912:. However, a number of factors led to the hardening of alliances into two camps, the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the rival Triple Entente (France, Russia, and the United Kingdom), rather than the flexible balance of power system with each Power viewing all others as rivals. In addition, the growth of colonial and imperial power around the world and the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans and North Africa meant the Concert's goal of territorial and political stability was harder to achieve, eventually leading to the outbreak of war.
512:
offend the Tsar by refusing to sign it, and as it bound monarchs personally rather than their governments, it was sufficiently vague to be functionally ignored once signed. In the opinion of Lord
Castlereagh, the British foreign secretary at the time of its inception, the Holy Alliance was "a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense". Nevertheless, its influence was more long lasting than its contemporary critics expected and was revived in the 1820s as a tool of repression when Britain and France refused to embroil themselves in certain continental matters.
609:), between the powers of the Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) in order to discuss the Austrian invasion and occupation of Naples in order to put down the Neapolitan Revolution of 1820 which had forced the King to accept a constitution. Other powers present at this Congress include Naples, Sicily, the United Kingdom, and France. The Congress of Laibach represented beginning tensions within the Concert of Europe, between the Eastern powers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, versus the Western powers of Britain and France.
656:
for the status quo. Russia and the United
Kingdom entered a bilateral agreement to enforce their plan, by war if necessary, for a mediated end to the conflict with Greek autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. The other great powers were not consulted in this Protocol and though France later joined, Austria and Prussia opposed the Protocol and the threat it posed to the conservative, anti-nationalist stability they sought to impose on Europe. The Ottomans also rejected the Protocol until their defeat at the
831:. The war was fought between France and Piedmont-Sardinia on the one hand and Austria on the other and resulted in a swift defeat for the Austrians. Lasting only two months and resulting mainly in the transfer of lands to a minor Italian power (Piedmont Sardinia), the war also did not result in a general European war but the transfer of European territory from a great power was unprecedented during the Concert period and presaged the coming decade of wars of national unity which would reshape Europe.
1011:
the fall of the first phase, the rise of nationalism was in almost direct opposition to the core cooperative functions of the
Concert, and resulted in States who were no longer well constrained by the Congress system. The outbreak of conflict – namely in the Balkans after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand – highlighted the final failure of the Concert of Europe, in that it was no longer able to constrain State national interests in order to maintain a cooperative international front.
257:
771:. However, in response, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and even republican France worked – and in some cases coordinate closely – to defeat the uprisings in Germany, Italy, and Eastern Europe. Britain also sought to preserve the status quo, providing no support to the revolutionaries, and mainly seeking to ensure that no other powers managed to leverage the uprisings into expanded influence in areas of British interest, such as the Mediterranean and the Low Countries.
189:(1814–1815), was dominated by the five great powers of Europe: Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Initially envisioning regular Congresses among the great powers to resolve potential disputes, in practice, Congresses were held on an ad hoc basis and were generally successful in preventing or localizing conflicts. The more conservative members of the Concert of Europe, members of the
54:
125:
1277:
419:, the Concert of Europe also sought to tamp down on liberal and democratic movements across the continent. Finally, the French Revolution also provided a model for nationalist movements and both sides in the Napoleonic Wars had sought to exploit nationalist sentiment when convenient to their war aims. For example, the French supported the
112:
717:. The Ottomans were supported by Austria, Britain, Prussia, and Russia who sought stability and continuity. France, however, supported Muhammad Ali, a longtime ally in North Africa, hoping to further increase French influence in the Mediterranean through a French-aligned independent Egypt. However, the other four powers agreed in the
193:(Russia, Austria, and Prussia), used the system to oppose revolutionary and liberal movements and weaken the forces of nationalism. The formal Congress System fell apart in the 1820s but peace between the Great Powers continued and occasional meetings reminiscent of the Congresses continued to be held at times of crisis.
