, M. Q.; Pentikousis, K. (September 2010).
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2202:"The Fibreculture Journal : 25 | FCJ-181 There's a History for That: Apps and Mundane Software as Commodity"
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A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers
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define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for
3540:. Four pairs of certain molecules have been shown to form a nanoscale superconductor, at a dimension of 0.87
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The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.
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infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including
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circa between 2700 and 2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today.
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Computer
Engineering 2004: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineering
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would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.
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The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes
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2990:"Is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline"
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Davis, Timothy; Geist, Robert; Matzko, Sarah; Westall, James (March 2004). "τ'εχνη: A First Step".
1977:"Common CPU components – The CPU – Eduqas – GCSE Computer Science Revision – Eduqas – BBC Bitesize"
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Sebastian
Anthony (Dec 10,2012), "IBM creates first commercially viable silicon nanophotonic chip"
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are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of
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Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in
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2876:. Software Engineering for Business Information Systems (sebis). 21 January 2009. Archived from
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1478:(2 July 1931), "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena",
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required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in
3800:
917:(SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015.
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A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term
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3727:"Plasmonic nanogap enhanced phase-change devices with dual electrical-optical functionality"
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Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.
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Harlander, M. (2011). "Trapped-ion antennae for the transmission of quantum information".
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Abran, Alain; Moore, James W.; Bourque, Pierre; Dupuis, Robert; Tripp, Leonard L. (2004).
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475:, is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include
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229:
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182:
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Parsons, June (2022). "New
Perspectives Computer Concepts Comprehensive | 21st Edition".
30:
This article is about the activity involving computing machinery. For the magazines, see
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concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program software performs the
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613:, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.
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Puers, Robert; Baldi, Livio; Voorde, Marcel Van de; Nooten, Sebastiaan E. van (2017).
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of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data.
123:
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2685:"Software Engineering – Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge (SWEBOK)"
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model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968
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Polack, Jennifer (December 2009). "Planning a CIS Education Within a CS Framework".
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Software Engineering: Report of a conference sponsored by the NATO Science Committee
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Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
2007:
Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
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are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software,
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17:
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as its (deliberately provocative) title, I believe came originally from Professor
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specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.
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to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The
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computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses
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form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an
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2729:"The Interaction Design Foundation - What is Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)?"
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wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data,
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Kaufman, L. M. (July 2009). "Data Security in the World of Cloud Computing".
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Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century
396:(meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible.
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Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation
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Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including the
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The Pallid Image of Globalization in Kiran Desai's The Inheritance of Loss
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studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of
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Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the
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for transferring information between ion traps. By 2011, researchers had
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typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming.
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ENIAC, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer
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Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (January 2011), "Information technology",
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112:. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by
2687:. International Organization for Standardization. ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015
936:
163:
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Baiardi, Alberto; Christandl, Matthias; Reiher, Markus (3 July 2023).
3447:
Monz, Thomas (2011). "14-Qubit Entanglement: Creation and Coherence".
1763:
Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology".
1714:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321.
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1644:"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"
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technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of
53:
is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating
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159:
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Malmstadt, Howard V.; Enke, Christie G.; Crouch, Stanley R. (1994).
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2019:
1600:(2 ed.), Swindon: The British Computer Society, pp. 34–35
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Computer simulation, one of the main cross-computing methodologies
41:
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Lalieu, M. L. M.; Lavrijsen, R.; Koopmans, B. (10 January 2019).
3428:"Atomic antennas transmit quantum information across a microchip"
2899:
Denning, Peter (July 1999). "COMPUTER SCIENCE: THE DISCIPLINE".
1100:
Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and
601:
Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of
4088:
1909:"What is an algorithm? How computers know what to do with data"
511:
or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as
3560:
903:, and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived
1206:
and spintronics. There is also research ongoing on combining
4076:
2744:"Towards a More Representative Definition of Cyber Security"
1568:
Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes
1154:. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes
2654:. The School of the Computer Sciences, Newcastle University
3361:
supplementary information: DNA origami on photolithography
2543:
What Every Engineer Should Know about Software Engineering
1406:
244:
at Bell Labs 1960. The MOSFET made it possible to build
158:. The earliest known tool for use in computation is the
4079:
3910:
Steane, Andrew (1 February 1998). "Quantum computing".
