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formed coalitions not to forge consociational negotiation between segments but to improve their parties' respective power. He argued that the
Netherlands was "stable" in that it had few protests or riots, but that it was so before consociationalism, and that it was not stable from the standpoint of government turnover. He questioned the extent to which the Netherlands, or indeed any country labelled a consociational system, could be called a democracy, and whether calling a consociational country a democracy isn't somehow ruled out by definition. He believed that Lijphart suffered severe problems of rigor when identifying whether particular divisions were cleavages, whether particular cleavages were segmental, and whether particular cleavages were cross-cutting.
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imposition, through international actors. In the process, consociational arrangements have frequently been used to transform immediate violent conflict and solidify peace settlements in extremely fragile contexts of deeply divided societies. The volatile environments in which these recent examples have been implemented have exhibited the need for external interference not only for their initial implementation but also for their continued existence. As such, a range of international actors have assumed mediating and supporting roles to preserve power-sharing agreements in targeted states. Most prominently in
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the apparent necessity for external regulation of these agreements, many scholars have characterised these state-building projects as deeply invasive. A recurring concern therein is the erosion of the governing elite's accountability towards its population and the fostering of clientele politics. These dynamics have been pointed to as obstacles to the resolution of the deep divisions consociations are meant to alleviate. Further critiques have pointed out that consociations have at times encouraged conditions of "
903:
consensus rather than highly structured conflict of goals". In the case of the
Netherlands, he argues that "the whole cause of the disagreement was the feeling of some Dutchman ... that it mattered what all the inhabitants of the country believed. Demands for policies aimed at producing religious or secular uniformity presuppose a concern ... for the state of grace of one's fellow citizens". He contrasts this to the case of a society marked by conflict, in this case
939:
coding data, and an indefatigable, rhetorically seductive commitment to promoting consociationalism as a widely applicable principle of political engineering", that results in him applying consociational theory to case studies that it does not fit. Furthermore, Lustick states that "Lijphart's definition of 'accommodation' ... includes the elaborately specified claim that issues dividing polarized blocs are settled by leaders convinced of the need for settlement".
306:
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Michael Kerr, in his study of the role of external actors in power-sharing arrangements in
Northern Ireland and Lebanon, adds to McGarry and O'Leary's list the condition that "the existence of positive external regulating pressures, from state to non-state actors, which provide the internal elites with sufficient incentives and motives for their acceptance of, and support for, consociation".
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under-representation of others. Grand coalitions are unlikely to happen due to the dynamics of ethnic competition. Each group seeks more power for itself. Consociationalists are criticized for focusing too much on the set up of institutions and not enough on transitional issues which go beyond such institutions. Finally, it is claimed that consociational institutions promote
998:. They state that specific conditions must exist for three or more groups to develop a multi- system with strong leaders. This philosophy is dominated by elites, with those masses that are sidelined with the elites having less to lose if war breaks out. Consociationalism cannot be imperially applied. For example, it does not effectively apply to
964:, Anderson argues such approaches tend to "prioritise the same general type of territorial identity as the ethno-nationalists". Nonetheless, Anderson concedes difficulty lies in the fact such identities cannot simply be wished away, as he argues is attempted when focusing only on individual rights at the expense of group rights.
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was "seriously weakening", even in the 1950s, cross-denominational co-operation was increasing, and formerly coherent political sub-cultures were dissolving. He argued that elites in the
Netherlands were not motivated by preferences derived from the general interest, but rather by self-interest. They
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argue that three conditions are key to the establishment of democratic consociational power-sharing: elites have to be motivated to engage in conflict regulation; elites must lead deferential segments; and there must be a multiple balance of power, but more importantly the subcultures must be stable.
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one. In their heyday, each comprised tightly organised groups, schools, universities, hospitals and newspapers, all divided along a
Balkanised social structure. The theory, according to Lijphart, focuses on the role of social elites, their agreement and co-operation, as the key to a stable democracy.
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Many criticisms have been levelled against the deployment of consociationalism in state-building. It has been criticised as institutionalising and deepening existing divisions, being severely dependent on external support for survival, and temporarily freezing conflicts but not resolving them. Given
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Consociationalism focuses on diverging identities such as ethnicity instead of integrating identities such as class, institutionalizing and entrenching the former. Furthermore, it relies on rival co-operation, which is inherently unstable. It focuses on intrastate relations and neglects relations
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has argued that academics lack an alternative "control" approach for explaining stability in deeply divided societies and that this has resulted in the empirical overextension of consociational models. Lustick argues that
Lijphart has "an impressionistic methodological posture, flexible rules for
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While consociational democracy applies to joint decision making among societal groups, neither of which has a dominant power position, corporatism (especially 'state' corporatism) describes a decision making model where the state is the dominant participant in joint decision making. Both models,
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Lijphart stresses that these conditions are neither indispensable nor sufficient to account for the success of consociationalism. This has led Rinus van
Schendelen to conclude that "the conditions may be present and absent, necessary and unnecessary, in short conditions or no conditions at all".
