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461:, composed of mostly horizontal layers of materials deposited by water processes (rivers and streams), which in cross-section (looking at a two-dimensional slice of the aquifer) appear to be layers of alternating coarse and fine materials. Coarse materials, because of the high energy needed to move them, tend to be found nearer the source (mountain fronts or rivers), whereas the fine-grained material will make it farther from the source (to the flatter parts of the basin or overbank areasâsometimes called the pressure area). Since there are less fine-grained deposits near the source, this is a place where aquifers are often unconfined (sometimes called the forebay area), or in hydraulic communication with the land surface.
500:). Typically (but not always) the shallowest aquifer at a given location is unconfined, meaning it does not have a confining layer (an aquitard or aquiclude) between it and the surface. The term "perched" refers to ground water accumulating above a low-permeability unit or strata, such as a clay layer. This term is generally used to refer to a small local area of ground water that occurs at an elevation higher than a regionally extensive aquifer. The difference between perched and unconfined aquifers is their size (perched is smaller). Confined aquifers are aquifers that are overlain by a confining layer, often made up of clay. The confining layer might offer some protection from surface contamination.
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1421:. Paper based on: R.J. Oosterbaan, J. Boonstra and K.V.G.K. Rao, 1996, "The energy balance of groundwater flow". Published in V.P.Singh and B.Kumar (eds.), Subsurface-Water Hydrology, pp. 153â60, Vol. 2 of Proceedings of the International Conference on Hydrology and Water Resources, New Delhi, India, 1993. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
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89:), which is a solid, impermeable area underlying or overlying an aquifer, the pressure of which could lead to the formation of a confined aquifer. The classification of aquifers is as follows: Saturated versus unsaturated; aquifers versus aquitards; confined versus unconfined; isotropic versus anisotropic; porous, karst, or fractured; transboundary aquifer.
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moves down into small fissures in limestone. This carbonic acid gradually dissolves limestone thereby enlarging the fissures. The enlarged fissures allow a larger quantity of water to enter which leads to a progressive enlargement of openings. Abundant small openings store a large quantity of water.
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and how contamination will travel. In porous aquifers groundwater flows as slow seepage in pores between sand grains. A groundwater flow rate of 1 foot per day (0.3 m/d) is considered to be a high rate for porous aquifers, as illustrated by the water slowly seeping from sandstone in the accompanying
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An unconfined aquifer has no impermeable barrier immediately above it, such that the water level can rise in response to recharge. A confined aquifer has an overlying impermeable barrier that prevents the water level in the aquifer from rising any higher. An aquifer in the same geologic unit may be
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Aquifers occur from near-surface to deeper than 9,000 metres (30,000 ft). Those closer to the surface are not only more likely to be used for water supply and irrigation, but are also more likely to be replenished by local rainfall. Although aquifers are sometimes characterized as "underground
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and later natural cementation of the sand grains. The environment where a sand body was deposited controls the orientation of the sand grains, the horizontal and vertical variations, and the distribution of shale layers. Even thin shale layers are important barriers to groundwater flow. All these
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In the United States, the biggest users of water from aquifers include agricultural irrigation and oil and coal extraction. "Cumulative total groundwater depletion in the United States accelerated in the late 1940s and continued at an almost steady linear rate through the end of the century. In
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of the ground surface that can initiate a catastrophic release of contaminants. Groundwater flow rate in karst aquifers is much more rapid than in porous aquifers as shown in the accompanying image to the left. For example, in the Barton
Springs Edwards aquifer, dye traces measured the karst
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values (much less than 0.01, and as little as 10), which means that the aquifer is storing water using the mechanisms of aquifer matrix expansion and the compressibility of water, which typically are both quite small quantities. Unconfined aquifers have storativities (typically called
1876:
Barson, D., Bachu, S. and
Esslinger, P. 2001. Flow systems in the Mannville Group in the east-central Athabasca area and implications for steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) operations for in situ bitumen production. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, vol. 49, no. 3, pp.
407:) at less than atmospheric pressure. This is termed tension saturation and is not the same as saturation on a water-content basis. Water content in a capillary fringe decreases with increasing distance from the phreatic surface. The capillary head depends on soil pore size. In
1179:...more than 30,000 feet. On average, however, the porosity and permeability of rocks decrease as their depth below land surface increases; the pores and cracks in rocks at great depths are closed or greatly reduced in size because of the weight of overlying rocks.
216:
In 2013 large freshwater aquifers were discovered under continental shelves off
Australia, China, North America and South Africa. They contain an estimated half a million cubic kilometers of "low salinity" water that could be economically processed into
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If the distinction between confined and unconfined is not clear geologically (i.e., if it is not known if a clear confining layer exists, or if the geology is more complex, e.g., a fractured bedrock aquifer), the value of storativity returned from an
1006:, it covers 1,200,000 km (460,000 sq mi), with a volume of about 40,000 km (9,600 cu mi), a thickness of between 50 and 800 m (160 and 2,620 ft) and a maximum depth of about 1,800 m (5,900 ft).
748:, measurement of spring discharges, and analysis of water chemistry. U.S. Geological Survey dye tracing has determined that conventional groundwater models that assume a uniform distribution of porosity are not applicable for karst aquifers.
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soils with larger pores, the head will be less than in clay soils with very small pores. The normal capillary rise in a clayey soil is less than 1.8 m (6 ft) but can range between 0.3 and 10 m (1 and 33 ft).
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is arguably the largest groundwater aquifer in the world (over 1.7 million km or 0.66 million sq mi). It plays a large part in water supplies for
Queensland, and some remote parts of South Australia.
