68:, even at the cost of detailed documentation. It was not concerned with the political narrative and public life, but saw itself as an investigative "moral science". General philosophical history was somewhat closer to narrative history than conjectural history could be, with its reliance in part on tenuous arguments on the nature of
548:
was a collection of essays on social, cultural and political topics. In it the author collected some ethnographic and miscellaneous information, assembling in particular a long chapter intended as a "history of women". There was a second edition (Edinburgh, 1778) and a third (Dublin, 1779). Kames was
685:
contributed to the article "Society", and took aim at the four stages theory, claiming polygenism followed from it (in contradiction to the Bible). Further, the assumption of a baseline state of savagery also seemed to Heron to be implicated with polygenism; and he with Doig attacked the assumption
749:
in 1798 took up the four stage theory, augmented to five stages, by dividing "hunting" into "gathering" followed by a pure hunting stage. This was an effort to classify peoples of the world by development. Early anthropology carried into the 19th century assumptions about the search for origins of
637:. Hawthorne writes instead of the historical/sociological insights of the Scots being lost in the British context, despite the "tension between a 'natural' account of civil society and a developing sense of the factual importance and moral difficulties of individualism" having become apparent, to
382:
applied, in the sense that the baseline of subsistence was assumed to have a serious effect on social matters. The stages were supposed to represent progress on a moral level, as well as that of economic complexity. French as well as
Scottish Enlightenment writers subscribed to such a pattern.
91:
within
Scottish philosophical history of the period. Pocock writes that Scottish conjectural history was "of considerable importance to Gibbon and the creation of philosophical historiography". By the 1780s there were European historians of culture who worked in a different way, preferring an
722:, was favoured in the second half of the century. On the other hand, the interpretations of the stadial theory were quite welcome, and while popularised by the Scottish school, did not seem innovative in the sense of a break with Early Modern historiography, and concerns with natural law and
496:
Millar argued in terms of a "system of manners" associated with each of the four stages. He also discussed the advance of freedom, and denounced slavery. As property became more complex, it followed that government did so also. Poovey states that this work makes apparent the relationship of
278:. He was then interested in our awareness of literary style. This is the example that Dugald Stewart took up in coining the phrase "conjectural history". Elements would have been recognised at the time as drawing on the Bible, and in classical literature
153:... it seems certain that hierarchical ideas, temporalized to suit the needs of the conjectural historian of culture, were mixed with historical assumptions concerning the savage as a conjectural first member of these conjectural series.
31:. As Stewart saw it, such history makes space for speculation about causes of events, by postulating natural causes that could have had such an effect. His concept was to be identified closely with the French terminology
442:, writing from the later 1750s to later 1770s. Smith, Kames and Millar were content to adhere to the four stage theory. Monboddo's stadial history was more complex, and very much more controversial. He included
194:
was a genre of historical writing developed in France in the 17th century, with concerns for the individual in social context, and the description of culture and customs as integral to history. It grew out of
896:
The
Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith: III: Essays on Philosophical Subjects : With Dugald Stewart's 'Account of Adam Smith': With Dugald Stewart's 'Account of Adam Smith'
525:, as reducing the role of human nature, which he thought was not a constant but the goal of the investigation. The connection was that conjectural history was to be used as a framework of a discussion of
750:
civilisation, and unilineal evolution, as appropriate tools for investigating societies. It was widely assumed, further, that current "peoples" were a window into the past. These approaches were seen in
565:. While he stated that he had collected materials for a history for 30 years, Kames's work as written up was unsystematic, even rambling. His scheme of conjectural history includes the idea that the
805:, Journal of British Studies Vol. 17, No. 2 (Spring, 1978), pp. 19–40. Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The North American Conference on British Studies. Stable URL:
199:
historiography with its close relationship to classical Roman and Greek models, but brought to the surface social matters, in particular as they could explain the motivations of individuals. With
698:
of humankind, implicit in the whole idea of conjectural history. The articles on "Beauty" and "Love" were also changed to remove the influence of Kames, as part of the consistent assertion of
149:
was a static idea. "Stage series" had roots in classical thought, but might be associated with cyclic models, or incorporate ideas of decline with those of progress. She writes that in time
286:
on law and government. The theory on language and its typology over time has been seen as typical of Smith's historical approach; and even the foundation of his later well-known work on