3584:
Open Compute: Does the data center have an open future?
2934:"Computing Degrees & Careers " Information Systems"
1077:, using the theoretical foundations of information and
507:
Application software applies the power of a particular
2988:
Khazanchi, Deepak; Bjorn Erik Munkvold (Summer 2000).
2742:
Schatz, Daniel; Bashroush, Rabih; Wall, Julie (2017).
2624:. Garmisch, Germany: Scientific Affairs Division, NATO
1519:
The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits
27:
Activity involving calculations or computing machinery
3041:"Bachelor of Information Sciences (Computer Science)"
2936:. Association for Computing Machinery. Archived from
2344:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 1017.
805:
The software industry includes businesses engaged in
3652:"Integrating all-optical switching with spintronics"
3125:"A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems"
2922:(3rd ed.). Pearson Publishing. pp. –, 416.
181:" then introduced the idea of using electronics for
4946:
4893:
4855:
4802:
4764:
4726:
4668:
4585:
4531:
4493:
4445:
4382:
4315:
4279:
4236:
4200:
4133:
2490:
Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge
2287:"Internet | Description, History, Uses & Facts"
2070:"Computational logic: its origins and applications"
2003:"Computational logic: its origins and applications"
1820:
Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs
179:
A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits
2748:The Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law
627:The Internet is a global system of interconnected
495:. Many application programs deal principally with
348:are key topics in the field of computer hardware.
3554:Tom Simonite, "Computing at the speed of light",
3509:"World record: Calculations with 14 quantum bits"
2961:Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education
817:of software. The industry also includes software
4080:FOLDOC: the Free On-Line Dictionary Of Computing
2918:Jessup, Leonard M.; Valacich, Joseph S. (2008).
2901:Encyclopaedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition)
3215:"Free on-line dictionary of computing (FOLDOC)"
2648:"The 1968/69 NATO Software Engineering Reports"
1067:
57:. It includes the study and experimentation of
2407:"5 Skills Developers Need Beyond Writing Code"
2249:"TCP/IP: What is TCP/IP and How Does it Work?"
954:, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as
685:may apply to a range of program quality, from
4124:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012
4100:
2580:(7 ed.). Pearson Education. p. 26.
1139:List of unsolved problems in computer science
1081:to study various business models and related
962:, are highly abstract, while others, such as
162:, and it is thought to have been invented in
8:
3531:"World's smallest superconductor discovered"
2341:Graph-Theoretic Concepts in Computer Science
582:. One well-known communications protocol is
433:. Frequently used development tools such as
382:it implements, either by directly providing
282:according to a set of instructions called a
149:The history of computing is longer than the
3246:(first ed.), Oxford University Press,
3123:Freeman, Peter; Hart, David (August 2004).
4107:
4093:
4085:
4026:"Quantum Computing for Molecular Biology*"
958:, which studies fundamental properties of
4041:
3984:
3923:
3776:
3742:
3701:
3667:
3460:
3385:
3337:
3158:
3140:
3094:Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges
3067:Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges
3005:
2841:
2831:
2759:
2314:"What is Coding and What Is It Used For?"
2111:
2085:
2044:
2018:
1679:Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories
1501:
727:can refer to a specialist in one area of
390:was coined to contrast with the old term
278:A computer is a machine that manipulates
3801:"The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing"
2816:"Data Science: A Comprehensive Overview"
1675:"Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device"
3243:A Dictionary of Media and Communication
1398:
467:Application software, also known as an
61:processes, and the development of both
4817:Knowledge representation and reasoning
2068:Paulson, Lawrence C. (February 2018).
2001:Paulson, Laurence (28 February 2018).
