Contact tracing - Knowledge

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and volunteers were used to meet the shortage of contact tracers. Existing infrastructure such as call centers and national helpline services were used for operations. Individuals who were the most sick and medically vulnerable were prioritized as contacts over healthier people. The advent of technology and digital tracing tools were implemented at a global scale without much vetting and testing. Various countries had different adaptations and outcomes with contact tracing. China used pre-existing WeChat and Alipay platforms to track person health status and travel patterns. Singapore, South Korea, and Vietnam had success limiting the initial spread of the virus. With contact tracing, once a person was identified to be exposed, they were immediately isolated. In some instances the government provided housing for isolation to limit movements. In Turkey, the government launched a public forum that highlighted risk zones in various regions of the country. Residents can self-report their health status and track areas with reported high rates of transmission. In the United States, contact tracing efforts varied by the respective health department in a particular state. Overall, effectiveness of contact tracing data in the country was determined by the caseload assigned to contact tracers. When on-demand testing was promoted, increases in negative tests were followed by increases in hospitalizations. Subsequent studies of cases and deaths found the same results. If increased testing were in response to surges, more testing should follow increases in cases, not precede them. An average of 208 extra miles were accumulated in the week following each negative test in U.S. counties. These results suggest that people who tested negative underestimated the risk of exposure when they traveled or visited. <Robertson, LS. Roads to COVID-19 Containment and Spread. </New York: Austin Macauley, 2023.> As self-administered, home-based tests became increasingly used as the primary method to detect SARS-CoV-2, fewer cases were reached for case investigation and contact tracing by public health departments. As a result, fewer cases followed followed contemporary isolation recommendations.

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separated by walls in an office building can be notified as exposed, even if they never interfaced with the contact. Moreover, the parameters set by the developers to contact trace vary and can miss potential cases. Such parameters include proximity or distance to trigger an exposure and the timeframe in which contacts are considered to be infectious (usually 14 days). Smartphone applications require people having access to smartphones and a competent infrastructure to provide internet access to the public. Not all countries can provide these services to their residents. Compliance is also a factor. Individuals must download the application, navigate the technology, and follow appropriate directions when notified. This becomes highly difficult when the use of smartphone applications is not mandated. Cohort studies which looked at the efficacy of digital contact tracing reported limited sensitivity in accurately catching cases due to the limitations mentioned above. In Pennsylvania, a digital exposure notification app for COVID-19 was downloaded by 5.7% of population (635,612 people). Unfortunately, only 0.1% of all reported cases in Pennsylvania used the app to notify their potential contacts of exposure during the study period (390 persons), resulting in 233 notifications as compared an estimated 573,298 eligible contacts.

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well. Centralized vs. de-centralized databases have been implemented across the world during the COVID-19 pandemic. The culture within a nation and those who run the government have a huge role in deciding in what players have access to data. Therefore, governing bodies have to consider ethical principles related to transparency and accountability to the public. Moreover, whether participating in contact tracing efforts should be voluntary or mandatory is another ethical dilemma that adds to the complexity of implementation. As noted above, there are numerous ethical and legal factors that go into implementation of contact tracing. Executing a robust contact tracing program requires resources, skilled professionals, and an ethical framework that complies with the fabric of a particular nation.

281:. For sexually transmitted infections, sexual contacts of the index case are relevant, as well as any babies born to the index case. This information is crucial for investigating congenital syphilis cases for example. For blood-borne infections, blood transfusion recipients, contacts who shared a needle, and anyone else who could have been exposed to the blood of the index case are relevant. This information becomes relevant for health systems to keep track of high risk populations and medical errors, unavoidable and preventable. For pulmonary tuberculosis, people living in the same household or spending a significant amount of time in the same room as the index case are relevant. Understanding the pathology and transmissibility of the disease guides the approach to contact tracing strategy. 575:

what types of interests they pursue, and who interacts with each other. Therefore, questions regarding the extent of data collected, how long the information is stored, who it is shared with, and for what purpose it is being utilized come with serious ethical considerations. Contact tracing efforts miss vulnerable and under resourced populations. Manual tracing efforts face difficulty tracking hard to reach individuals given social complexities. Digital tools require a smart phone and a reliable internet connection, two factors that might exclude certain individuals from benefiting from the technology. Data is still pre-mature as to the efficacy of digital tools. Some stakeholders argue whether it is appropriate to shift contact tracing into a complete digital capacity.