262:
and detailed explanations of human manipulation of nature. It laid emphasis on a typical society at its beginnings, regarding evidence from contemporary reports (particularly of
590:
Mainstream conjectural and philosophical history, in the
Scottish style, hardly survived as a living tradition into the 1790s. Works went out of print; younger authors such as
673:, featured "Savage" as a new topic, and expanded articles "Society" and "Moral philosophy". Cross-referenced to theological and biblical topics, and to articles by
317:
172:
was a classical Roman encyclopedic work, "natural history" had several different meanings in the Early Modern period. The one relevant in this article is the
145:
comments, in a chapter 'From
Hierarchy to History', on the widespread use of "conjectural series" for historical explanation in the Early Modern period. The
203:
there came an interest in causality as playing a part in historical movement, as distinct from the humanist acceptance of personal fates being subject to
521:
Kames has been called the leader of
Scottish conjectural history, and had objections he expressed in correspondence to both Rousseau and the approach of
387:
2394:
The
Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith: III: Essays on Philosophical Subjects: With Dugald Stewart's 'Account of Adam Smith'
658:
386:
The invention of this type of theory (three or four stages) is attributed to a number of
European writers from the 1750s onwards, such as Adam Smith,
274:
Adam Smith in lectures on rhetoric, given from 1748, advanced a speculative history of language; he wrote that he had been prompted by a 1747 work of
45:. It was related to "philosophical history", a broader-based kind of historical theorising, but concentrated on the early history of man in a type of
815:, Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 37, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1976), pp. 219–240. Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press. Stable URL:
662:
467:
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2512:
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2189:
2155:
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2087:
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1985:
1958:
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972:
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828:, Social Research Vol. 43, No. 3, Vico and Contemporary Thought—1 (Autumn 1976), pp. 625–639. Published by: The New School. Stable URL:
792:
1088:
263:
80:
was an important example. To justify the procedures of conjectural history, there needed to be an assumption of the uniformity of
2699:
41:
1555:
How to Write the
History of the New World: Histories, Epistemologies, and Identities in the Eighteenth-century Atlantic World
557:
only with scepticism about the adequacy of the theory. In any case he argued that his approach could be reconciled with the
61:
506:
419:
395:
27:, who termed it "theoretical or conjectural history," as prevalent in the historians and early social scientists of the
746:
715:
625:
Where stadial theory appeared in later authors, the original thrust was distorted. Hopfl has said that the heirs were
606:(1779) being criticised as shallow. Dugald Stewart's formulation of conjectural history was published in 1794, in his
476:
or savage, and was very alive to the whole scheme as full of tensions within human possibility. He argued against the
1376:
History and Nature in the
Enlightenment: Praise of the Mastery of Nature in Eighteenth-Century Historical Literature
297:
Monboddo, on the other hand, wrote at length a conjectural history of language because he emphasised the history of
615:
595:
498:
411:
176:, i.e. a systematic collection of observable information on natural phenomena. A natural history did not belong to
2689:
719:
435:
755:
554:
307:
173:
116:
There was nothing new in the idea of stages of society on its own, but social thinking itself was changing in
2694:
481:
275:
220:
164:
46:
618:. The question has been raised as to Stewart's intention then in describing the tradition in that way, and
2704:
695:
570:
558:
258:
debated the rise of civilization. The Scottish contribution then took the theory to a new level, with its
28:
699:
682:
599:
247:
200:
767:
407:
379:
291:
196:
146:
591:
415:
375:
341:
The term "conjectural history" was not generally accepted in Stewart's time. There was an orthodox
117:
665:(1797), attacked the premises of conjectural history from a biblical angle. In the second edition
751:
566:
472:
Ferguson in this work attempted a rigorous identification of the hunter stage with the so-called
312:
243:
177:
88:
2360:
1591:
1528:
1137:
1013:
2009:
2656:
2622:
2588:
2582:
2542:
2536:
2508:
2481:
2432:
2398:
2392:
2364:
2324:
2318:
2287:
2253:
2247:
2219:
2185:
2151:
2117:
2083:
2077:
2049:
2015:
1981:
1975:
1954:
1919:
1885:
1879:
1824:
1790:
1763:
1731:
1725:
1697:
1691:
1663:
1657:
1629:
1623:
1595:
1559:
1553:
1532:
1499:
1472:
1447:
1421:
1380:
1346:
1340:
1312:
1306:
1266:
1260:
1223:
1217:
1189:
1183:
1141:
1108:
1051:
1045:
1017:
968:
962:
934:
928:
900:
894:
865:
846:
788:
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allows the historian to write in the absence of a full factual basis. A German translation by
391:
302:
287:
53:
2650:
2616:
2502:
2477:
2470:
2426:
2281:
2213:
2179:
2145:
2111:
2043:
1913:
1818:
1784:
1493:
1441:
1374:
484:
could have more to do with the "establishment" of a society than a self-conscious law-giver.