1648:Journal of The Electrochemical Society
1413:. Association for Computing Machinery.
1322:Index of history of computing articles
1038:are all interwoven with data science.
915:Software Engineering Body of Knowledge
4842:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
2874:"Definition of Application Landscape"
2467:"What is Computer System Engineering"
2138:. Princeton University, Princeton, NJ
1073:The study of IS bridges business and
7:
4168:Energy consumption (Green computing)
3817:from the original on 9 October 2022.
3619:"Merging spintronics with photonics"
1947:10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001
1712:History of Semiconductor Engineering
901:NATO Software Engineering Conference
673:that is often more restrictive than
4847:Distributed artificial intelligence
4126:ACM Computing Classification System
2652:Brian Randell's University Homepage
445:are classified as system software.
4359:Integrated development environment
3830:"Energy-Efficient Cloud Computing"
3434:(Press release). 26 February 2011.
3178:Daintith, John, ed. (2009), "IT",
3047:. 24 February 2006. Archived from
2312:McGee, Vanesha (8 November 2023).
1481:Proceedings of the Royal Society A
1133:Research and emerging technologies
852:that integrates several fields of
248:, leading to what is known as the
25:
4827:Automated planning and scheduling
4364:Software configuration management
2515:"Computing Degrees & Careers"
1785:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48
1642:Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957).
1598:A History of Manchester Computers
1407:"Computing Classification System"
1342:List of computer term etymologies
594:. Another common protocol is the
368:programs, procedures, algorithms,
5081:
5071:
5062:
5061:
3281:Encyclopedia of computer science
2136:"Wordreference.com: WordNet 2.0"
1939:A Dictionary of Computer Science
246:high-density integrated circuits
5072:
4475:Computational complexity theory
3597:"Putting electronics in a spin"
2272:Dhavaleswarapu, Ratna. (2019).
1907:Denny, Jory (16 October 2020).
956:computational complexity theory
590:standard that is ubiquitous in
142:For a chronological guide, see
4266:Network performance evaluation
3912:Reports on Progress in Physics
3479:10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.130506
2157:Rouse, Margaret (March 2019).
1736:"Who Invented the Transistor?"
1611:Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016).
1210:, photonics, and electronics.
1:
4630:Multimedia information system
4615:Geographic information system
4605:Enterprise information system
4201:Computer systems organization
2814:Cao, Longbing (31 May 2018).
2777:"Data science and prediction"
2436:. p. iii. Archived from
2223:"Computer network definition"
1817:; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013).
1198:Another field of research is
609:, information technology, or
151:history of computing hardware
114:mechanical computing machines
4989:Computational social science
4577:Theoretical computer science
4397:Software development process
4173:Electronic design automation
4158:Very Large Scale Integration
1327:Instruction set architecture
1102:telecommunications equipment
1002:information and data privacy
833:Sub-disciplines of computing
772:. However, members of these
572:, and organizational scope.
4812:Natural language processing
4600:Information storage systems
3808:U.S. Department of Commerce
3544:. Access date 31 March 2010
3184:, Oxford University Press,
2338:Nagl, Manfred, ed. (1995).
1941:, Oxford University Press,
1229:Infrastructure as a Service
1174:, including those based on
968:programming language theory
362:Computer software, or just
5124:
4728:Human–computer interaction
4698:Intrusion detection system
4610:Social information systems
4595:Database management system
3942:10.1088/0034-4885/61/2/002
3686:10.1038/s41467-018-08062-4
3111:using the systems approach
2709:. Wordnetweb.princeton.edu
2540:Laplante, Phillip (2007).