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individuals. There are few benefits of using digital contract tracing apps over the traditional manual methods. Manual methods require a skilled workforce who put in significant hours to diligently follow the steps in contact tracing. This requires a heavy investment from the government, which at times is not feasible. Manual contact tracing is not suited to detect exposures unknown to the contact, as the process is limited to the interview and known knowledge. Areas such as restaurants and malls make it almost impossible for the contact to know whether they have been exposed. At a theoretical scale, digital applications propose mechanism to effectively prevent and stop epidemics.

197:). This case may be reported to public health or managed by the primary health care provider. Ideally, all notification should be done within 24 hours of exposure. If contacts are not individually identifiable (e.g. members of the public who attended the same location), broader communications may be issued, like media advisories. Communication with the contacts will be initially done through digital methods including texts and email. Efforts to inform the contacts remotely should be exhausted before considering an in-person communication. During this process, it is imperative that the identity of the source of exposure must not be revealed to the contact. 131:(STIs). Individuals were reluctant to report infections because they were concerned for their privacy. Revealing partner history and details about sexual activity was challenging as it affected relationships among individuals and community members. In addition, public health officials targeted certain populations such as sex workers, minorities, and at-risk populations further eliciting feeling of fear, shame, and guilt in society. With these negative implications of contact tracing, particularly in the space of sexually transmitted infections, public health officials found it difficult to elicit information from exposed individuals. During the 398:, are said to have also used the approach. In the United States, contact tracing had suboptimal impact on SARS-CoV-2 transmission, largely because 2 of 3 cases were either not reached for interview or named no contacts when interviewed. Engagement in contact tracing was positively correlated with isolation and quarantine. However, most adults with COVID-19 isolated and self-notified contacts regardless of whether the public health workforce was able to reach them. Identifying and reaching contacts was challenging and limited the ability to promote quarantining, and testing. 173: 225:

environment. People with special roles lack the convenience practicing quarantine given their daily responsibilities. Examples include, single parents, caregivers, and individuals with toddlers. Social services and ancillary support from the government become crucial to maintaining measures of quarantine and isolation. Contacts should be made aware whether or not the quarantine or isolation is voluntary or mandatory. Depending on the nature of the disease of interest, governments can issue legal orders to maintain integrity of contact tracing.

566:, required to act to contain a communicable disease within a broader population and also ethically obliged to warn individuals of their exposure. Simultaneously, infected individuals have a recognized right to medical confidentiality. Public health teams typically disclose the minimum amount of information required to achieve the objectives of contact tracing. For example, contacts are only told that they have been exposed to a particular infection, but not informed of the person who was the source of the exposure. In the United States, 429: 115: 571:

care providers have expressed concerns that contact tracing may discourage persons from seeking medical treatment for fear of loss of confidentiality and subsequent stigma, discrimination, or abuse. This has been of particular concern regarding contact tracing for HIV. Public health officials have recognized that the goals of contact tracing must be balanced with the maintenance of trust with vulnerable populations and sensitivity to individual situations.

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contact racers. An alternative would be having the contacts report daily to their assigned official. This is usually done through digital platforms such as email and text. If a contact is symptomatic, a case investigator is assignment to direct the individual to the appropriate testing and treatment. This stage of contact tracing is highly dependent on resource availability.