630:
477:
430:
Besides Adam Smith, prominent Scottish authors in the field of conjectural history included
259:
236:
224:
93:
1342:
Jealousy Of Trade: International Competition and the Nation State in Historical Perspective
1083:
835:
349:
251:
169:
142:
105:
2249:
A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society
1977:
A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society
2353:
1584:
1521:
1130:
1006:
781:
735:
723:
638:
562:
447:
24:
20:
1881:
England in 1819: The Politics of Literary Culture and the Case of Romantic Historicism
734:
was a topic of considerable antiquarian interest. The stadial history was embraced by
290:. Caveats have also been entered, by David Raphael: it cannot be stretched to Smith's
2683:
821:
731:
669:
opposed the polygenist approach of Kames. The third edition, under the editorship of
634:
439:
431:
403:
121:
57:
1079:
104:, opposition to the whole "conjectural history" tradition led to the development of
727:
670:
666:
642:
619:
534:
255:
137:
97:
81:
1305:
Martin Fitzpatrick; Peter Jones; Christa Knellwolf; Iain McCalman (22 July 2004).
219:, or in other words the discussion of stages of society by theoretical means (see
2113:
Paradoxes of Civil Society: New Perspectives on Modern German and British History
711:
526:
522:
502:
361:
283:
101:
1946:
691:
681:
from 1775/6, these articles in particular argued the orthodox Christian case.
674:
626:
550:
402:; it has been argued that their source was the Edinburgh lectures of Smith on
399:
77:
36:
1259:
G. N. Cantor; M. J. S. Hodge, R. C. Olby; J. R. R. Christie (6 August 2012).
687:
473:
355:
322:
279:
69:
65:
1495:
Fiction, Famine, and the Rise of Economics in Victorian Britain and Ireland
714:
circles. An austere and sceptical approach centred on facts, as adopted by
374:
This ladder-like ordering was taken to be a strict, linear progression, or
96:
to the pure deductions of conjectural history. In the later development of
72:
and early ethnographical reports from European travellers. For Stewart the
803:
From Savage to Scotsman: Conjectural History in the Scottish Enlightenment
2355:
Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820
1760:
Without Regard to Good Manners: A biography of Gilbert Stuart (1743–1786)
1586:
Narratives of Enlightenment: Cosmopolitan History from Voltaire to Gibbon
1523:
Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820
1132:
Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820
1008:
Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820
622:
has argued that he wished to dissociate Smith from political radicalism.
533:
in search of a suitable opponent to Rousseau, Kames prompted a work from
367:
326:
125:
2618:
Labeling People: French Scholars on Society, Race, and Empire, 1815–1848
829:
816:
443:
330:
298:
232:
228:
204:
2283:
Memoirs of the life and writings of the Honourable Henry Home of Kames
1625:
On Voluntary Servitude: False Consciousness and the Theory of Ideology
806:
87:
Conjectural history has been identified as "the core of a theory" of
862:
Antiquaries: The Discovery of the Part in Eighteenth-Century Britain
530:
315:, around 1740. It was taken up in France after the translation in
223:). Stadial theory as an innovation is attributed to the jurist
1727:
The Temporality of Taste in Eighteenth-Century British Writing
813:
The "Histoire Raisonnee," 1660–1720: A Pre-Enlightenment Genre
64:. Stewart defended it as more universal in its application to
783:
Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
406:. In France it was published at much the same time, also, by
305:
had proposed a stadial conjectural history of writing in his
710:
Conjectural argument had a bad name in 18th century British
84:, or as Stewart put it, the "capacities of the human mind".
2144:
John P. Jackson, Jr.; Nadine M. Weidman (15 October 2004).
2045:
Reading the Nation in English Literature: A Critical Reader
490:
Observations concerning the Distinction of Ranks in Society
394:. In the Scottish context it appears in works from 1758 by
2215:
Delimiting Anthropology: Occasional Essays and Reflections
480:
in the style of classical history, proposing instead that
2652:
After Empire: Towards an Ethnology of Europe's Barbarians
2428:
Evolution and Society: A Study in Victorian Social Theory
2147:
Race, Racism, And Science,: Social Impact And Interaction
730:
was a precursor. The discussion of the breakdown of the
2320:
Reactions to Revolutions: The 1790s and Their Aftermath
1300:
1298:
329:, he saw language use as having moved analogously from
2076:
Dr Alan Barnard; Jonathan Spencer (1 September 2003).