2276:. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
1825:Cambridge University Press
1687:10.1142/9789814503464_0076
1527:Cambridge University Press
1451:"The History of Computing"
1312:Electronic data processing
1136:
1093:
1045:
1015:
993:
984:human–computer interaction
939:and practical approach to
924:
891:
876:, personal computers, and
848:Computer engineering is a
841:
783:
760:can be used to refer to a
708:
654:
620:
552:
460:
406:
355:
321:
274:Glossary of computer terms
263:
212:, built the first working
141:
135:
29:
5057:
4994:Computational engineering
4969:Computational mathematics
4122:
4077:https://www.siddashi.com/
4003:10.1103/RevModPhys.81.865
3973:Reviews of Modern Physics
3129:Communications of the ACM
2920:Information Systems Today
2781:Communications of the ACM
2574:Sommerville, Ian (2008).
1856:American Chemical Society
1596:Lavington, Simon (1998),
1184:nanoscale superconductors
1180:rapid single flux quantum
5004:Computational healthcare
4999:Differentiable computing
4918:Graphics processing unit
4344:Domain-specific language
4213:Computational complexity
3278:Anthony Ralston (2000).
2761:10.15394/jdfsl.2017.1476
2465:Trinity College Dublin.
1883:"Definition of computer"
1377:Unconventional computing
1158:on photolithography and
974:investigates the use of
943:and its applications. A
576:Communications protocols
254:microcomputer revolution
222:University of Manchester
220:, in 1947. In 1953, the
218:point-contact transistor
4979:Computational chemistry
4913:Photograph manipulation
4804:Artificial intelligence
4620:Decision support system
3574:, accessdate=2012-12-10
3449:Physical Review Letters
3265:(subscription required)
3203:(subscription required)
3181:A Dictionary of Physics
3142:10.1145/1012037.1012054
2291:Encyclopedia Britannica
1741:Computer History Museum
1516:Lee, Thomas H. (2003).
1277:Artificial intelligence
691:open source contributor
633:Internet Protocol Suite
596:Internet Protocol Suite
566:communications protocol
330:central processing unit
226:transistorized computer
194:Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
190:field-effect transistor
5044:Educational technology
4875:Reinforcement learning
4625:Process control system
4523:Computational geometry
4513:Algorithmic efficiency
4508:Analysis of algorithms
4163:Systems on Chip (SoCs)
4052:10.1002/cbic.202300120
3761:10.1126/sciadv.aaw2687
3348:10.1038/nnano.2009.220
2707:"WordNet Search – 3.1"
2177:"Basic Computer Terms"
2104:10.1098/rspa.2017.0872
2037:10.1098/rspa.2017.0872
1503:10.1098/rspa.1931.0102
1307:Data-centric computing
1297:Confidential computing
1287:Computational thinking
1225:Platforms as a Service
1096:Information technology
1090:Information technology
1071:
960:computational problems
866:electrical engineering
862:electronic engineering
854:electrical engineering
631:that use the standard
605:, telecommunications,
603:electrical engineering
204:, while working under
128:
116:, and before that, to
87:information technology
47:
5014:Electronic publishing
4984:Computational biology
4974:Computational physics
4870:Unsupervised learning
4784:Distributed computing
4660:Information retrieval
4567:Mathematical analysis
4557:Mathematical software
4447:Theory of computation
4412:Software construction
4402:Requirements analysis
4280:Software organization
4208:Computer architecture
4178:Hardware acceleration
4143:Printed circuit board
3869:IEEE Security Privacy
3846:10.1093/comjnl/bxp080
3656:Nature Communications
3586:accessdate=2013-08-11
3527:Nature Nanotechnology
3317:Nature Nanotechnology
3284:. Nature Pub. Group.
3007:10.1145/381823.381834
2820:ACM Computing Surveys
2775:Dhar, Vasant (2013).
2615:(7–11 October 1968).
2517:. ACM. Archived from
2421:IEEE Computer Society
2350:10.1007/3-540-60618-1
1619:John Wiley & Sons
1573:John Wiley & Sons
1282:Computational science
1221:Software as a Service
1137:Further information:
976:programming languages
800:system administration
764:, software engineer,
346:computer architecture
314:of the instructions.