687:, supported Belgium's independence, as much of the impetus came from the lack of power of the Francophone and Catholic residents. The United Kingdom was very wary of French plans to annex parts of Belgium, but when no powers were willing to send troops to support the Dutch, and with the ascension of a more liberal
582:
by
Prussia and Austria as a threat of liberalism. Other powers present at this Congress include Spain, Naples, and Sicily. At this Congress, the Troppau Protocol was signed, which stated that if States which have undergone a change of government due to a revolution threaten other States, then they are
967:
The fall of the second phase of the
Concert of Europe can be attributed largely to the rival alliance systems – the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and the United Kingdom) – which formed a rift in the European States. These rival alliances
655:
against the
Ottomans. Russia, seeking territory and influence in the Black Sea and the Balkans, and to protect the Eastern Orthodox Christians under Muslim Ottoman rule, supported Greek independence and was dissatisfied with other Powers' desire to treat the uprising as an internal matter and support
581:
The 1820 Congress of
Troppau was held in Troppau, Austria by the great powers of the Quintuple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, France, and the United Kingdom) to discuss and put down the liberal uprising in Naples that caused King Ferdinand I to agree to a constitutional monarchy – which was seen
801:
rather than a general
European war, numerous peace overtures, and serial efforts by the great powers to find a diplomatic solution. The war also illustrated a key piece of the balance of power theory, when the combined efforts of several great powers were marshaled to check the ambitions of a single
507:
There has been much debate between historians as to which treaty was more influential in the development of international relations in Europe in the two decades following the end of the
Napoleonic Wars. In the opinion of historian Tim Chapman, the differences are somewhat academic as the powers were
1010:
Nationalism played a role in the fall of both the first and second phases of the
Concert of Europe, and was generally on the rise around the world before the start of the first World War; nationalism is seen by some scholars as a driving factor in the start of the first World War. Particularly with
566:
The 1818 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle formed the Quintuple Alliance by adding France to the Quadruple Alliance, which had comprised the United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The ability for this to happen was given by Article V of the Quadruple Alliance, and resulted in ending the occupation
520:
of the treaty did not specify what these "fixed periods" were to be and there were no provisions in the treaty for a permanent commission to arrange and organise the conferences. This meant that instead of meeting at "fixed periods" the meetings were arranged on an ad hoc basis, to address specific
515:
The Quadruple Alliance, by contrast, was a standard treaty, and the great powers did not invite any minor allies to sign it. The primary objective was to bind the signatories to support the terms of the Second Treaty of Paris for 20 years. It included a provision for the High Contracting Parties to
952:
and illustrated the continuing desire for peace and stability within Europe. While these do reveal a continuation of the norm of grand Conferences to preserve the status quo, the Conventions were largely ignored in the First World War, many proposals were vetoed or not adopted by all Great Powers,
551:
of Europe after the defeat of Napoleon in 1813–1814, and contain France's power after the war following the French Revolution. The Congress of Vienna took place from November 1814 to June 1815 in Vienna, Austria, and brought together representatives from over 200 European polities. The Congress of
161:
which had consumed the continent since the 1790s. There is considerable scholarly dispute over the exact nature and duration of the Concert. Some scholars argue that it fell apart nearly as soon as it began in the 1820s when the great powers disagreed over the handling of liberal revolts in Italy,
623:
The 1822 Congress of Verona took place in Verona, Italy, between the powers of the Quintuple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, France, and the United Kingdom), along with Spain, Sicily, and Naples. This Congress dealt with the question of Spanish revolution of 1820; Russia, Prussia, and Austria
511:
The Holy Alliance was an informal alliance led by Russia, Austria, and Prussia which aimed to reduce the influence of secularism and liberalism in Europe. The brainchild of Tsar Alexander I, it gained at least nominal support from many states, partly because most European monarchs did not wish to
267:
The Concert of Europe describes the geopolitical order in Europe from 1814 to 1914, during which the great powers tended to act in concert to avoid wars and revolutions and generally maintain the territorial and political status quo. Particularly in the early years of the Concert, the Concert was
200:
which sought national independence, national unity, and liberal and democratic reforms. The 1848 Revolutions were ultimately checked without major territorial changes. However, the age of nationalism ultimately brought the first phase of the Concert to an end, as it was unable to prevent the wars
939:
of 1884–1885 is often seen as the high point of the second phase, as all great powers and several minor powers agreed on the rules for colonial expansion which defined areas of colonial and imperial control and successfully preempted many disputes concerning colonial expansion in Africa. All the
734:
resigned and France's new government fell into step with the other great powers. The Oriental Crisis showed that important political questions would still be decided by the great powers; but it also illustrated the destabilizing effect the continued weakening of the Ottoman Empire (the so-called
423:
against the British in 1798 and revived hopes of a Polish state by establishing the Duchy of Warsaw in ethnically Polish lands to help fight the Prussians, Russians, and Austrians. The Allies supported nationalist movements in Spain and Germany to encourage resistance against French-established
436:
The first phase of the Concert of Europe is typically described as beginning in 1814 with the Congress of Vienna, and ending in the early 1860s with the Prussian and Austrian invasion of Denmark. This first phase included numerous congresses, including the Congress of Paris in 1856 which some
533:, to address pressing issues and resolve disputes through negotiation and coordinated action. The system of regular formal Congresses was short-lived, primarily due to the refusal of Great Britain to take part due to ideological and strategic differences with the Holy Alliance powers.