2011:
The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Philosophy
1216:
Dr Alan Barnard; Jonathan Spencer (1 September 2003).
2472:
Enlightenment and Despair: A History of Social Theory
2184:. Princeton University Press. pp. 9–10 note 17.
1820:
The Cambridge Companion to the Scottish Enlightenment
2014:. Cambridge University Press. p. 1140 note 62.
1696:. Cambridge University Press. p. 225 note 18.
246:was therefore discussed in the 17th century. Later
52:Such conjectural history was the antithesis of the
2584:Writing of Urban Histories in 18th Century England
2469:
2352:
1583:
1520:
1129:
1047:Writing of Urban Histories in 18th Century England
1005:
964:Satire, History, Novel: Narrative Forms, 1665–1815
930:Dugald Stewart: The Pride and Ornament of Scotland
780:
754:. Eventually, in the 20th century, field work and
1918:. Central European University Press. p. 60.
454:moves between narrative and conjectural history.
2079:Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology
1219:Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology
967:. University of Delaware Press. pp. 231–2.
231:had already used conjectural history to discuss
2252:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 227–8.
1662:. University of California Press. p. 159.
1558:. Stanford University Press. pp. 109–111.
1185:The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany
282:; it is now considered Smith was influenced by
151:
2621:. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. pp. 13–4.
2181:The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity
1577:
1575:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1786:John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment
1188:. Harvard University Press. pp. 159–60.
541:(1764), which is also a conjectural history.
270:Conjectural histories of language and writing
8:
2538:Europe and the Other and Europe As the Other
1980:. University of Chicago Press. p. 223.
1884:. University of Chicago Press. p. 128.
1345:. Harvard University Press. pp. 422–3.
602:failed to renew the ideas, with Alexander's
2587:. Oxford University Press. pp. 143–8.
1050:. Oxford University Press. pp. 143–4.
1823:. Cambridge University Press. p. 82.
1789:. Edinburgh University Press. p. 67.
1762:. Edinburgh University Press. p. 12.
1498:. Cambridge University Press. p. 50.
1379:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 92–4.
1262:Companion to the History of Modern Science
758:led to a rejection of the whole paradigm.
294:; and the term can be seen as a misnomer.
2312:
2310:
1628:. Harvard University Press. p. 117.
1080:"Scottish Philosophy in the 18th Century"
575:Versuche ĂĽber die Geschichte des Menschen
2567:
2565:
2397:. Oxford University Press. p. 268.
1730:. Oxford University Press. p. 165.
1105:The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology
899:. Oxford University Press. p. 293.
468:An Essay on the History of Civil Society
460:An Essay on the History of Civil Society
318:Essai sur les hiéroglyphes des Égyptiens
35:, and the usage of "natural history" by
2655:. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 96–7.
2507:. Editoriale Jaca Book. pp. 54–6.
2218:. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 89.
1590:. Cambridge University Press. pp.
1136:. Princeton University Press. pp.
885:
74:Dissertation on the Origin of Languages
49:that had little contact with evidence.
2476:. Cambridge University Press. p.
2359:. Princeton University Press. p.
2323:. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 232–3.
2178:Benjamin H. Isaac (13 February 2006).
1527:. Princeton University Press. p.
1467:Ian Simpson Ross (23 September 2010).
1416:Ian Simpson Ross (23 September 2010).
1012:. Princeton University Press. p.
933:. Sussex Academic Press. p. 253.
221:sociocultural evolution#Stadial theory
2286:. Routledge, Thoemmes. p. xlii.
1693:The Cambridge Companion to Adam Smith
1443:Adam Smith: The Rhetoric of Propriety
927:Gordon MacIntyre (1 September 2003).
830:https://www.jstor.org/stable/40970245
7:
2048:. Taylor & Francis. p. 92.
1912:Lynn Avery Hunt (28 February 2008).
817:https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708822
787:. University of Pennsylvania Press.
2649:Giorgio Ausenda (1 February 2003).
2351:Mark Salber Phillips (1 May 2000).
1817:Alexander Broadie (10 April 2003).
1519:Mark Salber Phillips (1 May 2000).
1492:Gordon Bigelow (20 November 2003).
1128:Mark Salber Phillips (1 May 2000).
1089:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1004:Mark Salber Phillips (1 May 2000).
807:https://www.jstor.org/stable/175389
539:Ueber die Geschichte der Menschheit
2615:Martin S. Staum (20 August 2003).