144:Timeline of computing
126:
45:
4774:Concurrent computing
4746:Ubiquitous computing
4718:Application security
4713:Information security
4542:Discrete mathematics
4518:Randomized algorithm
4470:Computability theory
4455:Model of computation
4427:Software maintenance
4422:Software engineering
4384:Software development
4334:Programming language
4329:Programming paradigm
4246:Network architecture
3834:The Computer Journal
3558:Wed., August 4, 2010
3525:Saw-Wai Hla et al.,
2666:software engineering
2577:Software Engineering
2427:(12 December 2004).
1621:. pp. 165–167.
1476:Wynn-Williams, C. E.
1372:Ubiquitous computing
1362:Scientific computing
1357:Outline of computing
1352:Outline of computers
1317:Enthusiast computing
1261:quantum entanglement
972:computer programming
911:Software development
894:Software engineering
888:Software engineering
844:Computer engineering
838:Computer engineering
729:computer programming
667:programming language
661:Software engineering
657:Computer programming
651:Computer programming
611:computer engineering
463:Application software
457:Application software
296:machine instructions
270:Outline of computers
234:junction transistors
138:History of computing
91:software engineering
67:computer engineering
32:Computing (magazine)
5049:Document management
5039:Operations research
4964:Enterprise software
4880:Multi-task learning
4865:Supervised learning
4587:Information systems
4417:Software deployment
4374:Software repository
4228:Real-time computing
3995:2009RvMP...81..865H
3934:1998RPPh...61..117S
3881:10.1109/MSP.2009.87
3753:2019SciA....5.2687F
3678:2019NatCo..10..110L
3631:on 6 September 2019
3536:28 May 2010 at the
3471:2011PhRvL.106m0506M
3404:10.1038/nature09800
3396:2011Natur.471..200H
3330:2009NatNa...4..557K
2994:ACM SIGMIS Database
2546:. Boca Raton: CRC.
2492:. IEEE. p. 1.
2318:ComputerScience.org
2096:2018RSPSA.47470872P
2029:2018RSPSA.47470872P
1777:1973SciAm.229b..48H
1765:Scientific American
1494:1931RSPSA.132..295W
1176:Josephson junctions
1144:DNA-based computing
1042:Information systems
796:computer networking
725:computer programmer
705:Computer programmer
671:artificial language
592:local area networks
580:network programming
543:killer applications
481:accounting software
477:enterprise software
342:Computational logic
250:computer revolution
171:C. E. Wynn-Williams
83:information systems
55:computing machinery
18:Computer technology
4832:Search methodology
4779:Parallel computing
4736:Interaction design
4645:Computing platform
4572:Numerical analysis
4562:Information theory
4354:Software framework
4317:Software notations
4256:Network components
4153:Integrated circuit
4036:(13): e202300120.
3810:. September 2011.
2646:(10 August 2001).
2409:. 23 January 2019.
2229:on 21 January 2012
2080:(2210): 20170872.
1710:Lojek, Bo (2007).
1673:KAHNG, D. (1961).
1546:on 9 December 2019
1302:Creative computing
1265:molecular modeling
1233:economies of scale
1192:integrated circuit
1152:quantum algorithms
1048:Information system
945:computer scientist
931:Computer scientist
829:, and consulting.
766:computer scientist
762:software developer
719:Software developer
699:killer application
647:to support email.
509:computing platform
129:
48:
5095:
5094:
5024:Electronic voting
4954:Quantum Computing
4947:Applied computing
4933:Image compression
4703:Hardware security
4693:Security services
4650:Digital marketing
4437:Open-source model
4349:Modeling language
4261:Network scheduler
3556:Technology Review
3380:(7337): 200–203.
3291:978-1-56159-248-7
3253:978-0-19-956875-8
3051:on 19 June 2006.
3045:Massey University
2587:978-81-7758-530-8
2553:978-0-8493-7228-5
2499:978-0-7695-2330-9
2359:978-3-540-60618-5
2159:"system software"
1956:978-0-19-968897-5
1744:. 4 December 2013
1721:978-3-540-34258-8
1696:978-981-02-0209-5
1660:10.1149/1.2428650
1431:. 17 January 2020
1367:Spatial computing
1252:Quantum computing
1247:Quantum computing
1148:quantum computing
1127:computer services
1119:telecom equipment
1065:describes IS as:
1063:Computing Careers
996:Computer security
964:computer graphics
802:and maintenance.