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Henderson E, Bidegain E, Zarantonelli L, Piattoni V, Greif G, Francia ME, Robello C, Durán R, Brito G, Bonnecarrere V, Sierra M, Colina R, Marin M, Cristina J, Ehrlich R, Paganini F, Cohen H, Radi R, Barbeito L, Badano JL, Pritsch O, Fernández C, Arim R, Batthyány C (2020-07-27). "An effective COVID-19 response in South America: the Uruguayan Conundrum".

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contacts may also be interviewed. Interviews typically follow a template which include demographics, symptomology, pre-existing conditions, and timing of exposures to ensure consistency across all contact tracing efforts. Interpreters and source materials in different languages are utilized to accommodate persons with different cultural backgrounds.

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digital contact tracing measures. The application allowed the public health agencies to track super spreader events, inform the public, and guide them to treatment if applicable. At the end of April 2020, South Korea reported over 10,000 infections and 204 deaths, numbers which were vastly superior to contemporaries in the European Union.

140:, also called partner care, is a subset of contact tracing aimed specifically at informing sexual partners of an infected person and addressing their health needs. This definition evolved from identifying infected individuals to including a comprehensive program that encompasses counseling and medical care to treat the infection. 544: 494:

cases, the Bluetooth-based apps reported information to an encrypted database that automatically deleted information after 14 days. The western world shortly followed and started developing their own Bluetooth-based applications. Facebook Labs patented the use of Bluetooth on smartphones for this in 2018. On 10 April 2020,

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Privacy is still a concern even if individual information is not disclosed by public health practitioners. The data collected in databases by governments and tech companies could be utilized for unrelated purposes. Big tech companies have access to data which provides insight on where people visit,

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is a legal measure for protecting health information. This ensures sharing of only relevant information in the contact tracing process. However, given the unprecedented spread and mortality of SARS-CoV2, advocacy groups argue the protections offered by HIPAA are spread thin. Some activists and health

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Contact tracing requires tremendous resources and work hours to effectively contain an infection. The COVID-19 pandemic is an unprecedented period where contact tracing and public health efforts were put to the test. Creative strategies were used to sustain public health efforts. Non-health personnel

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epidemic, many affected person were hesitant to report information, which hindered the efforts to understand HIV and curb the spread. To combat some of the negative stigma associated with contact tracing and STIs, health departments sometimes referred to contact tracing as partner notification in the

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With the use of technology, certain limitations and challenges come with the territory. Tracking technology might not accurately notify individuals who have been exposed. Bluetooth does not differentiate between walls and structure, prompting incorrect notification of exposures. For instance, people

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outbreak in 2015, the government executed a robust contact tracing program. Global positioning system (GPS) technology was used to track movement of individuals and appropriately notify persons who have been exposed. The South Korean government launched the Corona 100m application to implement their

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This stage is dependent on the duration of quarantine for people with and without symptoms. The ideal number of days for quarantine and isolation are determined by the health agencies. Once the contact adequately completes the quarantine/isolation for the defined number of days, they can be closed

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Moreno P, Moratorio G, Iraola G, Fajardo Á, Aldunate F, Pereira-Gómez M, Perbolianachis P, Costábile A, López-Tort F, Simón D, Salazar C, Ferrés I, Díaz-Viraqué F, Abin A, Bresque M, Fabregat M, Maidana M, Rivera B, Cruces ME, Rodríguez-Duarte J, Scavone P, Alegretti M, Nabón A, Gagliano G, Rosa R,

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or email directly within the software to notify people believed to have been in close contact with someone carrying an infectious disease. Utilizing a database, provides benefit to track persons of interest and offers a platforms to look at data points such as race, zip code, and symptoms. Vendors

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pointed out in late October 2020, however, that the amount of the virus in the U.S. is now so large that no health departments has the resources to contact and trace. Additionally, officials overlooked the effect of mistrust in the government and conspiracy theories regarding the virus on thwarting