935:, despite Russia's clear victory on the battlefield and separate peace treaty signed with tho Ottomans, the other Great Powers demanded concessions from the Russians and redrew the map of the Balkans based on a broad agreement rather than the terms Russia had imposed militarily. The
678:
where Belgium separated from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Austria, Prussia, and Russia saw Belgium's separation as a threat to stability, inviting further revolutions and revolts, and sought to return to the status quo ante. On the other hand, France, now led by the more liberal
762:
but was ultimately successful in preventing major changes to the map of Europe. However, the revolts, which combined nationalist and liberal ideas, posed a real threat to the conservative order that had reigned since 1815, as shown by the success of the French uprising ending the
850:
ended in a restoration of the status quo ante. However, by 1863, when a succession crisis caused Denmark to breach the terms of the treaty and attempt to incorporate Schleswig into Denmark, the German powers, Austria and Prussia, responding to national sentiment across the
406:
in 1815, Europe had been almost constantly at war. All the European powers were short of the funds, materiel, and manpower necessary for further fighting and therefore sought structures to avoid new conflicts. The military conquests of France had resulted in the spread of
295:. The ultimate failure of the Concert of Europe, culminating in the First World War, was driven by various factors including rival alliances and the rise of nationalism. The Congress-focused approach to international affairs continued to be influential in the later
217:), France, Italy, Russia, and Britain, with Germany as the driving continental power. The second phase oversaw a further period of relative peace and stability from the 1870s to 1914, and facilitated the growth of European colonial and imperial control in
586:
no longer members of the European Alliance if their exclusion will help to maintain legal order and stability. Furthermore, the Powers of the Alliance would also be bound to peacefully or by means of war bring the excluded State back into the Alliance.
995:
and could not be undone. The crisis of July 1914 – the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in Sarajevo which lit the fuse on Balkan tensions – catalyzed the collapse of the Concert of Europe for good, and marked the start of the first World War.
721:
to act without France. A joint British-Austrian force attacked Egyptian forces and forced Muhammad Ali to accept the Ottoman terms. France threatened war on behalf of Egypt and tried to seek territorial compensation in Europe by reclaiming the
879:
were concluded among the participants without the approval of non-participant powers in Congresses or Conferences to maintain the balance of power. While various multilateral conferences took place during this period – most notably, the
552:
Vienna created a new international world order which was based on two main ideologies: restoring and safeguarding power balancing in Europe; and collective responsibility for peace and stability in Europe among the "Great Powers".
908:. The second phase saw a further period of peace between the Great Powers and a revival of the conference system for the resolution of disputes. This period was dominated by issues related to colonialism, particularly the
739:) had on the balance of power. The sabre-rattling triggered several powers to embark on the most significant armament and fortification projects since Napoleon, particularly in France and the German Confederation.
859:
failed. The collapse of the Concert was further sealed when the war was concluded with a trilateral treaty between Prussia, Austria, and Denmark rather than a larger Congress involving the other Great Powers.
516:"renew their meeting at fixed periods...for the purpose of consulting on their common interests" which were the "prosperity of the Nations, and the maintenance of peace in Europe". However, the wording
846:, the German populations of the provinces revolted in 1848 but the threat of intervention by the other major powers prevented the German great powers (Prussia and Austria) from intervening and the
271:
The Concert of Europe is typically viewed in two distinct phases: the first from 1814 to through the early 1860s, and the second from the 1880s to 1914. The first phase, particularly before the
1765:
855:
and with the excuse that Denmark had violated the existing treaties, both opposed a negotiated settlement. The efforts of the other Powers, primarily Britain, France and Russia at the
651:
The Protocol of St. Petersburg is often cited as the end of the Congress System, as it represented the failure of the Congress of St. Petersburg (1825) to resolve the question of the
153:. Never a perfect unity and subject to disputes and jockeying for position and influence, the Concert was an extended period of relative peace and stability in Europe following the
268:
maintained through the Congress System – sometimes called the Vienna System – which was a series of Congresses among the great powers to resolve disputes or respond to new issues.