790:Software industry
786:Computer Industry
780:Computer industry
715:Software engineer
675:natural languages
639:documents of the
629:computer networks
586:, a hardware and
489:graphics software
415:operating systems
358:Computer software
352:Computer software
324:Computer hardware
318:Computer hardware
298:according to the
232:. However, early
188:The concept of a
183:Boolean algebraic
16:(Redirected from
5115:
5085:
5084:
5075:
5074:
5065:
5064:
4885:Cross-validation
4857:Machine learning
4741:Social computing
4708:Network security
4503:Algorithm design
4432:Programming team
4392:Control variable
4369:Software library
4307:Software quality
4302:Operating system
4251:Network protocol
4116:Computer science
4109:
4102:
4095:
4086:
4064:
4063:
4045:
4021:
4015:
4014:
3988:
3986:quant-ph/0702225
3968:
3962:
3961:
3927:
3925:quant-ph/9708022
3907:
3901:
3900:
3864:
3858:
3857:
3840:(7): 1045–1051.
3825:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3805:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3780:
3746:
3737:(11): eaaw2687.
3731:Science Advances
3722:
3716:
3715:
3705:
3671:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3638:
3636:
3630:
3624:. Archived from
3623:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3593:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3551:
3545:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3513:www.nanowerk.com
3505:
3499:
3498:
3464:
3444:
3438:
3435:
3423:
3389:
3369:
3363:
3359:
3341:
3310:
3304:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3228:
3226:
3221:on 15 April 2013
3217:. Archived from
3211:
3205:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3175:
3169:
3168:
3162:
3144:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3009:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2930:
2924:
2923:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2845:
2835:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2725:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2681:
2675:
2674:
2661:
2659:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2623:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2571:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2560:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2510:
2504:
2503:
2485:
2479:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2450:
2448:
2442:
2435:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2385:. 21st edition.
2378:
2372:
2371:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2283:
2277:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2225:. Archived from
2219:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2115:
2089:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2048:
2022:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1965:
1963:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1913:The Conversation
1904:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1815:Fossum, Jerry G.
1811:
1805:
1804:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1593:
1587:
1586:
1562:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1545:
1539:. Archived from
1524:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1488:(819): 295–310,
1472:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1403:
1347:Mobile computing
1337:Liquid computing
1292:Computer algebra
1243:tech companies.
1172:digital circuits
1160:quantum antennae
1075:computer science
1032:machine learning
952:computer systems
927:Computer science
921:Computer science
858:computer science
770:software analyst
697:to launch a new
695:proof of concept
607:computer science
555:Computer network
549:Computer network
530:application for
520:application for
513:Microsoft Office
419:utility software
284:computer program
224:built the first
206:William Shockley
192:was proposed by
71:computer science
21:
5123:
5122:
5118:
5117:
5116:
5114:
5113:
5112:
5098:
5097:
5096:
5091:
5082:
5053:
5034:Word processing
4942:
4928:Virtual reality
4889:
4851:
4822:Computer vision
4798:
4794:Multiprocessing
4760:
4722:
4688:Security hacker
4664:
4640:Digital library
4581:
4532:Mathematics of
4527:
4489:
4465:Automata theory
4460:Formal language
4441:
4407:Software design
4378:
4311:
4297:Virtual machine
4275:
4271:Network service
4232:
4223:Embedded system
4196:
4129:
4118:
4113:
4073:
4068:
4067:
4023:
4022:
4018:
3970:
3969:
3965:
3909:
3908:
3904:
3866:
3865:
3861:
3827:
3826:
3822:
3814:
3803:
3799:
3798:
3794:
3724:
3723:
3719:
3649:
3648:
3644:
3634:
3632:
3628:
3621:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3602:
3600:
3599:. 8 August 2007
3595:
3594:
3590:
3582:
3578:
3570:
3566:
3552:
3548:
3538:Wayback Machine
3524:
3520:
3507:
3506:
3502:
3446:
3445:
3441:
3426:
3371:
3370:
3366:
3339:10.1.1.212.9767
3312:
3311:
3307:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3264:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3239:
3238:
3234:
3224:
3222:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3202:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3177:
3176:
3172:
3122:
3121:
3117:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3064:
3063:
3059:
3039:
3038:
3034:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2971:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2943:
2941:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2898:
2897:
2893:
2883:
2881:
2880:on 5 March 2011
2872:
2871:
2867:
2843:10.1145/3076253
2813:
2812:
2808:
2793:10.1145/2500499
2774:
2773:
2769:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2727:
2726:
2722:
2712:
2710:
2705:
2704:
2700:
2690:
2688:
2683:
2682:
2678:
2657:
2655:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2607:
2606:
2602:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2539:
2538:
2534:
2524:
2522:
2521:on 17 June 2011
2512:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2471:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2446:
2444:
2443:on 12 June 2019
2440:
2433:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2360:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2322:
2320:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2296:
2294:
2285:
2284:
2280:
2271:
2267:
2257:
2255:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2232:
2230:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2185:
2183:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2156:
2155:
2151:
2141:
2139:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1917:
1915:
1906:
1905:
1901:
1891:
1889:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1866:
1858:. p. 389.
1847:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1827:. p. vii.
1813:
1812:
1808:
1762:
1761:
1757:
1747:
1745:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1641:
1640:
1636:
1629:
1610:
1609:
1605:
1595:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1564:
1563:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1522:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1459:
1457:
1449:
1448:
1444:
1434:
1432:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1411:Digital Library
1405:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1387:Virtual reality
1382:Urban computing
1273:
1249:
1216:
1214:Cloud computing
1141:
1135:
1098:
1092:
1050:
1044:
1020:
1014:
998:
992:
982:. The field of
980:complex systems
933:
925:Main articles:
923:
906:software crisis
896:
890:
874:microprocessors
870:software design
846:
840:
835:
792:
784:Main articles:
782:
721:
709:Main articles:
707:
663:
655:Main articles:
653:
625:
619:
557:
551:
465:
459:
447:System software
411:
409:System software
405:
403:System software
370:as well as its
360:
354:
326:
320:
276:
264:Main articles:
262:
230:Manchester Baby
202:Walter Brattain
177:'s 1938 paper "
156:numeral systems
147:
140:
134:
118:human computers
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5121:
5119:
5111:
5110:
5100:
5099:
5093:
5092:
5090:
5089:
5079:
5069:
5058:
5055:
5054:
5052:
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4950:
4948:
4944:
4943:
4941:
4940:
4938:Solid modeling
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4899:
4897:
4891:
4890:
4888:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4861:
4859:
4853:
4852:
4850:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4837:Control method
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4808:
4806:
4800:
4799:
4797:
4796:
4791:
4789:Multithreading
4786:
4781:
4776:
4770:
4768:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4758:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4732:
4730:
4724:
4723:
4721:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4685:
4683:Formal methods
4680:
4674:
4672:
4666:
4665:
4663:
4662:
4657:
4655:World Wide Web
4652:
4647:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4591:
4589:
4583:
4582:
4580:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4538:
4536:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4499:
4497:
4491:
4490:
4488:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4451:
4449:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4388:
4386:
4380:
4379:
4377:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4325:
4323:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4283:
4281:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4253:
4248:
4242:
4240:
4234:
4233:
4231:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4194:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4139:
4137:
4131:
4130:
4123:
4120:
4119:
4114:
4112:
4111:
4104:
4097:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4072:
4071:External links
4069:
4066:
4065:
4016:
3979:(2): 865–942.
3963:
3918:(2): 117–173.