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In 2022, Yascha Mounk argued that the case for consociationalism and power-sharing had weakened significantly since first proposed based on experiments and real-life observations. He argues that in some cases it can bring short-term peace, but that it is always temporary and is likely to worsen
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has questioned the nature of the divisions that exist in the countries that
Lijphart considers to be "classic cases" of consociational democracies. For example, he makes the case that in the Swiss example, "political parties cross-cut cleavages in the society and provide a picture of remarkable
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contexts in the past decades. This development has been reflected in the expansion of the favourable conditions to external factors in the literature as well. Rather than internally constructed by state elites, these recent examples have been characterised by external facilitation, and at times
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argues that consociationalism can lead to the reification of ethnic divisions, since "grand coalitions are unlikely, because of the dynamics of intraethnic competition. The very act of forming a multiethnic coalition generates intraethnic competition â flanking â if it does not already exist".
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While the current results of consociational arrangements implemented in post-conflict state-building endeavours have been mixed, scholars such as O'Leary and McGarry maintain that they have often proven to be the most practical approach to ending immediate conflict and creating the necessary
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Consociationalism assumes that each group is cohesive and has strong leadership. Although the minority can block decisions, this requires 100 per cent agreement. Rights are given to communities rather than individuals, leading to over-representation of some individuals in society and
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from
Lijphart's observations of political accommodation in the Netherlands, after which Lijphart argued for a generalizable consociational approach to ethnic conflict regulation. The Netherlands, as a consociational state, was between 1857 and 1967 divided into four non-territorial
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Lijphart also identified a number of "favourable conditions" under which consociationalism is likely to be successful. He has changed the specification of these conditions somewhat over time. Michael Kerr summarised
Lijphart's most prominent favourable factors as:
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Consistent with Horowitz's claims, Dawn Brancati finds that federalism/territorial autonomy, an element of consociationalism, strengthens ethnic divisions if it is designed in a way that strengthens regional parties, which in turn encourage ethnic conflict.
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Propositions concerning the subject of baptism and consociation of churches, collected and confirmed out of the word of God, by a synod of elders and messengers of the churches in Massachusetts-Colony in New England. Assembled at Boston, ... in the year
530:. However, Lijphart has stated that he "merely discovered what political practitioners had repeatedly – and independently of both academic experts and one another – invented years earlier". Theoretically, consociationalism was
1345:, consociationalism, and neo-corporatism can be viewed as alternative institutional devices for alleviating strain or overload on central governments and for distributing part of the burden among other sectors of the political system.
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stability for peace-building to take place. Its utility has been seen in its transformative aspect, flexibility, and "realist" approach to existing identity formations that are difficult to incorporate in a majoritarian system.
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In a consociational state, all groups, including minorities, are represented on the political and economic stages. Supporters of the consociationalism argue that it is a more realistic option in deeply divided societies than
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Representation is based on population. If one pillar accounts for 30% of the overall society, then they occupy 30% of the positions on the police force, in civil service, and in other national and civic segments of society.
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and the Netherlands, and not in more deeply divided societies. If one of three groups gets half plus one of the vote, then the other groups are in perpetual opposition, which is largely incompatible with consociationalism.
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Lijphart, Arend; Crepaz, Markus M. L. : Corporatism and Consensus Democracy in Eighteen Countries: Conceptual and Empirical Linkages; British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Apr., 1991), pp.
907:, where he argues that "the inhabitants ... have never shown much worry about the prospects of the adherents of the other religion going to hell". Barry concludes that in the Dutch case, consociationalism is
3044:
Adeney, Katharine (2008). "Constitutional design and the political salience of 'community' identity in Afghanistan: Prospects for the emergence of ethnic conflicts in the post-Taliban era".
680:, where executive power is shared between parties, not concentrated in one. Many of these cabinets are oversized, meaning they include parties not necessary for a parliamentary majority;
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James Anderson also supports Horowitz's contention that consociational powersharing built around diverging identities can entrench and sharpen these divisions. Citing the example of
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who in one period frequently intervened in the domestic political affairs of the state to implement legislation on which domestic elites were reluctant to come to an agreement on.
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McGarry, John; O'Leary, Brendan (2006). "Consociational theory, Northern Ireland's conflict, and its agreement 2: What critics of consociation can learn from Northern Ireland".
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While Lijphart's initial theory drew primarily from Western European democracies in its formulation of consociationalism, it has gained immense traction in post-conflict
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485:), in that consociational democracy represents a consensus of representatives with minority veto, while consensus democracy requires consensus across the electorate.
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971:. Centripetalism aims to depoliticize ethnicity and to encourage multi-ethnic parties instead of reinforcing ethnic divides through political institutions.
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Bahcheli, Tozun; Noel, Sid (2005). "Power Sharing for Cyprus (Again)? European Union Accession and the Prospects for Reunification". In Noel, Sid (ed.).