213:
sought to revive the Concert of Europe to protect Germany's gains and secure its leading role in European affairs. The revitalized Concert included Austria (at the time a part of
632:
against Turkey, but due to the opposition of the United Kingdom and Austria to Russian intervention in the Balkans, the Congress of Verona did not end up addressing this issue.
1826:
809:, which is sometimes viewed as the pinnacle of the Concert with all outstanding issues surrounding the conflict resolved in a single Congress and resulting in a single treaty.
437:
scholars argue represented the apex of the Concert of Europe in its ending of the Crimean War. At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary
896:
The second phase of the Concert of Europe is typically described as beginning in the 1871 and ending in 1914 with the outbreak of World War I. 1871 is the year in which the
489:
because his government was a constitutional monarchy with a more liberal political philosophy and did not wish to pledge itself to the policing of continental Europe.
424:
governments there. Along with the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France, the Concert of Europe was in many ways an effort to return as far as possible to the
1079:"The Concert of Europe and Great-Power Governance Today: What Can the Order of 19th-Century Europe Teach Policymakers About International Order in the 21st Century?"
927:
The second phase saw a revival of great power "conferences" where all the great powers met on an ad hoc basis to resolve crises or disputes by consensus. At the
547:
The Concert of Europe began with the 1814–1815 Congress of Vienna, which was designed to bring together the "major powers" of the time in order to stabilize the
875:) which did not result in interventions by any other great powers and which resulted in significant changes to the map of Europe. These wars, and the wars of
834:
The decline of the Concert was further highlighted by the failure of a ceasefire in 1864 over the issue of Prussia's and Austria's invasion of Denmark in the
1856:
1846:
1821:
323:
415:. Having seen how the French Revolution had begun with calls for fairly mild reforms but had quickly led to radical democratic reforms and attacks on the
1020:
477:
on 26 September 1815, with the express intent of preserving Christian social values and traditional monarchism. Only three notable princes did not sign:
375:
919:, the beautiful epoch, as the two world wars and their consequences made the period preceding the First World War seem like a golden age by comparison.
980:, showed that the Conference System was still viable for resolving disputes, but further cemented the adversarial relationship between the two camps.
450:
1192:
Soutou, Georges-Henri (November 2000). "Was There a European Order in the Twentieth Century? From the Concert of Europe to the End of the Cold War".
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of France was largely responsible for quickly returning the country to its place alongside the other major powers in international diplomacy.
1721:
691:, eventually supported the creation of an independent, neutral Belgium as a buffer state, to which the other Great Powers ultimately agreed.
529:
The "Congress System" was an effort to maintain peace and stability in Europe through regular Congresses of the great powers, similar to the
1057:
625:
438:
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and subsequent invasion of Syria threatened to topple the weak Ottoman regime and brought the issue to a head in what became known as the
1841:
1653:
387:
1252:
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1740:
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343:
709:, who sought to create an empire and remove Egypt and Sudan of Ottoman suzerainty. Muhammad Ali's demand for control of parts of the
646:
932:
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and others for points in between. For those arguing for a longer duration, there is generally agreement that the period after the
991:
called on the great powers to finalize the borders, the success of the minor Balkan states was presented to the great powers as a
983:
Furthermore, events in the Balkans undermined the Concert as the great powers were not able to preserve the status quo after the
1100:
1861:
1851:
1836:
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signed between China and Western powers in the preceding decades. Two major international conferences at the Hague led to the
486:
888:– the cooperative nature of the Concert and its focus on stability was significantly diminished during this time of conflict.
688:
310:
The Concert of Europe arose from the coalitions which fought against revolutionary and Napoleonic France. The great powers of
390:, which stipulated that the boundaries established in 1815 could not be altered without the consent of its eight signatories.