3902:
3859:
3820:
3792:
3717:
3642:
3610:
3588:
3576:
3564:
3546:
3529:31 March 2010
3518:
3500:
3455:(13): 130506.
3439:
3437:
3436:
3364:
3324:(9): 557–561.
3305:
3290:
3268:
3252:
3232:
3206:
3190:
3170:
3115:
3100:(3): 217–227.
3084:
3073:(2): 100–106.
3057:
3032:
2980:
2969:
2951:
2940:on 6 July 2018
2925:
2910:
2891:
2865:
2806:
2767:
2734:
2720:
2698:
2676:
2644:Randell, Brian
2635:
2613:Randell, Brian
2600:
2586:
2566:
2552:
2532:
2505:
2498:
2480:
2457:
2412:
2398:
2391:
2373:
2358:
2330:
2304:
2278:
2265:
2240:
2214:
2193:
2168:
2149:
2127:
2060:
1993:
1968:
1955:
1925:
1899:
1874:
1864:
1840:
1833:
1806:
1755:
1727:
1720:
1702:
1695:
1665:
1634:
1627:
1603:
1588:
1581:
1575:. p. 14.
1557:
1535:
1508:
1467:
1442:
1416:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1272:
1269:
1248:
1245:
1215:
1212:
1134:
1131:
1115:semiconductors
1094:Main article:
1091:
1088:
1046:Main article:
1043:
1040:
1030:, statistics,
1016:Main article:
1013:
1010:
994:Main article:
991:
988:
922:
919:
892:Main article:
889:
886:
882:circuit design
878:supercomputers
842:Main article:
839:
836:
834:
831:
781:
778:
706:
703:
669:, which is an
652:
649:
645:infrastructure
641:World Wide Web
621:Main article:
618:
615:
561:interconnected
553:Main article:
550:
547:
499:. Apps may be
461:Main article:
458:
455:
427:window systems
423:device drivers
407:Main article:
404:
401:
356:Main article:
353:
350:
322:Main article:
319:
316:
305:The execution
261:
258:
175:Claude Shannon
136:Main article:
133:
130:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5120:
5109:
5106:
5105:
5103:
5088:
5080:
5078:
5070:
5068:
5060:
5059:
5056:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4951:
4949:
4945:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4923:Mixed reality
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4900:
4898:
4896:
4892:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4858:
4854:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4809:
4807:
4805:
4801:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4757:
4756:Accessibility
4754:
4752:
4751:Visualization
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4733:
4731:
4729:
4725:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4671:
4667:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4588:
4584:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4539:
4537:
4535:
4530:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4500:
4498:
4496:
4492:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4452:
4450:
4448:
4444:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4381:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4326:
4324:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4278:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4235:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4218:Dependability
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4205:
4203:
4199:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4140:
4138:
4136:
4132:
4127:
4121:
4117:
4110:
4105:
4103:
4098:
4096:
4091:
4090:
4087:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4070:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4020:
4017:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3967:
3964:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3906:
3903:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3863:
3860:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3824:
3821:
3813:
3809:
3802:
3796:
3793:
3788:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3721:
3718:
3713:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3646:
3643:
3627:
3620:
3614:
3611:
3598:
3592:
3589:
3585:
3580:
3577:
3573:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3550:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3528:
3522:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3443:
3440:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3318:
3309:
3306:
3293:
3287:
3283:
3282:
3272:
3269:
3255:
3249:
3245:
3244:
3236:
3233:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3193:
3191:9780199233991
3187:
3183:
3182:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3119:
3116:
3112:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3088:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3061:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3036:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2984:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2970:1-58113-798-2
2966:
2962:
2955:
2952:
2939:
2935:
2929:
2926:
2921:
2914:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2895:
2892:
2879:
2875:
2869:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2807:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2787:(12): 64–73.
2786:
2782:
2778:
2771:
2768:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2721:
2708:
2702:
2699:
2686:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2636:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2610:
2604:
2601:
2589:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2570:
2567:
2555:
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