744:. Conventional hydrogeologic methods such as aquifer tests and potentiometric mapping are insufficient to characterize the complexity of karst aquifers. These conventional investigation methods need to be supplemented with
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can be used to test how accurately the understanding of the aquifer properties matches the actual aquifer performance. Environmental regulations require sites with potential sources of contamination to demonstrate that the
1680:
Renken, R.; Cunningham, K.; Zygnerski, M.; Wacker, M.; Shapiro, A.; Harvey, R.; Metge, D.; Osborn, C.; Ryan, J. (November 2005). "Assessing the
Vulnerability of a Municipal Well Field to Contamination in a Karst Aquifer".
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conditions occur above the water table where the pressure head is negative (absolute pressure can never be negative, but gauge pressure can) and the water that incompletely fills the pores of the aquifer material is under
898:. However, new methods of groundwater management such as artificial recharge and injection of surface waters during seasonal wet periods has extended the life of many freshwater aquifers, especially in the United States.
755:. Locating a well in a fracture trace or intersection of fracture traces increases the likelihood to encounter good water production. Voids in karst aquifers can be large enough to cause destructive collapse or
585:. Considerations include where and how much water enters the groundwater from rainfall and snowmelt, how fast and in what direction the groundwater travels, and how much water leaves the ground as springs.
1754:; Mace, Robert; Barrett, Michael; Smith, Brian (2003). "Can we simulate regional groundwater flow in a karst system using equivalent porous media models? Case study, Barton Springs Edwards aquifer, USA".
1049:. This carbonate aquifer has historically been providing high quality water for nearly 2 million people, and even today, is full because of tremendous recharge from a number of area streams, rivers and
517:) greater than 0.01 (1% of bulk volume); they release water from storage by the mechanism of actually draining the pores of the aquifer, releasing relatively large amounts of water (up to the drainable
419:
tube involves the same physical process. The water table is the level to which water will rise in a large-diameter pipe (e.g., a well) that goes down into the aquifer and is open to the atmosphere.
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of south east
England, although having a reasonably high porosity, has a low grain-to-grain permeability, with its good water-yielding characteristics mostly due to micro-fracturing and fissuring.
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addition to widely recognized environmental consequences, groundwater depletion also adversely impacts the long-term sustainability of groundwater supplies to help meet the Nationâs water needs."
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Semi-confined aquifers with one or more aquitards work as an anisotropic system, even when the separate layers are isotropic, because the compound Kh and Kv values are different (see
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Subsurface drainage by (tube)wells: Well spacing equations for fully and partially penetrating wells in uniform or layered aquifers with or without anisotropy and entrance resistance
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lava) in west central India are good examples of rock formations with high porosity but low permeability, which makes them poor aquifers. Similarly, the micro-porous (Upper
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have low to moderate permeability. Rainfall and snowmelt enter the groundwater where the aquifer is near the surface. Groundwater flow directions can be determined from
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To properly manage an aquifer its properties must be understood. Many properties must be known to predict how an aquifer will respond to rainfall, drought, pumping, and
1849:
1450:, 9 pp. Principles used in the "WellDrain" model. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line :
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surface. Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving away from the water table farther into the saturated zone. Recharge occurs both naturally (through the
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can be used to determine it (although aquifer tests in unconfined aquifers should be interpreted differently than confined ones). Confined aquifers have very low
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is a zone within the Earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. An aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an
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1626:
Delineation of ground-water basins and recharge areas for municipal water-supply springs in a karst aquifer system in the
Elizabethtown area, Northern Kentucky
1030:. Annual recharge, in the more arid parts of the aquifer, is estimated to total only about 10 percent of annual withdrawals. According to a 2013 report by the
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An aquitard is a zone within the Earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. A completely impermeable aquitard is called an
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An aquifer cross-section. This diagram shows two aquifers with one aquitard (a confining or impermeable layer) between them, surrounded by the bedrock
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Post, V. E. A.; Groen, J.; Kooi, H.; Person, M.; Ge, S.; Edmunds, W. M. (2013). "Offshore fresh groundwater reserves as a global phenomenon".
333:
Groundwater can be found at nearly every point in the Earth's shallow subsurface to some degree, although aquifers do not necessarily contain
221:. The reserves formed when ocean levels were lower and rainwater made its way into the ground in land areas that were not submerged until the
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by growing municipal use, and continuing agricultural use. This huge aquifer, which underlies portions of eight states, contains primarily
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leading to a well. This groundwater is a major source of fresh water for many regions, however can present a number of challenges such as
1920:
1034:(USGS), the depletion between 2001 and 2008, inclusive, is about 32 percent of the cumulative depletion during the entire 20th century.
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The energy balance of groundwater flow applied to subsurface drainage in anisotropic soils by pipes or ditches with entrance resistance
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73:). Aquifers vary greatly in their characteristics. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called
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Aquifers are typically saturated regions of the subsurface that produce an economically feasible quantity of water to a well or
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ended 20,000 years ago. The volume is estimated to be 100 times the amount of water extracted from other aquifers since 1900.
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in an aquifer, the anisotropy is to be taken into account lest the resulting design of the drainage system may be faulty.
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can lead to the exceeding of the practical sustained yield; i.e., more water is taken out than can be replenished.