386:
The Concert of Europe, as it began to be called at the time, had ... a reality in international law, which derived from the
1005:
339:
154:
78:
793:, the first war between Great Powers since Napoleon. However, the war was marked by being geographically limited to the
248:), and the feeling among many civilian and military leaders on both sides that a war was inevitable or even desirable.
1831:
1704:
Bridge, Roy (1979). "Allied Diplomacy in Peacetime: The Failure of the Congress 'System,' 1815–23" in Alan Sked, ed.,
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1460:
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The London Conference of 1830 dealt with the question of the Belgian–Dutch conflict, which was caused by the 1830
1025:
881:
856:
669:
652:
629:
493:
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367:
331:
146:
350:. The Ottoman Empire was later admitted to the Concert of Europe in 1856 with the Treaty of Paris following the
838:. As the growth of nationalism led to dissatisfaction with the rule of the Danish crown over ethnically German
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442:
260:
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not bound by the terms of the treaties and many of them intentionally broke the terms if it suited them.
291:, because of the reactionary efforts of the Congress of Vienna to restore Europe to its state before the
1288:
977:
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446:
93:
1114:
209:(by Prussia) in 1871 which remade the maps of Europe. Following German unification, German chancellor
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852:
835:
827:
The next war between great powers came just three years later in 1859, with what became known as the
818:
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at the hands of the British, French, Russian, and Greek forces forced them to the negotiating table.
284:
263:, Austrian chancellor and foreign minister, as well as an influential leader in the Concert of Europe
202:
1512:
730:. However, within a few months, the bellicose French government lost support and the Prime Minister
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197:
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83:
1616:
394:
The Concert of Europe was very much a response to the French Revolution. From the outbreak of the
256:
1816:
1795:
1787:
1489:"The Congress of Aachen [Aix-la-Chapelle] (1818) and the Completion of the Vienna System"
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59:
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210:
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1315:
1157:
Sherwig, John M. (September 1962). "Lord Grenville's Plan for a Concert of Europe, 1797–99".
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1201:
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1037:
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330:. In the wake of this victory, these four great powers formalized their partnership in the
31:
174:(1853–1856) represented a different phase with different dynamics than the earlier period.
941:
684:
466:
412:
326:, had combined with a number of minor powers to defeat Napoleon for the final time in the
311:
214:
158:
1424:
916:
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944:(1899-1901) in China (alongside the United States and Japan), to affirm and defend the
731:
470:
319:
304:
300:
245:
233:
115:
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The Ottoman Empire faced an internal revolt in the 1830s led by the viceroy of Egypt,
1810:
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1213:
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789:
Sometimes viewed as the end of the first phase, the next blow to the Concert was the
764:
680:
478:
474:
190:
411:
throughout much of the continent, including the adoption of the reforms such as the
1733:
The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon
1641:
The Concert of Europe: International Relations from January, 1871, to August, 1914.
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403:
327:
280:
1488:
628:, while the United Kingdom opposed it. This Congress also looked to deal with the
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229:
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30:
This article is about the 19th-century diplomatic term. For the jazz album, see
17:
1205:
425:
408:
1714:
Réinventer la tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance
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362:
The idea of a European federation had been already raised by figures such as
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232:
in 1914 when the Concert proved ultimately unable to handle the collapse of
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alliances to respond to a given situation. Later conferences including the
839:
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237:
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710:
1783:
124:
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111:
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European Great Powers also participated in the suppression of the
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The Second Schleswig War set the stage for the subsequent wars of
374:. The Concert of Europe drew upon their ideas and the notion of a
255:
968:
threatened the underlying nature of the Concert, which relied on
1766:"The Concert of Europe: A Fresh Look at an International System"
363:
1751:
Napoleon's Legacy: Problems of Government in Restoration Europe
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when France joined in 1818 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
953:
and non-European and minor Powers played an important role.
915:
This phase later became known (especially in France) as the
342:
was established as a fifth member of the Concert, after the
240:, hardening of the alliance system into two firm camps (the
228:
The Concert of Europe certainly ended with the outbreak of
1654:"The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente – 1890–1905"
1461:"The Concert of Europe and Great-Power Governance Today"
1366:
1364:
1341:"The Concert of Europe and Great-Power Governance Today"
601:
The 1821 Congress of Laibach took place in Laibach (now
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while others argue that it lasted until the outbreak of
1682:
International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)
177:
The beginnings of the Concert of Europe, known as the
1196:. Theme Issue: Reflections on the Twentieth Century.