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McGarry, John; O'Leary, Brendan (1993). "Introduction: The macro-political regulation of ethnic conflict". In McGarry, John; O'Leary, Brendan (eds.).
2794:... an interwar Czechoslovak regime that sought to accommodate the SÄœS within a system that is best described in modern times as 'conscociational'.
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is unlikely to successfully block the majority. If one group blocks another on some matter, the latter are likely to block the former in return.
1186:(ANC) opposed consociationalism and proposed instead a settlement based upon majoritarian democracy. The NP abandoned consociationalism when the
705:, where it is very difficult for one party to gain a majority in both houses. Normally one chamber represents regional interests and the other
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as one which has major internal divisions along ethnic, religious, or linguistic lines, but which remains stable due to consultation among the
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and argues that "the relevance of the 'consociational' model for other divided societies is much more doubtful than is commonly supposed".
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The idea has received significant criticism in its applicability to democratic political systems, especially with regard to power-sharing.
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467:. Some scholars consider consociationalism a form of corporatism. Others claim that economic corporatism was designed to regulate
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with only ceremonial duties, or an indirectly elected president, who gives up his or her party affiliation after being elected;
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Elites of each pillar come together to rule in the interests of society because they recognize the dangers of non-cooperation.
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Gabel, Matthew J. (1998). "The endurance of supranational governance: A consociational interpretation of the European Union".
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Hamill, James (2003). "A disguised surrender? South Africa's negotiated settlement and the politics of conflict resolution".
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The goals of consociationalism are governmental stability, the survival of the power-sharing arrangements, the survival of
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O'Leary, Brendan (2005). "Debating consociational politics: Normative and explanatory arguments". In Noel, Sid JR (ed.).
471:, while consociationalism developed on the basis of reconciling societal fragmentation along ethnic and religious lines.
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O'Leary, Brendan (2001). "The character of the 1998 Agreement: Results and prospects". In Wilford, Rick (ed.).
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The Making of the Slovak People's Party: Religion, Nationalism and the Culture War in Early 20th-Century Europe
2596:"Partition, consociation, border-crossing: some lessons from the national conflict in Ireland/Northern Ireland"
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The political systems of a number of countries operate or used to operate on a consociational basis, including
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Belloni, Roberto (2004). "Peacebuilding and consociational electoral engineering in Bosnia and Herzegovina".
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Wippman, David (1998). "Practical and Legal Constraints on Internal Power Sharing". In Wippman, David (ed.).
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2627:"Institutional Designs for Diverse Democracies: Consociationalism, Centripetalism and Communalism Compared"
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Bogaards, Matthijs; Crepaz, Markus M.L. (2002). "Consociational interpretations of the European Union".
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Education Policy and Power-Sharing in Post-Conflict Societies: Lebanon, Northern Ireland, and Macedonia
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1498:(Printed by S.G. for Hezekiah Usher at Boston in New-England, Cambridge Mass., 1662). Page views at
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2322:"Power Sharing in Lebanon: Foreign Protectors, Domestic Peace, and Democratic Failure | Request PDF"
1155:, but this solution is not very popular, nor has it been discussed seriously at peace negotiations.
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Lustick, Ian (1979). "Stability in deeply divided societies: Consociationalism versus control".
1945:"'Imposed consociationalism': external intervention and power sharing in Bosnia and Herzegovina"
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508:. These were empowered in the civil legislature and magistracy. It was debated at length in the
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Consensus among the groups is required to confirm the majority rule. Mutuality means that the
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The Importance of Consociationalism for TwentyâFirst Century Politics and Political Science.
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Bogaards, Matthijs (1998). "The favourable factors for consociational democracy: A review".
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Lehmbruch, Gerhard (December 1975). "Consociational Democracy in the International System".
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1136:'s political system was also described as consociational, although it lacked ethnic quotas.
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2228:"Consociational settlements in deeply divided societies: the liberal-corporate distinction"
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From Power Sharing to Democracy: Post-Conflict Institutions in Ethnically Divided Societies
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From Power Sharing to Democracy: Post-Conflict Institutions in Ethnically Divided Societies
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Creates a sense of individuality and allows for different culturally-based community laws.
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The Politics of Ethnic Conflict Regulation: Case Studies of Protracted Ethnic Conflicts
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however, describe the decision making as characterized by consensus and bargaining.
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resembles a consociational democracy, with consultation across ideological lines.
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O'Leary, Brendan (1999). "The 1998 British-Irish Agreement: Power-sharing plus".
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As an alternative of consociationalism Horowitz suggested an alternative model â
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can be a precursor to consociationalism. A consociational democracy differs from
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Thinking about Democracy: Power Sharing and Majority Rule in Theory and Practice
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The great experiment: why diverse democracies fall apart and how they can endure
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Imposing Power-Sharing: Conflict and Coexistence in Northern Ireland and Lebanon
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452:. When consociationalism is organised along religious confessional lines, as in
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Critics point out that consociationalism is dangerous in a system of differing
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Disputed Territories: The Transnational Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict Settlement
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du Toit, Pierre (July 1987). "Consociational Democracy and Bargaining Power".