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For epidemics with high heterogeneity in infectiousness, adopting a hybrid strategy of forward contact tracing combined with contact tracing backwards is often used. Backward contact tracing is beneficial for identifying clusters of spreader events, while forward tracing can be used mitigate future

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Although contact tracing can be enhanced by letting patients provide information, medication, and referrals to their contacts, evidence demonstrates that direct public health involvement in notification is most effective. Ideally, contacts are checked upon daily for signs and symptoms of disease by

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The official title, contract tracers, was first implemented in the United Kingdom during the smallpox outbreaks. Dedicated individuals served on a surveillance-based team to curb the spread of disease. This process served as a blueprint for other public health agencies to have a formalized program.

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or treating the infected, this public health tool aims to reduce infections in the population. In addition to infection control, contact tracing serves as a means to identify high-risk and medically vulnerable populations who might be exposed to infection and facilitate appropriate medical care. In

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Safeguards become topics of contention when designing digital contact tracing tools. Restrictions on which tracking software such as GPS, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth are used and when those services are turned on are debated among stakeholders. Who has access to the date is an important ethical issue as

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started gaining traction during the COVID-19 pandemic. With widespread transmission and shortage of contact tracers, technology serves as a resource to bridge gaps. In addition, digital applications automate the process and replace the manual steps contact tracers take to track and notify exposed

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Singapore was among the first countries to use Bluetooth technology in their contact tracing efforts. They launched the application—TraceTogether—which allowed smartphones to provide proximity information useful for contact tracing . Unlike South Korea, which utilized a central database to track

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Backward (or reverse) tracing seeks to establish the source of an infection, by looking for contacts before infection. It can be used when a source of the infection is unknown and in situations of minimally monitored settings. The goal is identify the exposures associated with the index case and

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The index case is interviewed to learn about their movements, whom they have been in close contact with or who their sexual partners have been. Depending on the disease and the context of the infection, family members, health care providers, and anyone else who may have knowledge of the case's

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and prevent outbreaks. In cases of diseases of uncertain infectious potential, contact tracing is also sometimes performed to learn about disease characteristics, including infectiousness. Contact tracing is not always the most efficient method of addressing infectious disease. In areas of high

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During the COVID-19 pandemic, manual contact tracers used technology to augment their tracing efforts. Case managers in particular were a group of professionals that benefited from this resource. Case management software is often used by contact tracers to maintain records of cases and contact

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Contacts may be isolated (e.g. required to remain at home) or excluded (e.g. prohibited from attending a particular location, like a school) if deemed necessary for disease control. Challenges for this process include access to resources during quarantine such as food, water, and safe living

365:). Contact tracing has been a pillar of communicable disease control in public health for decades. With each outbreak and disease presenting with its own challenges, contact tracing is an adaptable tool used by authorities to identify, notify, and curb transmission of infections. 301:

Contact tracing has also been initiated among flight passengers during the containment phase of larger pandemics, such as the 2009 pandemic H1NI influenza. Contact tracing played a major role in investigating Ebola virus in the UK in 2014 and monkeypox in the UK in 2018. The

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Although contact tracing is most commonly used for control of diseases, it is also a critical tool for investigating new diseases or unusual outbreaks. For example, as was the case with SARS, contact tracing can be used to determine if

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Forward tracing is the process of looking for contacts after infection, so as to prevent further disease spread. It is the more conventional way to investigate cases and inform close contacts to either quarantine or isolate.

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Contact tracing attempts to find all contacts of a confirmed case, in order to test or monitor them for infection. The goal is to stop the spread of a disease by finding and isolating cases.

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Lash RR, Moonan PK, Byers BL, Bonacci RA, Bonner KE, Donahue M, Donovan CV, Grome HN, Janssen JM, Magleby R, McLaughlin HP, Miller JS, Pratt CQ, Steinberg J, Varela K (2021-06-03).