904:
unifications were completed and also the year of the
279:, due to the influence of the Austrian chancellor's
58:
The national boundaries within Europe as set by the
346:ended the occupation of France and established the
307:and other multi-lateral summits and organizations.
67:
41:
496:, signed on 20 November 1815, the same day as the
354:recognized and guaranteed Ottoman territory.
27:European balance of power in the 19th century
8:
1568:"History of The Concert of Europe (1815–22)"
1827:International organizations based in Europe
802:rival to prevent it becoming too powerful.
441:, Austrian chancellor and foreign minister
376:balance of power in international relations
196:The Concert faced a major challenge in the
1735:. London: I.B. Tauris & Company, Ltd.
1021:Balance of power (international relations)
775:Crimean War and the 1856 Congress of Paris
52:
47:1815 to 1848/1860s – 1871 to 1914
1144:Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters
1541:"Congress of Laibach | European history"
283:and the dominance of Austria within the
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1370:
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225:without wars between the great powers.
145:of 19th-century Europe to maintain the
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626:France's planned intervention in Spain
451:Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
38:
1617:"The German-Danish war (1864) – ICRC"
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481:(it was not Catholic enough), Sultan
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1758:Post-Revolutionary Europe, 1815-1856
1706:Europe's Balance of Power, 1815–1848
1425:"The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)"
1058:Precedence among European monarchies
457:The Holy Alliance within the Concert
1857:20th-century diplomatic conferences
1847:19th-century diplomatic conferences
1749:Laven, David, and Lucy Riall, eds.
1292:. New York: Robert Appleton Company
1101:"U.S. Resident Officers Conference"
1048:International relations (1814–1919)
500:was signed, which later became the
382:would be restrained by the others:
205:(by Piedmont-Sardinia) in 1861 and
1822:History of international relations
1033:Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
950:Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
923:Revival of great power conferences
829:Second Italian War of Independence
758:The Concert was challenged by the
562:Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)
141:was a general agreement among the
25:
1643:, Robert Balmain Mowat, Macmillan
1284:"Spahn, M. (1910). Holy Alliance"
1282:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913).
647:Protocol of St. Petersburg (1826)
641:Protocol of St. Petersburg (1826)
1312:The Congress of Vienna 1814–1815
1275:
1253:"Concert of Europe (The) | EHNE"
556:1818 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
388:final Act of the Vienna Congress
378:, so that the ambitions of each
123:
110:
1493:Oxford Public International Law
1429:Oxford Public International Law
1122:Economic Cooperation Federation
884:which forestalled war over the
805:The war ended in 1856 with the
636:Collapse of the Congress System
483:Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire
1593:"London Conference of 1830–31"
989:London Conference of 1912–1913
1:
1194:Contemporary European History
1159:The Journal of Modern History
1006:Rise of nationalism in Europe
421:nationalist rising in Ireland
155:Wars of the French Revolution
106:
1513:"Congress of Troppau (1820)"
933:Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78
813:Wars of national unification
275:, is sometimes known as the
149:, political boundaries, and
1760:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
1146:. Reidel. p. 58, fn 9.
957:Decline of the second phase
719:Convention of London (1840)
344:Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
1878:
1842:Post-Napoleonic congresses
1764:Elrod, Richard B. (1976).
1716:. Paris: Honoré Champion.
1459:Lascurettes, Kyle (2017).
1339:Lascurettes, Kyle (2017).
1077:Lascurettes, Kyle (2017).
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743:Decline of the first phase
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559:
540:
29:
1206:10.1017/S0960777300003027
1115:"Treaty of Paris of 1856"
1026:European balance of power
882:London Conference of 1867
857:London Conference of 1864
670:London Conference of 1830
653:Greek War of Independence
485:(too Christian), and the
428:of Europe prior to 1789.
396:French Revolutionary Wars
147:European balance of power
119:
109:
101:
51:
46:
1712:Ghervas, Stella (2008).
1142:Loemker, Leroy (1969) .