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1303:"Comment: Federation, Consociation, CorporatismâAn Addendum to Arend Lijphart"
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Barry, Brian (1975). "Political accommodation and consociational democracy".
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1826:"Iraq's Constitution of 2005: Liberal consociation as political prescription"
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1747:"Iraq's Constitution of 2005: Liberal consociation as political prescription"
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1706:"Iraq's Constitution of 2005: Liberal consociation as political prescription"
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of these groups. Consociational states are often contrasted with states with
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Lijphart identifies four key characteristics of consociational democracies:
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1444:"The United States as a Plural Society: Towards a Consociational Solution?"
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2015:
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Additionally, a number of peace agreements are consociational, including:
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Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity: The Secular-Religious Impasse
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Bosnia After Dayton: Nationalist Partition and International Intervention
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The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands
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to go to the courts to seek redress against laws that they see as unjust;
544:
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2526:
1476:(Rockwell and Churchill, Boston 1890): 'The Body of Liberties of 1641',
605:, this has involved an "international regulating body" in the form of a
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trace consociationalism back to 1917, when it was first employed in the
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1872:"Classical Consociational Theory and Recent Consociational Performance"
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Peace by Design: Managing Intrastate Conflict through Decentralization
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Consociationalism was originally discussed in academic terms by the
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1921:"Is More Better? Evaluating External-Led State Building After 1989"
1807:"Is More Better? Evaluating External-Led State Building After 1989"
1788:"Is More Better? Evaluating External-Led State Building After 1989"
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and "an ideal-typical consociational democracy" by Roberto Belloni.
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by Asher Cohen, Bernard Susser. Google Books (Retrieved 2011-1-30)
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During the 1980s the South African government attempted to reform
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of 2001 setting the constitutional framework for power-sharing in
1002:. Critics also point to the failure of this line of reasoning in
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190:
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Relations of Ruling: Class and Gender in Postindustrial Societies
2505:
Lustick, Ian (1997). "Lijphart, Lakatos, and consociationalism".
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Barry, Brian (1975). "The consociational model and its dangers".
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Wage setting, Social Pacts and the Euro: A New Role for the State
1006:, a country that reverted to civil war. It only truly applies in
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came out in favor of the majoritarian democracy model in 1992.
1404:. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Amsterdam University Press. p.
1182:(IFP) proposed a settlement based upon consociationalism. The
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Bogaards, Matthijs; Helms, Ludger; Lijphart, Arend. 2020. "
1117:), which Brendan O'Leary describes as "power-sharing plus".
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suggests 'precursors' of consociationalism as early as the
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The presence of external threats common to all communities
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Consociational policies often have these characteristics:
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Based on this initial study of consociational democracy,
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3144:"Constitutionalizing Democracy in Fractured Societies".
2556:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p.
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Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration
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applied Lijphart's powersharing ideas by establishing a
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Horowitz and centripetal criticism of consociationalism
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Decentralized and federal government, where (regional)
2141:"The views of Arend Lijphart and collected criticisms"
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to block legislation: this means that they must be a
496:
Consociation was first discussed in the 17th century
409:
397:
367:
364:
358:
2347:"Iraq's Informal Consociationalism and Its Problems"
1938:
1936:
1934:
922:
has argued that Lijphart uses evidence selectively.
845:
A moderate multi-party system with segmental parties
463:
Consociationalism is sometimes seen as analogous to
4138:
4014:
3886:
3694:
3528:
3329:
3194:
2942:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 49â83.
1480:; 'Records of the Court of Assistants, 1641-1644',
623:
379:
2549:
2033:
1600:
2134:
2132:
1280:. Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press. pp. 3â43.
1151:under a consociational democracy in the state of
842:A small population size, reducing the policy load
2882:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 216.
2757:. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 215.
2281:Empire in Denial: The Politics of State-Building
2273:
2271:
2269:
2115:. Dublin: Irish Academic Press. pp. 27â28.
2027:
2025:
1067:(consultation mostly across ideological lines),
2500:
2498:
2782:. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 225.
2384:
2382:
1113:(and its subsequent reinforcement with 2006's
737:, which prevents government from changing the
512:Synod of 1662. This was when the Episcopalian
3172:
1518:"Constitutional design for divided societies"
891:", which state-building is meant to prevent.
765:Proportional employment in the public sector;
330:
27:Political power sharing among cultural groups
8:
1578:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1830:International Journal of Constitutional Law
1751:International Journal of Constitutional Law
1710:International Journal of Constitutional Law
1675:. Routledge. 2009-03-20. pp. 222â236.
1079:. Some academics have also argued that the
793:Equality between ministers in cabinet, the
3179:
3165:
3157:
2167:Explaining Northern Ireland: Broken Images
337:
323:
29:
2730:. Cornell University Press. p. 220.
2362:
2000:. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005.