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groundwater flow rates from 0.5 to 7 miles per day (0.8 to 11.3 km/d). The rapid groundwater flow rates make
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1217:"Types of aquifers: Aquiclude, Aquitard and Aquifuge and location of aquifers â Geography of Water Resources"
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Reliance on groundwater will only increase, mainly due to growing water demand by all sectors combined with
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In mountainous areas (or near rivers in mountainous areas), the main aquifers are typically unconsolidated
260:. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs in the
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Analyzing this type of information over an area gives an indication how much water can be pumped without
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aquifers or aquifer layers the hydraulic conductivity (K) is equal for flow in all directions, while in
280:) and through anthropogenic processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and/or
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or mountains within them or close to them that can be exploited as groundwater resources. Part of the
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Oil and
Troubled Waters: Reducing the impact of the oil and gas industry on Alberta's water resources
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of the central United States is one of the world's great aquifers, but in places it is being rapidly
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359:), where there are still pockets of air that contain some water, but can be filled with more water.
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Fort McKay's Review of Teck
Resources Ltd. â Frontier Oil Sands Mine Project Integrated Application
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flow), provided the rock has a hydraulic conductivity sufficient to facilitate movement of water.
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Linear alignment of surface features such as straight stream segments and sinkholes develop along
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The United
Nations World Water Development Report 2022: Groundwater: Making the invisible visible
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and Israel, increased water usage associated with population growth has caused a lowering of the
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they are non-saline. The BWS typically pose problems for the recovery of bitumen, whether by
369:(it has a gauge pressure > 0). The definition of the water table is the surface where the
351:(e.g., aquifers, aquitards, etc.), where all available spaces are filled with water, and the
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1632:. Water-Resources Investigations Report 96-4254. Denver, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey.
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1653:"Hydrogeologic characterization and methods used in the investigation of karst hydrology."
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1591:. Springer Series in Physical Environment. Vol. 4. Berlin: Springer. pp. 2â3.
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Field Techniques for Estimating Water Fluxes Between Surface Water and Ground Water
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1053:. The primary risk to this resource is human development over the recharge areas.
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1939:"The International Atomic Energy Agency: Linking Nuclear Science and Diplomacy"
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1800:. UNESCO, Paris Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
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998:, is one of the world's largest aquifer systems and is an important source of
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oil production. Where they are deep-lying and recharge occurs from underlying
756:
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The larger openings form a conduit system that drains the aquifer to springs.
686:
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flow equations to determine the ability of a porous aquifer to convey water.
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Water in porous aquifers slowly seeps through pore spaces between sand grains
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677:, it does not determine a rock's ability to act as an aquifer. Areas of the
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1386:"Understanding Aquitards and Aquicludes | UNSW Connected Waters Initiative"
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conditions it differs, notably in horizontal (Kh) and vertical (Kv) sense.
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Joslyn North Mine Project: Environmental Impact Assessment Hydrologeology
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Characterization of karst aquifers requires field exploration to locate
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from aquifers can be sustainably harvested by humans through the use of
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1970:: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. p. 63.
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1071: â Confined aquifer containing groundwater under positive pressure
995:
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436:
381:
222:
138:
1859:, Alberta: Deer Creek Energy. December 2005. p. 4. Archived from
1823:. Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Water. Archived from
1637:
970:(SAGD), and in some areas they are targets for waste-water injection.
450:. Aquitards contain layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low
163:
rivers or lakes," they are actually porous rock saturated with water.
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1432:. The corresponding "EnDrain" software can be downloaded from :
1041:
An example of a significant and sustainable carbonate aquifer is the
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Aquifer depletion is a problem in some areas, especially in northern
682:
432:
147:
96:
62:
2511:
1662:. Techniques and Methods 4âD2. U.S. Geological Survey. p. 107.
1563:
1554:. Circular 1186. Denver, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey. p.
1104: â Point at which water emerges from an aquifer to the surface
1098: â Storage of heat or cold for periods of up to several months
3996:
3756:
3282:
3122:
3048:
2835:
1086: â Use of multiple hydraulic tests to characterize an aquifer
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have moderate to high permeability while sandy deposits formed in
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http://hydrogeologistswithoutborders.org/wordpress/1979-english/
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939:. Saturated with water, they are confined beneath impermeable
1990:"Drop in U.S. underground water levels has accelerated: USGS"
954:
they are saline, and where they are shallow and recharged by
373:
is equal to atmospheric pressure (where gauge pressure = 0).
194:, have shallow aquifers that are exploited for their water.
2126:
2033:
IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre
2032:
1589:
Processes in karst systems: physics, chemistry, and geology
943:-saturated sands that are exploited to recover bitumen for
81:, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and
2037:
1513:
Pettijohn, Francis; Potter, Paul; Siever, Raymond (1987).
1477:
Assaad, Fakhry; LaMoreaux, Philip; Hughes, Travis (2004).
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is highly fractured, it can also make a good aquifer (via
1241:"Huge reserves of freshwater lie beneath the ocean floor"
403:
to saturate a small zone above the phreatic surface (the
337:. The Earth's crust can be divided into two regions: the
1065: â Injection of water into an aquifer for later use
1073:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1961:
Groundwater Depletion in the United States (1900â2008)
1802:
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International License
1481:. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
1954:
1952:
365:
means the pressure head of the water is greater than
1966:(Report). Scientific Investigations Report. Reston,
388:
in the unsaturated zone is held in place by surface
4473:
4465:
Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
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1546:Alley, William; Reilly, Thomas; Franke, O. (1999).
764:to groundwater contamination than porous aquifers.
521:of the aquifer material, or the minimum volumetric
201:Along the coastlines of certain countries, such as
61:
or fractured rock, or of unconsolidated materials (
1547:
1887:Griffiths, Mary; Woynillowicz, Dan (April 2003).
27:Underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock
1894:(Report). Edmonton, Alberta: Pembina Institute.