2110:Frank Trentmann (1 October 2003).
1656:Ter Ellingson (17 December 2000).
1107:. Canongate Books. pp. 25–6.
242:Some basic conjectural history on
14:
1552:Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra (2001).
2504:Storia della Storiografia. N. 39
1724:James Noggle (9 February 2012).
1690:Knud Haakonssen (6 March 2006).
1446:. SUNY Press. 2006. p. 83.
1373:Nathaniel Wolloch (1 May 2011).
333:to forms and figures of speech.
2535:Bo StrĂĄth (29 September 2010).
2246:Mary Poovey (1 December 1998).
1974:Mary Poovey (1 December 1998).
1878:James Chandler (26 June 1999).
1103:Alexander Broadie, ed. (1997).
840:Barbarism and Religion vol. 2:
679:Two Letters on the Savage State
422:" is a closely related theory.
42:The Natural History of Religion
2541:. Peter Lang. pp. 224–5.
2116:. Berghahn Books. p. 69.
1953:. Penguin Books. p. 253.
1915:Measuring Time, Making History
845:. Cambridge University Press.
842:Narratives of Civil Government
742:Conjectural history of peoples
706:Relationship to antiquarianism
515:Sketches of the History of Man
450:as material. Robertson in his
345:of society, the stages being:
1:
1582:Karen O'Brien (5 June 1997).
1471:. OUP Oxford. pp. 85–7.
1311:. Routledge. pp. 258–9.
826:Vico and the Idea of Progress
586:The tradition comes to an end
499:experimental moral philosophy
497:conjectural history with the
56:being written at the time by
1659:The Myth of the Noble Savage
677:who had answered Kames with
420:natural progress of opulence
250:rejected the concept of the
215:Contemporary terminology is
158:Early Modern natural history
2431:. CUP Archive. p. 54.
2212:George W. Stocking (2001).
1182:Michael C. Carhart (2007).
779:Margaret T. Hodgen (1971).
747:Charles Athanase Walckenaer
321:. Where writing moved from
2721:
2468:Geoffrey Hawthorn (1987).
2082:. Routledge. p. 280.
1420:. OUP Oxford. p. 80.
1265:. Routledge. p. 260.
1222:. Routledge. p. 898.
864:. Hambledon & London.
765:
694:, and godless materialist
616:Royal Society of Edinburgh
465:
434:, David Hume, Lord Kames,
135:
2425:John Wyon Burrow (1966).
2391:Adam Smith (1 May 1980).
1783:Porscha Fermanis (2009).
994:Nisbet and Costa, p. 629.
893:Adam Smith (1 May 1980).
180:, which was theoretical.
23:isolated in the 1790s by
2150:. ABC-CLIO. p. 39.
2042:Elizabeth Sauer (2010).
2008:Knud Haakonssen (2006).
756:structural functionalism
661:but particularly in its
555:environmental monogenist
308:Divine Legation of Moses
174:Baconian natural history
2581:Rosemary Sweet (1997).
1044:Rosemary Sweet (1997).
860:Rosemary Sweet (2004).
726:. The urban history of
655:Encyclopædia Britannica
561:, via the story of the
482:unintended consequences
412:Claude Adrien Helvétius
132:Models and the "savage"
47:rational reconstruction
2700:Scottish Enlightenment
2317:Ulrich Broich (2007).
1758:William Zachs (1992).
1622:Michael Rosen (1996).
1469:The Life of Adam Smith
1418:The Life of Adam Smith
961:Frank Palmeri (2003).
762:"Scottish orientalism"
696:spontaneous generation
610:of Adam Smith for the
559:scriptural ethnography
337:The four stages theory
155:
29:Scottish Enlightenment
766:Further information:
700:scriptural monogenism
466:Further information:
248:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
1339:Istvan Hont (2005).
1078:Broadie, Alexander.
811:Phyllis K. Leffler,
768:Scottish orientalism
649:Religious opposition
571:Anton Ernst Klausing
426:Representative works
408:Claude Pierre Goujet
380:economic determinism
311:, a work supporting
292:history of astronomy
147:great chain of being
112:Early Modern context
2280:Henry Home (1993).
1308:Enlightenment World
1292:Leffler, pp. 223–9.
824:and Gustavo Costa,
376:unilineal evolution
124:in its components,
118:Early Modern Europe
17:Conjectural history
1859:Pocock, pp. 330–5.