1887:
1841:
1762:
1721:
824:Segmental isolation of ethnic communities
504:of the various colonial townships of the
2164:McGarry, John; O'Leary, Brendan (1995).
2040:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
2104:
2102:
1824:McGarry, J.; O'Leary, B. (2007-09-28).
1745:McGarry, J.; O'Leary, B. (2007-09-28).
1704:McGarry, J.; O'Leary, B. (2007-09-28).
1266:
790:and that there is no compulsory voting.
32:
3129:Selway, Joel and K. Templeman. 2012. "
2434:European Journal of Political Research
2073:European Journal of Political Research
1634:European Journal of Political Research
2727:International Law and Ethnic Conflict
1308:Canadian Journal of Political Science
1162:into a consociational democracy. The
7:
2391:British Journal of Political Science
2351:Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism
1301:McRae, Kenneth D. (September 1979).
1172:1990s negotiations to end apartheid
3023:. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 5.
2703:. Berghahn Books. pp. 30â31.
2446:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1975.tb01253.x
2170:. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 339.
1919:Zuercher, Christoph (2006-04-01).
1805:Zuercher, Christoph (2006-04-01).
1786:Zuercher, Christoph (2006-04-01).
1646:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1975.tb01252.x
1474:The Colonial Laws of Massachusetts
1164:South African Constitution of 1983
1023:and entrench existing identities.
836:A tradition of elite accommodation
833:Overarching loyalties to the state
555:, although until 1917 there was a
25:
3126:" Swiss Political Science Review.
3119:" Swiss Political Science Review.
2226:McCulloch, Allison (2014-04-16).
2139:van Schendelen, M.C.P.M. (1984).
726:interest groups, which represent
2940:Aspects of the Belfast Agreement
2612:10.1111/j.1469-8129.2008.00340.x
2584:, Oxford University Press, 2009.
2205:10.1111/j.1477-7053.2006.00178.x
1943:Merdzanovic, Adis (2017-01-02).
762:to enact or prevent legislation;
354:
304:
2153:(1). Palgrave Macmillan: 19â49.
1134:Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
698:have considerable independence;
2625:Reilly, Benjamin (June 2012).
1876:Swiss Political Science Review
1607:. London: Routledge. pp.
1448:Swiss Political Science Review
741:without consent of minorities;
439:majoritarian electoral systems
1:
3135:Comparative Political Studies
3131:The Myth of Consociationalism
1961:10.1080/21647259.2016.1264918
1096:war in Bosnia and Herzegovina
254:Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
3117:Consociation in the Present.
3099:10.1080/09592290312331295546
2244:10.1080/13510347.2012.748039
1669:"A culture of power sharing"
931:Lustick on hegemonic control
18:Consociationalist government
2917:10.1080/1353331042000237300
2857:10.1177/1465116502003003004
2676:. New York: Penguin Press.
1045:First Czechoslovak Republic
1043:(effective 1960â1963), the
827:A multiple balance of power
719:to gain representation too;
713:Proportional representation
280:Preussentum und Sozialismus
4203:
3548:Countries by ethnic groups
3543:Contemporary ethnic groups
3087:Diplomacy & Statecraft
2990:Fontana, Giuditta (2016).
2905:International Peacekeeping
2631:European Political Science
980:tensions in the long-run.
421:) is a form of democratic
3115:O'Leary, Brendan. 2020. "
2996:. Springer. p. 102.
2552:Ethnic Groups in Conflict
2548:Horowitz, Donald (1985).
2519:10.1017/S0043887100014738
2403:10.1017/S0007123400008322
2193:Government and Opposition
1321:10.1017/S0008423900051726
1184:African National Congress
1147:, some have argued for a
1094:that ended the 1992â1995
683:Balance of power between
498:New England Confederation
3058:10.1525/as.2008.48.4.535
3017:Lijphart, Arend (2008).
2594:Anderson, James (2008).
2278:Chandler, David (2006).
2032:Lijphart, Arend (1977).
1681:10.4324/9780203962565-19
1574:Lijphart, Arend (1968).
1516:Lijphart, Arend (2004).
1442:Howe, Philip J. (2019).
1188:U.S. Department of State
559:("first past the post")
516:was being introduced in
506:Massachusetts Bay Colony
429:define a consociational
70:Structural functionalism
3660:Torres Strait Islanders
3505:Ethnopsychopharmacology
3249:In-group and out-groups
2878:Bose, Sumantra (2002).
2844:European Union Politics
2778:Lorman, Thomas (2019).
2600:Nations and Nationalism
2085:10.1111/1475-6765.00392
782:are only used to allow
502:Congregational churches
448:, and the avoidance of
3901:Cultural appropriation
2977:10.3366/scot.1999.0003
2697:Wolff, Stefan (2004).
2672:Mounk, Yascha (2022).
2109:Kerr, Michael (2006).
1870:McGarry, John (2019).