1508:
1506:
1479:Field methods for geologists and hydrogeologists
480:confined in one area and unconfined in another.
34:Schematic of an aquifer showing confined zones,
211:contamination of the groundwater with saltwater
767:In the extreme case, groundwater may exist in
492:aquifers, because their upper boundary is the
3626:
2527:
2142:
2059:
1730:. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. pp. 294â295.
1517:. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
923:Discontinuous sand bodies at the base of the
392:and it rises above the water table (the zero-
307:. Aquitards are composed of layers of either
8:
1453:. Download "WellDrain" software from :
614:Porous aquifers typically occur in sand and
4440:Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
2040:- Online platform for groundwater knowledge
650:maps of water levels in wells and springs.
4413:History of hard rock miners' organizations
4291:
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935:, Canada, are commonly referred to as the
833:Challenges for using groundwater include:
618:. Porous aquifer properties depend on the
244:or deep drainage or deep percolation is a
1702:
827:increasing variation in rainfall patterns
4398:American Society of Reclamation Sciences
4245:North American Aerospace Defense Command
1683:Environmental and Engineering Geoscience
1550:Sustainability of ground-water resources
1360:"Morphological Features of Soil Wetness"
1120:
415:The capillary rise of water in a small-
1651:Taylor, Charles; Greene, Earl (2008).
1092: â Depleting a renewable resource
845:of land, groundwater becoming saline,
182:ranges between Syria and Lebanon, the
802:Map of major US aquifers by rock type
146:, which is in contact with a gaining
7:
1130:"Ancient systems keep water flowing"
1080: â Hydrology of drainage basins
620:depositional sedimentary environment
439:often make good aquifer materials).
1919:(Report). Fort McKay First Nation.
1313:Freeze, R.A.; Cherry, J.A. (1979).
837:(extracting groundwater beyond the
720:. Surface water containing natural
484:aquifers are sometimes also called
103:(extracting groundwater beyond the
4338:Journey to the Center of the Earth
4240:Naples underground geothermal zone
1988:Zabarenko, Deborah (20 May 2013).
762:karst aquifers much more sensitive
25:
4455:Research Centre for Deep Drilling
4450:International Union of Speleology
982:, located beneath the surface of
705:Water in karst aquifers can form
57:-bearing material, consisting of
3595:
3594:
2495:
2494:
1977:from the original on 2013-06-15.
1926:from the original on 2013-06-20.
1901:from the original on 2013-12-15.
1669:from the original on 2008-11-02.
818:This section is an excerpt from
640:windblown sand dune environments
234:This section is an excerpt from
4445:Institution of Mining Engineers
4210:Underground Great Wall of China
2393:Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System
1937:Brittain, John (22 June 2015).
1390:www.connectedwaters.unsw.edu.au
1096:Seasonal thermal energy storage
1032:United States Geological Survey
968:steam-assisted gravity drainage
937:Basal Water Sand (BWS) aquifers
4460:Society of Economic Geologists
4428:National Speleological Society
4378:Wonderland (fictional country)
1762:(1â4). Elsevier Science: 142.
1362:. Ces.ncsu.edu. Archived from
1243:. Gizmag.com. 11 December 2013
843:groundwater-related subsidence
716:aquifers typically develop in
190:and neighboring ranges in the
154:regions). The water table and
109:groundwater-related subsidence
1:
3885:Subterranean rivers of London
2456:Aquifers in the United States
1776:10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00064-7
1110: â Shallow, thin aquifer
863:Aquifers in the United States
813:Groundwater § Challenges
4418:National Mine Map Repository
3860:Jewel Cave National Monument
2560:Pollution / quality
2461:Aquifer storage and recovery
2208:Buried Valley Aquifer System
1587:Dreybrodt, Wolfgang (1988).
1063:Aquifer storage and recovery
820:Groundwater § Uses by humans
673:Porosity is important, but,
539:Isotropic versus anisotropic
319:Saturated versus unsaturated
311:or non-porous rock with low
284:is routed to the subsurface.
268:and is often expressed as a
4423:National Mining Association
4250:Raven Rock Mountain Complex
2008:"Edwards Aquifer Authority"
1689:(4). GeoScienceWorld: 320.
1196:National Geographic Society
1142:10.1038/nmiddleeast.2022.72
890:, where one example is the
636:shallow marine environments
577:Porous, karst, or fractured
53:is an underground layer of
4652:
4363:Tunnels in popular culture
4205:Underground City, Montreal
4200:Underground City (Beijing)
4145:816 Nuclear Military Plant
3875:Mammoth Cave National Park
2258:Santa Clara valley aquifer
1814:"The Great Artesian Basin"
1171:"Aquifers and Groundwater"
1026:from the time of the last
856:
817:
810:
527:
475:Confined versus unconfined
463:
322:
233:
126:
4626:Water and the environment
4170:Cheyenne Mountain Complex
3590:
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3131:Types / location
2489:
2228:KirkwoodâCohansey aquifer
2086:
1597:10.1007/978-3-642-83352-6
1523:10.1007/978-1-4612-1066-5
1487:10.1007/978-3-662-05438-3
634:Sandy deposits formed in
496:or phreatic surface (see
423:Aquifers versus aquitards
4536:Underground construction
4408:Cave Research Foundation
1726:Fetter, Charles (1988).
1623:Taylor, Charles (1997).