785:Congress of Paris (1856)
591:1821 Congress of Laibach
571:1820 Congress of Troppau
398:in 1792 to the exile of
1545:Encyclopedia Britannica
799:Danubian Principalities
715:Oriental Crisis of 1840
701:Oriental Crisis of 1840
683:as a result of its own
613:1822 Congress of Verona
537:1814 Congress of Vienna
492:Britain did ratify the
1862:20th century in Europe
1852:19th century in Europe
1837:Klemens von Metternich
1731:Jarrett, Mark (2013).
823:Unification of Germany
724:Left Bank of the Rhine
695:Oriental Crisis (1840)
664:1830 London Conference
498:Second Treaty of Paris
443:Klemens von Metternich
392:
264:
1597:TheFreeDictionary.com
1314:. Routledge. p.
1310:Chapman, Tim (2006).
1289:Catholic Encyclopedia
978:First Moroccan Crisis
976:of 1906 defusing the
963:Causes of World War I
842:and ethnically mixed
521:threats or disputes.
487:British Prince Regent
447:Alexander I of Russia
384:
259:
94:Causes of World War I
1519:. Utrecht University
974:Algeciras Conference
853:German Confederation
836:Second Schleswig War
819:Unification of Italy
767:and ushering in the
289:European Restoration
285:German Confederation
151:spheres of influence
1000:Role of nationalism
910:Scramble for Africa
877:Italian unification
873:Franco-Prussian War
869:Austro-Prussian War
848:First Schleswig War
760:Revolutions of 1848
754:Revolutions of 1848
748:Revolutions of 1848
597:Congress of Laibach
577:Congress of Troppau
340:Bourbon Restoration
273:Revolutions of 1848
203:Italian unification
198:Revolutions of 1848
168:Revolutions of 1848
89:Revolutions of 1848
84:Revolutions of 1830
79:Bourbon Restoration
1832:Late modern Europe
1678:"July Crisis 1914"
1572:History Discussion
1081:. RAND Corporation
929:Congress of Berlin
865:German unification
707:Muhammad Ali Pasha
676:Belgian Revolution
658:Battle of Navarino
624:agreed to support
619:Congress of Verona
543:Congress of Vienna
531:Congress of Vienna
502:Quintuple Alliance
494:Quadruple Alliance
463:Kingdom of Prussia
348:Quintuple Alliance
332:Quadruple Alliance
265:
207:German unification
187:Congress of Vienna
60:Congress of Vienna
1723:978-2-7453-1669-1
1708:. pp. 34–53.
1658:www.lermuseum.org
1409:, pp. 61–62.
937:Berlin Conference
886:Luxembourg Crisis
807:Congress of Paris
368:Gottfried Leibniz
297:League of Nations
293:French Revolution
277:Age of Metternich
261:Prince Metternich
211:Otto von Bismarck
139:Concert of Europe
135:
134:
131:
130:
121:League of Nations
42:Concert of Europe
16:(Redirected from
1869:
1803:
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1468:RAND Corporation
1465:
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1398:
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1348:RAND Corporation
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1128:
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1111:
1105:
1104:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1074:
1038:Eastern Question
985:First Balkan War
946:unequal treaties
906:Treaty of London
737:Eastern Question
630:Greek Revolution
439:Lord Castlereagh
127:
114:
107:
56:
39:
33:European Concert
21:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1807:
1806:
1784:10.2307/2009888
1763:
1756:Lyons, Martin.
1743:
1730:
1724:
1711:
1701:
1699:Further reading
1696:
1695:
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965:
959:
942:Boxer Rebellion
925:
894:
825:
817:Main articles:
815:
787:
779:Main articles:
777:
769:Second Republic
756:
750:
745:
726:leading to the
703:
697:
689:Whig government
685:1830 revolution
672:
666:
649:
643:
638:
621:
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599:
593:
579:
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564:
558:
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539:
527:
525:Congress System
471:Russian Empires
459:
434:
413:Napoleonic Code
360:
254:
242:Triple Alliance
215:Austria-Hungary
201:leading to the
179:Congress System
159:Napoleonic Wars
105:
63:
37:
28:
23:
22:
18:Congress System
15:
12:
11:
5:
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1778:(2): 159–174.
1771:World Politics
1761:
1754:
1747:
1742:978-1780761169
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1325:978-1134680504
1324:
1302:
1268:
1231:
1229:, p. 330.