1210:Corporative federalism
839:Socioeconomic equality
586:1555 Peace of Augsburg
514:Act of Uniformity 1662
4177:Ethnicity in politics
3926:Ethnic interest group
3766:Ethnicity in censuses
3716:Cultural assimilation
3217:Ethnolinguistic group
1673:Consociational Theory
1539:10.1353/jod.2004.0029
1472:W.H. Whitmore (ed.),
1365:(4): 419â430 at 425.
1315:(3): 517â522 at 520.
1180:Inkatha Freedom Party
1168:Tricameral Parliament
1145:ArabâIsraeli conflict
1107:Good Friday Agreement
815:Favourable conditions
4167:Comparative politics
4146:Minzu (anthropology)
4115:Separatist movements
3971:Ethnographic village
3801:Legendary progenitor
3436:Transidioethnography
3239:Hyphenated ethnicity
3234:Ethnographic realism
3227:Ethnoreligious group
2808:Comparative Politics
2345:Dodge, Toby (2020).
2290:10.2307/j.ctt18fs393
1925:CDDRL Working Papers
1811:CDDRL Working Papers
1792:CDDRL Working Papers
1526:Journal of Democracy
1396:Anke Hassel (2006).
1359:Comparative Politics
1115:St Andrews Agreement
920:Rinus van Schendelen
915:Rinus van Schendelen
788:citizen's initiative
427:Political scientists
269:Political philosophy
4006:Multinational state
4001:Model minority myth
3888:Multiethnic society
3806:Linguistic homeland
3222:Ethnonational group
2643:10.1057/eps.2011.36
1843:10.1093/icon/mom026
1764:10.1093/icon/mom026
1723:10.1093/icon/mom026
1205:Consensus democracy
1200:Conflict management
1139:In addition to the
948:with other states.
876:conflict management
715:, to allow (small)
664:Segmental autonomy
607:High Representative
525:political scientist
479:consensus democracy
475:Concurrent majority
311:Politics portal
4182:Political theories
3986:Middleman minority
3946:Ethnic pornography
3941:Ethnic nationalism
3846:Pantribal sodality
3791:Imagined community
3316:Symbolic ethnicity
3244:Indigenous peoples
3212:Ethnographic group
2364:10.1111/sena.12330
1889:10.1111/spsr.12378
1460:10.1111/spsr.12363
1215:Directorial system
1149:one-state solution
1141:two-state solution
950:Donald L. Horowitz
865:Arguments in favor
800:primus inter pares
735:rigid constitution
707:national interests
678:Coalition cabinets
603:Bosnia-Herzegovina
4154:
4153:
4068:Ethnic stereotype
3981:Indigenous rights
3966:Ethnographic film
3951:Ethnic theme park
3911:Dominant minority
3906:Diaspora politics
3896:Consociationalism
3831:National language
3721:Cultural identity
3711:Cross-race effect
3655:Aboriginal groups
3030:978-0-415-77268-6
3003:978-3-319-31426-6
2789:978-1-350-10938-4
2683:978-0-593-29681-3
2299:978-0-7453-2428-9
2177:978-0-631-18349-5
2122:978-0-7165-3383-2
2007:978-0-7735-2947-2
1690:978-0-203-96256-5
1073:Zimbabwe-Rhodesia
671:
670:
582:Gerhard Lehmbruch
456:, it is known as
350:Consociationalism
347:
346:
274:Political culture
244:Consociationalism
16:(Redirected from
4194:
4038:Ethnic cleansing
4033:Ethnic bioweapon
3916:Ethnic democracy
3530:Groups by region
3480:Ethnomethodology
3463:Ethnomathematics
3453:Ethnolinguistics
3349:Ethnoarchaeology
3181:
3174:
3167:
3158:
3153:
3146:Texas Law Review
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3062:
3061:
3041:
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2965:Scottish Affairs
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1549:. Archived from
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1500:Internet Archive
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1111:Northern Ireland
1092:Dayton Agreement
1061:Northern Ireland
975:Other criticisms
962:Northern Ireland
905:Northern Ireland
756:direct democracy
655:Proportionality
635:Grand coalition
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561:electoral system
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286:Social democracy
238:Related articles
196:Paul the Apostle
36:
30:
21:
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4073:Ethnic violence
4021:
4019:ethnic conflict
4017:
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3991:Minority rights
3931:Ethnic majority
3882:
3866:Detribalization
3821:Nation-building
3761:Ethnic religion
3704:
3700:
3690:
3597:Central America
3524:
3495:Ethnophilosophy
3490:Ethnomusicology
3468:Ethnostatistics
3426:Person-centered
3396:Autoethnography
3325:
3190:
3185:
3142:Issacharoff, S.
3140:
3112:
3110:Further reading
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2580:Dawn Brancati,
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2473:10.2307/2009992
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2284:. Pluto Press.