807:Human use of groundwater
740:in addition to studying
556:hydraulic transmissivity
192:United States' Southwest
77:. Related terms include
4022:Missile launch facility
3895:Wind Cave National Park
2177:Laurentian River System
2038:The Groundwater Project
931:region of northeastern
853:By country or continent
841:yield of the aquifer),
166:Many desert areas have
107:yield of the aquifer),
4175:Chicago Tunnel Company
3814:Subterranean waterfall
2409:Yarkon-Taninim Aquifer
2388:Lotikipi Basin Aquifer
2268:Southern Hills Aquifer
2096:hydraulic conductivity
1796:United Nations (2022)
1221:ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in
878:
872:Texas blind salamander
803:
787:If a rock unit of low
710:
648:potentiometric surface
611:
466:Hydraulic conductivity
452:hydraulic conductivity
313:hydraulic conductivity
186:in Oman, parts of the
159:
46:
4611:Hydraulic engineering
4190:KĆbĂĄnya cellar system
4180:Houston tunnel system
4160:Almadén Mercury Mines
4155:The Caves of ĂgissĂĂ°a
2172:Arkell Spring Grounds
1943:Science and Diplomacy
1128:Walker, Kira (2022).
870:
847:groundwater pollution
811:Further information:
801:
704:
609:
174:in North Africa, the
158:are also illustrated.
141:
33:
4585:Subterranean warfare
4358:Subterranea (comics)
4343:Moria (Middle-earth)
4323:Allegory of the cave
4307:Subterranean fiction
3506:remnant natural area
3143:storage and recovery
2809:habitat conservation
2627:Deforestation (REDD)
2341:Great Artesian Basin
2331:Botany Sands Aquifer
2010:. Edwardsaquifer.org
1959:Konikow, Leonard F.
1756:Journal of Hydrology
1084:Hydraulic tomography
908:Great Artesian Basin
560:hydraulic resistance
367:atmospheric pressure
252:moves downward from
242:Groundwater recharge
236:Groundwater recharge
229:Groundwater recharge
119:of the groundwater.
4541:Tunnel construction
4265:Subterranean Toledo
4260:Subterranean London
4150:Caves of Maastricht
3460:Earth Overshoot Day
3034:Marine conservation
3015:non-timber products
2476:Sole Source Aquifer
2263:Snake River Aquifer
2248:San Diego Formation
2223:Fox Hills Formation
2078:properties used in
1866:on 2 December 2013.
1830:on 13 November 2006
1821:Facts: Water Series
1768:2003JHyd..276..137S
1695:2005EEGeo..11..319R
1284:10.1038/nature12858
1276:2013Natur.504...71P
1078:Catchment hydrology
929:Athabasca Oil Sands
892:Great Manmade River
730:sinkholes, swallets
707:subterranean rivers
670:image to the left.
631:of sandy aquifers.
623:factors affect the
209:and the subsequent
4563:Mining engineering
4548:Underground living
4373:Underland (Narnia)
4288:Fictional features
4067:Underground hangar
3809:Subterranean river
3804:Subterranean fauna
3445:Ecosystem services
2568:Ambient standards
2351:Yarragadee Aquifer
2182:Oak Ridges Moraine
1912:FMFN (June 2012).
1515:Sand and Sandstone
1417:2009-02-19 at the
1346:2020-04-06 at the
1134:Nature Middle East
1102:Spring (hydrology)
1002:. Named after the
925:McMurray Formation
879:
804:
769:underground rivers
711:
644:river environments
612:
160:
129:Aquifer properties
47:
4593:
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4481:Cave conservation
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4129:Ventilation shaft
3908:Man-made features
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3064:genetic resources
3000:genetic resources
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2543:Natural resources
2509:
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2481:Surficial aquifer
2435:Upper Rhine Plain
2383:Bas Saharan Basin
2124:
2123:
1996:. Washington, DC.
1737:978-0-675-20887-1
1728:Applied Hydrology
1638:10.3133/wri964254
1606:978-3-642-83354-0
1573:978-0-607-93040-5
1532:978-0-387-96350-1
1496:978-3-540-40882-6
1456:, or from :
1435:, or from :
1429:. On line :
1427:978-0-7923-3651-8
1326:978-0-13-365312-0
1319:. Prentice-Hall.
1108:Surficial aquifer
658:can be used with
565:When calculating
355:(also called the
111:of land, and the
16:(Redirected from
4643:
4558:Mine exploration
4333:Greek Underworld
4292:
4270:Turda Salt Mines
4255:Shanghai tunnels
4119:Smuggling tunnel
4062:Underground base
4057:Underground city
3972:Dugout (shelter)
3922:Air raid shelter
3912:
3870:Lechuguilla Cave
3850:Castellana Caves
3819:Underground lake
3653:
3649:Natural features
3635:
3628:
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3598:
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3496:Natural heritage
3455:overexploitation
3394:
3128:
3074:herbal medicines
3054:FAO Plant Treaty
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2498:
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2471:Artesian aquifer
2451:List of aquifers
2444:Related articles
2367:Waiwhetu Aquifer
2238:Ogallala Aquifer
2218:Floridan aquifer
2198:Biscayne Aquifer
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1090:Overexploitation
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1069:Artesian aquifer
1016:Ogallala Aquifer
966:methods such as
859:List of aquifers
777:karst topography
498:Biscayne Aquifer
431:(e.g., sand and
405:capillary fringe
401:capillary action
353:unsaturated zone
196:Overexploitation
156:unsaturated zone
38:travel times, a
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3992:Fallout shelter
3962:Crypt Mausoleum
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3890:Veryovkina Cave
3880:Reed Flute Cave
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3740:Solutional cave
3688:Communal burrow
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2253:Sankoty Aquifer
2233:Mahomet Aquifer
2213:Edwards Aquifer
2203:Bishop Subbasin
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876:Edwards Aquifer
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3177:
3172:
3167:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3134:
3132:
3125:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3114:
3113:
3108:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2978:climate change
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2946:Bioprospecting
2943:
2937:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2918:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2881:
2880:
2879:
2874:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2850:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2828:
2823:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2801:
2800:
2799:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2732:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2708:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2645:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2591:Clean Air Act
2583:
2578:
2573:
2564:
2562:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2531:
2524:
2516:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2372:
2370:
2369:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2353:
2348:
2346:Jandakot Mound
2343:
2338:
2336:Gnangara Mound
2333:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2312:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2154:
2153:
2146:
2139:
2131:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2091:hydraulic head
2087:
2084:
2083:
2073:
2071:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2035:
2028:
2027:External links
2025:
2022:
2021:
1999:
1980:
1948:
1929:
1904:
1879:
1869:
1841:
1805:
1789:
1743:
1736:
1718:
1672:
1643:
1612:
1605:
1579:
1572:
1538:
1531:
1502:
1495:
1460:
1439:
1401:
1377:
1351:
1325:
1305:
1254:
1232:
1208:
1183:
1162:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1066:
1058:
1055:
1011:
1008:
1004:Guarani people
975:
972:
920:
917:
903:
900:
883:
880:
854:
851:
824:
816:
808:
805:
784:
781:
698:
695:
603:
600:
578:
575:
567:flow to drains
540:
537:
515:specific yield
476:
473:
424:
421:
394:gauge-pressure
320:
317:
290:
289:Classification
287:
240:
232:
230:
227:
213:from the sea.