752:Lewis Henry Morgan
581:Later developments
567:providential order
452:History of America
343:four stages theory
313:biblical authority
244:human civilization
201:GĂ©raud de Cordemoy
192:histoire raisonnée
185:Histoire raisonnée
178:natural philosophy
120:, particularly on
33:histoire raisonnée
2662:978-0-85115-853-2
2628:978-0-7735-7124-2
2594:978-0-19-820669-9
2548:978-90-5201-650-4
2514:978-88-16-72039-8
2487:978-0-521-33721-2
2438:978-0-521-04393-9
2404:978-0-19-159117-4
2370:978-1-4008-2362-8
2330:978-3-8258-7427-8
2293:978-0-415-08104-7
2259:978-0-226-67525-1
2225:978-0-299-17450-7
2191:978-0-691-12598-5
2157:978-1-85109-448-6
2123:978-1-57181-143-1
2089:978-0-203-45803-7
2055:978-0-415-44524-5
2021:978-0-521-86743-6
1987:978-0-226-67525-1
1960:978-0-14-025028-2
1925:978-963-9776-14-2
1891:978-0-226-10109-5
1830:978-0-521-00323-0
1796:978-0-7486-3780-5
1769:978-0-7486-0319-0
1737:978-0-19-964243-4
1703:978-0-521-77924-1
1669:978-0-520-92592-2
1635:978-0-674-63779-5
1601:978-0-521-46533-5
1565:978-0-8047-4693-9
1538:978-1-4008-2362-8
1505:978-1-139-44085-1
1478:978-0-19-161394-4
1453:978-0-7914-8262-9
1427:978-0-19-161394-4
1386:978-1-4094-2115-3
1352:978-0-674-01038-3
1318:978-1-134-60784-6
1272:978-1-134-97751-2
1229:978-0-203-45803-7
1195:978-0-674-02617-9
1147:978-1-4008-2362-8
1114:978-0-86241-738-3
1057:978-0-19-820669-9
1023:978-1-4008-2362-8
974:978-0-87413-829-0
940:978-1-903900-34-5
906:978-0-19-159117-4
871:978-1-85285-309-9
852:978-0-521-79760-3
794:978-0-8122-1014-9
596:William Alexander
303:William Warburton
288:political economy
62:William Robertson
54:narrative history
2712:
2690:1790s neologisms
2674:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2578:
2572:
2571:Sweet, pp. 20–3.
2569:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2523:
2521:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2475:
2465:
2459:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2379:
2377:
2358:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2314:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2232:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2175:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1851:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1839:
1837:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1721:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1589:
1579:
1570:
1569:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1526:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1413:
1407:
1406:Hopfl, pp. 24–5.
1404:
1398:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1302:
1293:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1256:
1250:
1247:
1241:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1179:
1168:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1156:
1154:
1135:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1084:Zalta, Edward N.
1075:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1011:
1001:
995:
992:
986:
985:
983:
981:
958:
952:
951:
949:
947:
924:
918:
917:
915:
913:
890:
875:
856:
798:
786:
631:John Stuart Mill
604:History of Women
529:. In writing to
478:foundation story
416:François Quesnay
264:Native Americans
260:anthropocentrism
237:private property
225:Samuel Pufendorf
94:inductive method
2720:
2719:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2710:
2709:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2677:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2580:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2549:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2501:Aa.vv. (2001).
2500:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2424:
2423:
2419:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2350:
2349:
2345:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2230:
2228:
2226:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2177:
2176:
2172:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2060:
2058:
2056:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1770:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1621:
1620:
1616:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1581:
1580:
1573:
1566:
1551:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1479:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1401:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1304:
1303:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1273:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1249:Hodgen, p. 467.
1248:
1244:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1181:
1180:
1171:
1167:Pocock, p. 305.
1166:
1162:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1115:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1077:
1076:
1072:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1003:
1002:
998:
993:
989:
979:
977:
975:
960:
959:
955:
945:
943:
941:
926:
925:
921:
911:
909:
907:
892:
891:
887:
882:
872:
859:
853:
836:J. G. A. Pocock
834:
795:
778:
775:
770:
764:
744:
708:
651:
588:
583:
519:
507:George Turnbull
494:
470:
464:
458:Adam Ferguson,
428:
396:David Dalrymple
339:
272:
252:state of nature
217:stadial history
213:
211:Stadial history
188:
170:Pliny the Elder
165:Natural History
160:
143:Margaret Hodgen
140:
134:
128:and "society".