1219:
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1171:10.1086/239117
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961:Main article:
958:
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931:following the
924:
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893:
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732:Adolphe Thiers
699:Main article:
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445:, and Emperor
433:
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372:Lord Grenville
359:
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324:United Kingdom
305:Group of Seven
301:United Nations
253:
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246:Triple Entente
133:
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116:Napoleonic era
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1517:erc-secure-db
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1397:, p. 62.
1396:
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1388:
1385:, p. 61.
1384:
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1373:, p. 60.
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1165:(3): 284–93.
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1053:Multipolarity
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993:fait accompli
990:
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766:
765:July Monarchy
761:
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747:
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738:
733:
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681:July Monarchy
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479:Pope Pius VII
476:
475:Holy Alliance
473:, formed the
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1769:
1757:
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1732:
1713:
1705:
1685:. Retrieved
1681:
1672:
1661:. Retrieved
1657:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1625:. Retrieved
1623:. 1998-04-06
1621:www.icrc.org
1620:
1611:
1600:. Retrieved
1596:
1587:
1576:. Retrieved
1574:. 2014-03-06
1571:
1548:. Retrieved
1544:
1521:. Retrieved
1516:
1507:
1496:. Retrieved
1492:
1483:
1471:. Retrieved
1467:
1432:. Retrieved
1428:
1407:Chapman 2006
1402:
1395:Chapman 2006
1390:
1383:Chapman 2006
1378:
1371:Chapman 2006
1351:. Retrieved
1347:
1334:
1311:
1305:
1294:. Retrieved
1287:
1271:
1260:. Retrieved
1256:
1222:
1197:
1193:
1187:
1162:
1158:
1152:
1143:
1137:
1125:. Retrieved
1121:
1109:
1095:
1083:. Retrieved
1072:
1009:
992:
987:. While the
982:
969:
966:
926:
917:Belle Époque
914:
895:
892:Second phase
862:
833:
826:
804:
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757:
728:Rhine Crisis
704:
673:
650:
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404:Saint Helena
393:
385:
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328:Hundred Days
309:
288:
287:, or as the
281:conservatism
276:
270:
266:
227:
195:
182:
178:
176:
143:great powers
138:
136:
102:
32:
1473:October 17,
1353:October 17,
1227:Soutou 2000
1127:October 17,
1085:15 February
1043:Great power
791:Crimean War
781:Crimean War
567:of France.
549:geopolitics
432:First phase
417:aristocracy
380:great power
352:Crimean War
334:. In time,
230:World War I
172:Crimean War
164:World War I
74:Regency era
1811:Categories
1687:2019-10-25
1663:2019-10-23
1627:2019-10-23
1602:2019-10-31
1578:2019-10-23
1550:2019-10-21
1523:2019-10-21
1498:2019-10-21
1434:2019-10-17
1296:2011-05-21
1262:2019-10-17
1200:(3): 330.
1064:References
584:ipso facto
518:Article VI
465:, and the
426:status quo
409:liberalism
338:under the
185:after the
103:Chronology
1817:Diplomacy
1800:154517528
1214:162698918
1179:143606105
844:Schleswig
603:Ljubljana
68:Including
1015:See also
871:and the
840:Holstein
607:Slovenia
467:Austrian
400:Napoleon
322:and the
252:Overview
170:and the
157:and the
1792:2009888
1257:ehne.fr
1103:. 1950.
902:Italian
358:Origins
316:Prussia
312:Austria
238:Balkans
234:Ottoman
181:or the
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1739:
1720:
1322:
1280:
1212:
1177:
970:ad hoc
898:German
795:Crimea
711:Levant
336:France
320:Russia
303:, the
299:, the
219:Africa
62:, 1815
1796:S2CID
1788:JSTOR
1464:(PDF)
1344:(PDF)
1210:S2CID
1175:S2CID
1118:(PDF)
867:(the
1737:ISBN
1718:ISBN
1475:2019
1355:2019
1320:ISBN
1129:2019
1087:2022
900:and
821:and
797:and
783:and
469:and
461:The
370:and
364:Kant
244:and
223:Asia
221:and
137:The
1780:doi
1202:doi
1167:doi
402:to
1813::
1794:.
1786:.
1776:28
1774:.
1768:.
1680:.
1656:.
1619:.
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1570:.
1559:^
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1427:.
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1265:.
1216:.
1204::
1198:9
1181:.
1169::
1131:.
1089:.
36:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