135:
132:
124:
121:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4648:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4574:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4516:Civil defense
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4506:Cave painting
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4472:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4391:Organisations
4389:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4314:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4293:
4290:
4286:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4225:Mustang Caves
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4142:
4140:
4136:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4103:
4100:
4099:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4092:Semi-basement
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4082:Subway system
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4052:Utility vault
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4037:Rock-cut tomb
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4027:Passage grave
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3982:Earth shelter
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3947:Blast shelter
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3919:
3917:
3913:
3910:
3906:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3865:Kazumura Cave
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3840:
3836:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3824:Volcanic pipe
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3772:Maternity den
3770:
3768:
3767:Magma chamber
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3698:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3683:Burrow fossil
3681:
3680:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3654:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3631:
3629:
3624:
3622:
3617:
3616:
3613:
3601:
3593:
3592:
3589:
3579:
3578:Non-renewable
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3518:Urban ecology
3516:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3426:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3388:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3350:Privatization
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3269:
3263:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3245:Surface water
3243:
3241:
3238:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3211:
3210:
3207:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3103:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2993:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2882:
2878:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2858:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2814:
2810:
2807:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2793:
2790:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2747:
2746:peak farmland
2744:
2743:
2742:
2739:
2738:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2716:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2537:
2532:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2518:
2517:
2514:
2502:
2501:
2492:
2491:
2488:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2374:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2358:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2303:South America
2301:
2295:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2273:Turlock Basin
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2243:Permian Basin
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2191:United States
2189:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2133:
2132:
2129:
2117:
2116:water content
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2069:
2064:
2062:
2057:
2055:
2050:
2049:
2046:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2026:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1981:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1930:
1922:
1915:
1908:
1905:
1897:
1890:
1883:
1880:
1873:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1851:
1845:
1842:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1790:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1747:
1744:
1739:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1676:
1673:
1665:
1661:
1654:
1647:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1627:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1608:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1580:
1575:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1551:
1542:
1539:
1534:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:ILRI (2000),
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1405:
1402:
1391:
1387:
1381:
1378:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1342:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1318:
1317:
1309:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1258:
1255:
1242:
1236:
1233:
1222:
1218:
1212:
1209:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1163:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1124:
1121:
1114:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:United States
1009:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
974:South America
973:
971:
969:
965:
961:
957:
956:surface water
953:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
918:
916:
913:
909:
901:
899:
897:
893:
889:
881:
877:
873:
869:
864:
860:
852:
850:
848:
844:
840:
836:
828:
821:
814:
806:
800:
796:
794:
790:
782:
780:
778:
774:
770:
765:
763:
758:
754:
749:
747:
743:
742:geologic maps
739:
735:
731:
726:
723:
722:carbonic acid
719:
715:
708:
703:
696:
694:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
671:
668:
663:
661:
657:
653:
652:Aquifer tests
649:
645:
641:
637:
632:
630:
626:
621:
617:
608:
601:
599:
597:
596:characterized
593:
588:
584:
583:contamination
576:
574:
572:
571:flow to wells
568:
563:
561:
557:
552:
550:
546:
538:
535:
531:
526:
524:
523:water content
520:
516:
511:
507:
501:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
474:
471:
467:
462:
460:
455:
453:
449:
445:
440:
438:
435:or fractured
434:
430:
422:
420:
418:
413:
410:
406:
402:
398:
395:
391:
387:
386:water content
383:
378:
374:
372:
371:pressure head
368:
364:
360:
358:
354:
350:
348:
343:
341:
336:
330:
329:Soil moisture
326:
325:Water content
318:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
297:
288:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
254:surface water
251:
247:
243:
237:
228:
226:
224:
220:
219:potable water
214:
212:
208:
204:
199:
197:
193:
189:
188:Sierra Nevada
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
157:
153:
149:
145:
140:
133:
130:
122:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
45:
41:
37:
32:
19:
4636:Water supply
4621:Hydrogeology
4486:Cave dweller
4348:Nome Kingdom
4302:Hollow Earth
4215:Maginot Line
4114:Storm cellar
3932:Burial vault
3794:Rock shelter
3705:Glacier cave
3672:
3576: /
3450:Exploitation
3335:Conservation
3278:Desalination
3213:
3137:
3106:conservation
2941:Biodiversity
2889:conservation
2736:Agricultural
2664:Fossil fuels
2493:
2466:Aquifer test
2294:Lake Texcoco
2157:
2106:permeability
2080:hydrogeology
2075:
2012:. Retrieved
2002:
1993:
1983:
1942:
1932:
1907:
1882:
1872:
1861:the original
1844:
1832:. Retrieved
1825:the original
1820:
1808:
1792:
1759:
1755:
1746:
1727:
1721:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1659:
1646:
1625:
1588:
1582:
1549:
1541:
1514:
1478:
1447:
1442:
1408:
1404:
1393:. Retrieved
1389:
1380:
1368:. Retrieved
1364:the original
1354:
1315:
1308:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1245:. Retrieved
1235:
1224:. Retrieved
1220:
1211:
1200:. Retrieved
1198:. 2019-07-30
1195:
1186:
1178:
1174:
1165:
1153:. Retrieved
1133:
1123:
1040:
1036:
1024:fossil water
1013:
977:
963:
922:
910:situated in
905:
885:
835:overdrafting
832:
786:
768:
766:
750:
727:
712:
679:Deccan Traps
674:
672:
667:overdrafting
664:
633:
629:permeability
613:
580:
564:
553:
542:
506:aquifer test
502:
489:
485:
481:
478:
456:
447:
443:
441:
426:
414:
376:
375:
362:
361:
352:
345:
338:
332:
304:
300:
294:
292:
264:below plant
215:
200:
184:Jebel Akhdar
180:Anti-Lebanon
165:
161:
150:(typical in
143:
113:salinization
101:overdrafting
91:
86:
82:
78:
75:hydrogeology
50:
48:
4568:Mole people
4553:Mine rescue
4501:Cave rescue
4491:Cave diving
4235:Mogao Caves
4165:Coober Pedy
4124:Spider hole
4102:Septic tank
4042:Root cellar
3693:Paleoburrow
3642:Subterranea
3569:Nationalism
3541:Common-pool
3182:Hydrosphere
3175:remediation
3160:Groundwater
2755:Degradation
2402:Middle-East
2360:New Zealand
2315:Hamza River
2101:storativity
2014:15 December
1370:6 September
1316:Groundwater
1247:15 December
1045:in central
1000:fresh water
894:project of
839:equilibrium
775:underlying
691:Chalk Group
660:Darcy's law
549:anisotropic
534:Storativity
510:storativity
494:water table
486:water table
470:Storativity
377:Unsaturated
357:vadose zone
335:fresh water
278:water cycle
274:water table
262:vadose zone
258:groundwater
207:water table
105:equilibrium
93:Groundwater
36:groundwater
4600:Categories
4580:Speleology
4573:in fiction
4353:Pellucidar
4195:Kome Caves
3845:Balve Cave
3789:Pit crater
3745:Talus cave
3668:Ant colony
3564:Extraction
3523:Wilderness
3484:accounting
3467:Management
3433:ecological
3421:tragedy of
3340:Peak water
3325:Efficiency
3298:Sanitation
3240:Stormwater
3233:harvesting
3209:Irrigation
3111:management
3069:gene banks
3010:management
2988:management
2904:resilience
2870:phosphorus
2826:industrial
2804:Management
2780:soundscape
2686:Geothermal
1855:(Report).
1395:2022-12-07
1226:2024-06-27
1202:2021-09-17
1192:"Aquifers"
1136:. Nature.
1115:References
1028:glaciation
952:formations
757:subsidence
746:dye traces
687:Cretaceous
656:well tests
528:See also:
482:Unconfined
464:See also:
323:See also:
246:hydrologic
127:See also:
123:Properties
4616:Hydrology
4496:Cave gate
4368:Underdark
4316:Exemplars
4138:Exemplars
4077:Wine cave
3952:Catacombs
3838:Exemplars
3735:Show cave
3725:Lava tube
3720:Lava cave
3574:Renewable
3559:Depletion
3546:Conflict
3428:Economics
3406:enclosure
3365:Resources
3345:Pollution
3262:Watershed
3165:pollution
3096:Seed bank
3091:Rangeland
2973:Fisheries
2958:Biosphere
2951:biopiracy
2894:fertility
2770:cityscape
2765:Landscape
2672:peak coal
2659:Resources
2610:Emissions
2324:Australia
2074:Physical
1834:3 January
1699:CiteSeerX
1335:643719314
1150:253486495
984:Argentina
912:Australia
902:Australia
874:found in
783:Fractured
718:limestone
616:sandstone
594:has been
592:hydrology
545:isotropic
444:aquiclude
363:Saturated
340:saturated
301:aquiclude
144:aquiclude
117:pollution
83:aquiclude
59:permeable
4606:Aquifers
4109:Stepwell
4097:Sewerage
4007:Hypogeum
3987:Erdstall
3977:Dry well
3957:Casemate
3937:Borehole
3927:Basement
3799:Sinkhole
3730:Pit Cave
3715:Ice cave
3600:Category
3533:Resource
3472:adaptive
3370:improved
3330:Conflict
3315:Security
3310:Scarcity
3303:improved
3293:Leaching
3170:recharge
3150:Drinking
3101:Wildlife
2968:Bushmeat
2963:Bushfood
2916:planning
2821:gemstone
2816:Minerals
2797:property
2785:viewshed
2775:seascape
2706:sunlight
2680:peak oil
2676:peak gas
2500:Category
2278:Wekepeke
2158:Aquifers
2111:porosity
1972:Archived
1921:Archived
1896:Archived
1857:Edmonton
1784:16046040
1664:Archived
1415:Archived
1344:Archived
1292:24305150
1057:See also
1020:depleted
992:Paraguay
949:Devonian
789:porosity
683:basaltic
625:porosity
530:Porosity
519:porosity
490:phreatic
459:alluvium
448:aquifuge
417:diameter
347:phreatic
305:aquifuge
296:aquitard
87:aquifuge
79:aquitard
4403:Bergamt
4328:Batcave
4275:Yaodong
4012:Manhole
4002:Foxhole
3967:Dungeon
3673:Aquifer
3401:Commons
3390:Related
3355:Quality
3271:Aspects
3197:glacial
3138:Aquifer
3044:Pasture
2995:Forests
2921:reserve
2696:Nuclear
2666: (
2622:Trading
2617:Airshed
2076:aquifer
1994:Reuters
1877:376â92.