114:
106:culture history
12:
11:
5:
2718:
2716:
2708:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2695:Historiography
2692:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2675:
2661:
2641:
2627:
2607:
2593:
2573:
2561:
2547:
2527:
2513:
2493:
2486:
2460:
2451:
2437:
2417:
2403:
2383:
2369:
2343:
2329:
2306:
2292:
2272:
2258:
2238:
2224:
2204:
2190:
2170:
2156:
2136:
2122:
2102:
2088:
2068:
2054:
2034:
2020:
2000:
1986:
1966:
1959:
1938:
1924:
1904:
1890:
1870:
1861:
1852:
1843:
1829:
1809:
1795:
1775:
1768:
1750:
1736:
1716:
1702:
1682:
1668:
1648:
1634:
1614:
1600:
1571:
1564:
1544:
1537:
1511:
1504:
1484:
1477:
1459:
1452:
1433:
1426:
1408:
1399:
1385:
1365:
1351:
1331:
1317:
1294:
1285:
1271:
1251:
1242:
1228:
1208:
1194:
1169:
1160:
1146:
1120:
1113:
1095:
1070:
1056:
1036:
1022:
996:
987:
973:
953:
939:
919:
905:
884:
883:
881:
878:
877:
876:
870:
857:
851:
832:
819:
809:
799:
793:
774:
771:
763:
760:
743:
740:
736:Thomas Pownall
724:civic humanism
707:
704:
659:second edition
650:
647:
639:utilitarianism
587:
584:
582:
579:
563:Tower of Babel
518:
511:
493:
486:
463:
456:
448:feral children
427:
424:
372:
371:
365:
359:
353:
338:
335:
276:Gabriel Girard
271:
268:
212:
209:
187:
182:
159:
156:
136:Main article:
133:
130:
113:
110:
25:Dugald Stewart
21:historiography
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2717:
2706:
2705:Civil society
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2664:
2658:
2654:
2653:
2645:
2642:
2630:
2624:
2620:
2619:
2611:
2608:
2596:
2590:
2586:
2585:
2577:
2574:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2550:
2544:
2540:
2539:
2531:
2528:
2516:
2510:
2506:
2505:
2497:
2494:
2489:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2473:
2464:
2461:
2458:Hopfl, p. 32.
2455:
2452:
2440:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2421:
2418:
2406:
2400:
2396:
2395:
2387:
2384:
2372:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2356:
2347:
2344:
2332:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2295:
2289:
2285:
2284:
2276:
2273:
2261:
2255:
2251:
2250:
2242:
2239:
2227:
2221:
2217:
2216:
2208:
2205:
2193:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2174:
2171:
2159:
2153:
2149:
2148:
2140:
2137:
2125:
2119:
2115:
2114:
2106:
2103:
2091:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2072:
2069:
2057:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2038:
2035:
2023:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2004:
2001:
1989:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1952:
1951:Enlightenment
1948:
1942:
1939:
1927:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1908:
1905:
1893:
1887:
1883:
1882:
1874:
1871:
1868:Hopfl, p. 30.
1865:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1850:Hopfl, p. 21.
1847:
1844:
1832:
1826:
1822:
1821:
1813:
1810:
1798:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1779:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1751:
1739:
1733:
1729:
1728:
1720:
1717:
1705:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1686:
1683:
1671:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1652:
1649:
1637:
1631:
1627:
1626:
1618:
1615:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1587:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1561:
1557:
1556:
1548:
1545:
1540:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1524:
1515:
1512:
1507:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1488:
1485:
1480:
1474:
1470:
1463:
1460:
1455:
1449:
1445:
1444:
1437:
1434:
1429:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1409:
1403:
1400:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1369:
1366:
1354:
1348:
1344:
1343:
1335:
1332:
1320:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1286:
1274:
1268:
1264:
1263:
1255:
1252:
1246:
1243:
1231:
1225:
1221:
1220:
1212:
1209:
1197:
1191:
1187:
1186:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1164:
1161:
1149:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1133:
1124:
1121:
1116:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1096:
1091:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1071:
1059:
1053:
1049:
1048:
1040:
1037:
1025:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1009:
1000:
997:
991:
988:
976:
970:
966:
965:
957:
954:
942:
936:
932:
931:
923:
920:
908:
902:
898:
897:
889:
886:
879:
873:
867:
863:
858:
854:
848:
844:
841:
837:
833:
831:
827:
823:
822:Robert Nisbet
820:
818:
814:
810:
808:
804:
801:H. M. Hopfl,
800:
796:
790:
785:
784:
777:
776:
772:
769:
761:
759:
757:
753:
748:
741:
739:
737:
733:
732:feudal system
729:
725:
721:
720:James Douglas
717:
716:Richard Gough
713:
705:
703:
701:
697:
693:
689:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
663:third edition
660:
656:
648:
646:
644:
640:
636:
635:Auguste Comte
632:
628:
623:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
585:
580:
578:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
547:
542:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
516:
512:
510:
508:
504:
500:
491:
488:John Millar,
487:
485:
483:
479:
475:
469:
461:
457:
455:
453:
449:
445:
441:
440:Lord Monboddo
437:
433:
432:Adam Ferguson
425:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
404:jurisprudence
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
381:
377:
369:
366:
363:
360:
357:
354:
351:
348:
347:
346:
344:
336:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
319:
314:
310:
309:
304:
300:
295:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
269:
267:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
240:
238:
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230:
226:
222:
218:
210:
208:
206:
202:
198:
193:
186:
183:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
166:
157:
154:
150:
148:
144:
139:
131:
129:
127:
123:
122:civil society
119:
111:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
90:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
58:Edward Gibbon
55:
50:
48:
44:
43:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
19:is a type of
18:
2666:. Retrieved
2651:
2644:
2632:. Retrieved
2617:
2610:
2598:. Retrieved
2583:
2576:
2552:. Retrieved
2537:
2530:
2518:. Retrieved
2503:
2496:
2471:
2463:
2454:
2442:. Retrieved
2427:
2420:
2408:. Retrieved
2393:
2386:
2374:. Retrieved
2354:
2346:
2334:. Retrieved
2319:
2297:. Retrieved
2282:
2275:
2263:. Retrieved
2248:
2241:
2229:. Retrieved
2214:
2207:
2195:. Retrieved
2180:
2173:
2161:. Retrieved
2146:
2139:
2127:. Retrieved
2112:
2105:
2093:. Retrieved
2078:
2071:
2059:. Retrieved
2044:
2037:
2025:. Retrieved
2010:
2003:
1991:. Retrieved
1976:
1969:
1950:
1941:
1929:. Retrieved
1914:
1907:
1895:. Retrieved
1880:
1873:
1864:
1855:
1846:
1834:. Retrieved
1819:
1812:
1800:. Retrieved
1785:
1778:
1759:
1753:
1741:. Retrieved
1726:
1719:
1707:. Retrieved
1692:
1685:
1673:. Retrieved
1658:
1651:
1639:. Retrieved
1624:
1617:
1605:. Retrieved
1585:
1554:
1547:
1522:
1514:
1494:
1487:
1468:
1462:
1442:
1436:
1417:
1411:
1402:
1390:. Retrieved
1375:
1368:
1356:. Retrieved
1341:
1334:
1322:. Retrieved
1307:
1288:
1276:. Retrieved
1261:
1254:
1245:
1233:. Retrieved
1218:
1211:
1199:. Retrieved
1184:
1163:
1151:. Retrieved
1131:
1123:
1104:
1098:
1087:
1073:
1061:. Retrieved
1046:
1039:
1027:. Retrieved
1007:
999:
990:
978:. Retrieved
963:
956:
944:. Retrieved
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728:John Trussel
709:
683:Robert Heron
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553:, or was an
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138:Noble savage
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98:anthropology
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39:in his work
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1947:Porter, Roy
712:antiquarian
686:as echoing
641:and vaguer
620:John Burrow
577:from 1774.
527:natural law
523:Montesquieu
503:Thomas Reid
436:John Millar
418:. Smith's "
362:agriculture
284:Montesquieu
254:, and with
102:archaeology
2684:Categories
773:References
692:Democritus
675:David Doig
627:James Mill
600:John Logan
592:John Adams
551:polygenist
400:Lord Kames
323:pictograms
162:While the
78:Adam Smith
37:David Hume
688:Lucretius
657:, in its
549:an early
474:barbarian
356:pasturage
327:alphabets
280:Lucretius
70:feudalism
66:humankind
1949:(2001).
838:(2000).
546:Sketches
444:primates
368:commerce
331:gestures
197:humanist
126:civility
89:progress
2668:5 March
2634:4 March
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1086:(ed.).
1063:2 March
1029:3 March
980:2 March
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912:4 March
614:of the
608:Account
378:. Some
350:hunting
299:manners
233:Aquinas
229:Grotius
205:Fortune
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388:Turgot
1082:. In
880:Notes
531:Basel
364:; and
2670:2013
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718:and
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653:The
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392:Vico
390:and
190:The
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