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2232:Democratization
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1502:. Full text at
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1250:Polycentric law
1230:Minority rights
1225:Minority groups
1196:
1126:North Macedonia
1122:Ohrid Agreement
1029:
977:
945:
933:
917:
897:
884:
867:
858:Brendan O'Leary
817:
806:An independent
747:, which allows
745:Judicial review
619:
617:Characteristics
594:
574:Brendan O'Leary
494:
458:confessionalism
415:
411:
357:
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264:Guild socialism
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50:Corporate group
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5:
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4117:
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4105:Indigenization
4102:
4097:
4095:Ethnosymbolism
4092:
4087:
4082:
4081:
4080:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4058:Ethnic penalty
4055:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4024:
4022:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3996:Model minority
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3976:Ethnopluralism
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
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3928:
3923:
3921:Ethnic enclave
3918:
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3636:Southeast Asia
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3485:Ethnomuseology
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3344:Ethnic studies
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3311:Supraethnicity
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3278:
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3264:Minority group
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3259:Metroethnicity
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3254:Meta-ethnicity
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3137:45: 1542â1571.
3127:
3120:
3111:
3108:
3105:
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3063:
3036:
3029:
3009:
3002:
2982:
2955:
2948:
2930:
2911:(2): 334â53 .
2895:
2888:
2870:
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2820:10.2307/422334
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2788:
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2736:
2716:
2709:
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2664:
2637:(2): 259â270.
2617:
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2507:World Politics
2494:
2461:World Politics
2451:
2440:(4): 393â412.
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2397:(4): 477â505.
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2098:
2063:
2053:
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2021:
2006:
1982:
1930:
1911:
1882:(4): 538â555.
1857:
1836:(4): 670â698.
1816:
1797:
1778:
1757:(4): 670â698.
1737:
1716:(4): 670â698.
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1584:
1566:
1533:(2): 96â109 .
1508:
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1371:10.2307/421815
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1264:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1245:Plural society
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1220:Horizontalidad
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1195:
1192:
1176:National Party
1170:. During the
1130:
1129:
1118:
1103:
1081:European Union
1028:
1025:
976:
973:
969:centripetalism
944:
941:
932:
929:
916:
913:
896:
893:
889:fragile states
883:
880:
874:approaches to
872:integrationist
866:
863:
847:
846:
843:
840:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
816:
813:
812:
811:
804:
795:prime minister
791:
777:
766:
763:
758:, which allow
752:
742:
731:
722:Organized and
720:
710:
699:
692:
681:
669:
668:
665:
661:
660:
656:
652:
651:
644:
640:
639:
636:
632:
631:
628:
618:
615:
598:state-building
593:
592:State-building
590:
563:rather than a
528:Arend Lijphart
493:
490:
469:class conflict
418:-shÉn-Él-iz-Ém
345:
344:
342:
341:
334:
327:
319:
316:
315:
314:
313:
298:
297:
294:
293:
288:
283:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
240:
237:
236:
233:
232:
229:
228:
223:
218:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
142:
139:
138:
135:
134:
131:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
84:
81:
80:
77:
76:
73:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
46:
43:
42:
39:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4199:
4188:
4187:Power sharing
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4164:
4162:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4137:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4085:Ethnocentrism
4083:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4043:Ethnic hatred
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4013:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3885:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3836:National myth
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3781:Folk religion
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3756:Ethnic origin
3754:
3752:
3751:Ethnic option
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3676:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3626:Northern Asia
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3602:South America
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3587:United States
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3539:
3536:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3527:
3521:
3520:Ethnotaxonomy
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3475:Ethnomedicine
3473:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3411:Institutional
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3369:Ethnomycology
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3334:
3332:
3328:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3296:Polyethnicity
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3276:Monoethnicity
3274:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3182:
3177:
3175:
3170:
3168:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3125:
3121:
3118:
3114:
3113:
3109:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3073:
3067:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3052:(4): 535â57.
3051:
3047:
3040:
3037:
3032:
3026:
3022:
3021:
3013:
3010:
3005:
2999:
2995:
2994:
2986:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2951:
2949:0-19-924262-3
2945:
2941:
2934:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2896:
2891:
2889:1-85065-585-5
2885:
2881:
2874:
2871:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2851:(3): 357â81.
2850:
2846:
2845:
2837:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2814:(4): 463â75.
2813:
2809:
2802:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2771:
2766:
2764:9780773529489
2760:
2756:
2755:
2747:
2744:
2739:
2737:9780801434334
2733:
2729:
2728:
2720:
2717:
2712:
2710:9781571817181
2706:
2702:
2701:
2693:
2690:
2685:
2679:
2675:
2668:
2665:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2621:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2606:(1): 85â104.
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2587:
2583:
2577:
2574:
2569:
2567:0-520-22706-9
2563:
2559:
2554:
2553:
2544:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2513:(1): 88â117.
2512:
2508:
2501:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2467:(3): 325â44.
2466:
2462:
2455:
2452:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2428:
2425:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2341:
2338:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2199:(2): 249â77.
2198:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2179:
2173:
2169:
2168:
2160:
2157:
2152:
2148:
2147:
2146:Acta Politica
2142:
2135:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2118:
2114:
2113:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2079:(4): 475â96.