1764:Bibcode
1691:Bibcode
1300:4468578
1272:Bibcode
1155:10 July
996:Uruguay
964:in situ
941:bitumen
933:Alberta
927:in the
793:fissure
771:(e.g.,
738:springs
638:and in
437:bedrock
382:suction
272:to the
223:ice age
176:Lebanon
51:aquifer
4511:Caving
4433:Grotto
4047:Tunnel
4032:Quarry
3942:Bunker
3829:Warren
3752:Cenote
3710:Grotto
3678:Burrow
3663:Alcove
3411:global
3375:policy
3320:Supply
3283:Floods
3250:Sewage
3223:Marine
3215:huerta
3049:Plants
3039:Meadow
2899:health
2877:rights
2865:copper
2843:mining
2741:arable
2641:Energy
2581:Indoor
2418:Europe
2376:Africa
2287:Mexico
2165:Canada
1782:
1734:
1701:
1603:
1570:
1529:
1493:
1425:
1333:
1323:
1298:
1290:
1264:Nature
1148:
994:, and
988:Brazil
962:or by
919:Canada
888:Africa
882:Africa
736:, and
602:Porous
433:gravel
429:spring
397:isobar
384:. The
148:stream
97:qanats
63:gravel
42:and a
40:spring
4295:Types
3997:Fogou
3915:Types
3757:Karst
3656:Types
3554:Curse
3360:Right
3202:polar
3192:bergs
3155:Fresh
3123:Water
2836:metal
2760:Field
2711:shade
2701:Solar
2691:Hydro
2576:Index
1975:(PDF)
1964:(PDF)
1924:(PDF)
1917:(PDF)
1899:(PDF)
1892:(PDF)
1864:(PDF)
1853:(PDF)
1828:(PDF)
1817:(PDF)
1780:S2CID
1667:(PDF)
1656:(PDF)
1630:(PDF)
1296:S2CID
1146:S2CID
1051:lakes
1047:Texas
896:Libya
773:caves
714:Karst
697:Karst
675:alone
409:sandy
399:) by
266:roots
250:water
203:Libya
152:humid
134:Depth
69:, or
55:water
4072:Well
4017:Mine
3777:Nest
3700:Cave
3489:good
3438:land
3416:land
3228:Rain
3084:wood
3059:food
3022:Game
2933:Life
2884:Soil
2860:peak
2853:sand
2728:Land
2718:Wind
2593:(US)
2570:(US)
2016:2013
1836:2007
1732:ISBN
1601:ISBN
1568:ISBN
1527:ISBN
1491:ISBN
1423:ISBN
1372:2010
1331:OCLC
1321:ISBN
1288:PMID
1249:2013
1175:USGS
1157:2023
1014:The
978:The
906:The
861:and
654:and
627:and
558:and
532:and
468:and
349:zone
342:zone
327:and
309:clay
270:flux
178:and
85:(or
71:silt
67:sand
44:well
3782:Bee
3288:Law
3187:Ice
3027:law
3005:law
2983:law
2911:Use
2848:law
2831:ore
2792:Law
2668:gas
2654:Law
2649:Bio
2586:Law
2551:Air
1772:doi
1760:276
1709:doi
1634:doi
1593:doi
1560:doi
1519:doi
1483:doi
1280:doi
1268:504
1138:doi
681:(a
569:or
562:).
543:In
525:).
488:or
446:or
344:or
303:or
293:An
256:to
115:or
49:An
4602::
2678:,
2674:,
2670:,
1992:.
1968:VA
1951:^
1941:.
1819:.
1778:.
1770:.
1758:.
1707:.
1697:.
1687:11
1685:.
1658:.
1615:^
1599:.
1566:.
1558:.
1525:.
1505:^
1489:.
1463:^
1388:.
1329:.
1294:.
1286:.
1278:.
1266:.
1219:.
1194:.
1177:.
1173:.
1144:.
1132:.
990:,
986:,
849:.
779:.
732:,
689:)
598:.
454:.
315:.
65:,
3634:e
3627:t
3620:v
2682:)
2535:e
2528:t
2521:v
2150:e
2143:t
2136:v
2067:e
2060:t
2053:v
2018:.
1945:.
1838:.
1786:.
1774::
1766::
1740:.
1715:.
1711::
1693::
1640:.
1636::
1609:.
1595::
1576:.
1562::
1556:8
1535:.
1521::
1499:.
1485::
1398:.
1374:.
1337:.
1302:.
1282::
1274::
1251:.
1229:.
1205:.
1159:.
1140::
829:.
822:.
709:.
238:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