2078:
2074:
2067:
2064:
2057:
2054:
2049:
2047:0-300-02494-0
2043:
2038:
2037:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2003:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1949:Peacebuilding
1946:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1801:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1741:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1697:
1692:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1628:
1625:
1620:
1618:0-415-07522-X
1614:
1610:
1605:
1604:
1595:
1592:
1587:
1585:9780520007512
1581:
1577:
1570:
1567:
1556:on 2006-10-28
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1527:
1519:
1512:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1482:pp. xix-xliii
1479:
1475:
1469:
1466:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1415:9789053569191
1411:
1407:
1402:
1401:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1353:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1304:
1297:
1294:
1289:
1287:0-7735-2948-9
1283:
1279:
1278:
1270:
1267:
1260:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1240:Pillarisation
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1143:to solve the
1142:
1137:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1100:Sumantra Bose
1097:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1059:(1917â1967),
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
986:
981:
974:
972:
970:
965:
963:
958:
954:
951:
942:
940:
937:
930:
928:
925:
924:Pillarisation
921:
914:
912:
910:
906:
901:
894:
892:
890:
881:
879:
877:
873:
864:
862:
859:
855:
851:
844:
841:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
822:
821:
814:
809:
805:
802:
801:
796:
792:
789:
785:
781:
778:
775:
771:
770:head of state
767:
764:
761:
757:
753:
750:
746:
743:
740:
736:
732:
729:
725:
721:
718:
714:
711:
708:
704:
700:
697:
693:
690:
686:
682:
679:
676:
675:
674:
666:
663:
662:
657:
654:
653:
649:
645:
642:
641:
637:
634:
633:
629:
626:
625:
622:
616:
614:
610:
608:
604:
599:
591:
589:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
533:
529:
526:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
491:
489:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
470:
466:
461:
459:
455:
451:
447:
442:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
423:power sharing
420:
419:
405:
351:
340:
335:
333:
328:
326:
321:
320:
318:
317:
312:
307:
302:
301:
300:
299:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
281:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
241:
235:
234:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
144:
143:
137:
136:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
109:
108:Nationalistic
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
85:
79:
78:
71:
68:
66:
63:
61:
58:
56:
53:
51:
48:
47:
41:
40:
37:
31:
19:
4120:Xenocentrism
4078:Ethnic riots
4063:Ethnic slurs
4053:Ethnic party
4016:Ideology and
3936:Ethnic media
3895:
3878:White ethnic
3871:Neotribalism
3826:Nation state
3771:Ethnofiction
3702:ethnogenesis
3673:
3666:
3647:
3616:Central Asia
3608:
3561:
3554:
3537:
3510:Ethnoscience
3500:Ethnopoetics
3448:Ethnohistory
3386:Ethnogeology
3374:Ethnozoology
3364:Ethnoecology
3354:Ethnobiology
3339:Anthropology
3291:Panethnicity
3207:Ethnic group
3149:
3145:
3134:
3093:(3): 17â18.
3090:
3086:
3080:
3071:
3066:
3049:
3046:Asian Survey
3045:
3039:
3019:
3012:
2992:
2985:
2968:
2964:
2958:
2939:
2933:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2879:
2873:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2793:
2779:
2773:
2753:
2746:
2726:
2719:
2699:
2692:
2673:
2667:
2634:
2630:
2620:
2603:
2599:
2589:
2581:
2576:
2551:
2543:
2510:
2506:
2464:
2460:
2454:
2437:
2433:
2427:
2394:
2390:
2354:
2350:
2340:
2329:. Retrieved
2326:ResearchGate
2325:
2316:
2308:j.ctt18fs393
2280:
2235:
2231:
2221:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2166:
2159:
2150:
2144:
2111:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2056:
2035:
1996:
1955:(1): 22â35.
1952:
1948:
1924:
1914:
1879:
1875:
1833:
1829:
1819:
1810:
1800:
1791:
1781:
1754:
1750:
1740:
1713:
1709:
1699:
1672:
1637:
1633:
1627:
1602:
1594:
1575:
1569:
1558:. Retrieved
1551:the original
1530:
1524:
1511:
1494:
1493:J. Mitchel,
1489:
1478:at pp. 29-68
1473:
1468:
1451:
1447:
1437:
1399:
1391:
1382:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1340:
1312:
1306:
1296:
1276:
1269:
1157:
1138:
1131:
1085:
1077:South Africa
1030:
1021:sectarianism
1017:
992:conservatism
990:, generally
985:antagonistic
982:
978:
966:
959:
955:
946:
934:
918:
909:tautological
898:
885:
868:
854:John McGarry
852:
848:
818:
808:central bank
798:
754:Elements of
739:constitution
703:bicameralism
701:Incongruent
672:
643:Mutual veto
630:Explanation
620:
611:
595:
570:John McGarry
565:proportional
522:
495:
487:
473:
462:
443:
349:
348:
278:
243:
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3649:Australia
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