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Once contacts are identified, public health workers contact them to offer counseling, screening, prophylaxis, and/or treatment. Contacts are provided education on concepts of

2428:"Apple and Google are building coronavirus tracking tech into iOS and Android – The two companies are working together, representing most of the phones used around the world" 1791:

Oeltmann JE, Vohra D, Matulewicz HH, DeLuca N, Smith JP, Couzens C, Lash RR, Harvey B, Boyette M, Edwards A, Talboy PM, Dubose O, Regan P, Taylor MM, Moonan PK (2023-07-26).

567: 546: 472: 2456: 218:, signs and symptoms of disease, and timely testing. If applicable, contacts should wear appropriate personal protective equipment to reduce to transmission of disease. 52:

person ("contacts") and subsequent collection of further data to assess transmission. By tracing the contacts of infected individuals, testing them for infection, and

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Contact tracing programs were first implemented to track syphilis cases in the 1930s. Initial efforts proved to be difficult given the stigmatization associated with

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Anglemyer A, Moore TH, Parker L, Chambers T, Grady A, Chiu K, Parry M, Wilczynska M, Flemyng E, Bero L (2020-08-18). Cochrane Public Health Group (ed.).

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patients by sexual contact. The paper concluded that the spread of AIDS may be facilitated by the transfer of an infective agent during sexual contacts.

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Jeon S, Rainisch G, Harris AM, Shinabery J, Iqbal M, Pallavaram A, Hilton S, Karki S, Moonan PK, Oeltmann JE, Meltzer MI (February 2023).

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Jeon S, Rainisch G, Harris AM, Shinabery J, Iqbal M, Pallavaram A, Hilton S, Karki S, Moonan PK, Oeltmann JE, Meltzer MI (February 2023).

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transmission. The effectiveness of both approaches is limited by the resources dedicated to contact tracing. Journalist and author

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Moonan PK, Smith JP, Borah BF, Vohra D, Matulewicz HH, DeLuca N, Caruso E, Loosier PS, Thorpe P, Taylor MM, Oeltmann JE (2023).

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The United States soon followed and enacted a contact tracing program for the prevention of infectious diseases which included

2287: 128: 1546:"Nationwide Results of COVID-19 Contact Tracing in South Korea: Individual Participant Data From an Epidemiological Survey" 1982:

Min-Allah N, Alahmed BA, Albreek EM, Alghamdi LS, Alawad DA, Alharbi AS, Al-Akkas N, Musleh D, Alrashed S (October 2021).

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Development of a Contact Tracing System for Ebola Virus Disease – Kambia District, Sierra Leone, January–February 2015

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Sonia Y. Angell, former California Director of Public Health, explains contact tracing during the COVID-19 pandemic.

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may be spread by an infectious agent during sexual contacts. The infective agent has since been identified as

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Being a tool in multifaceted prevention strategy to effectively curb the spread of an infectious disease.

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Klovdahl AS (1985-01-01). "Social networks and the spread of infectious diseases: the AIDS example".

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South Korea became a pioneer in utilizing digital contact tracing tools. Learning lessons from the

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Alerting contacts to the possibility of infection and offer preventive services or prophylactic care

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Sexually transmitted infections best practices and contact tracing best practice recommendations

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out. Next steps such as returning to work and participating in social activities are discussed.

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The types of contacts that are relevant for public health management vary because of differing

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Shahroz M, Ahmad F, Younis MS, Ahmad N, Kamel Boulos MN, Vinuesa R, Qadir J (September 2021).

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Transmission Network Analysis to Complement Routine Tuberculosis Contact Investigations (PDF)

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Riley S, Fraser C, Donnelly CA, Ghani AC, Abu-Raddad LJ, Hedley AJ, et al. (June 2003).

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If the infection is treatable, helping prevent reinfection of the originally infected patient

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Ferretti L, Wymant C, Kendall M, Zhao L, Nurtay A, Abeler-Dörner L, et al. (May 2020).

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of a disease outbreak. In 1984, contact tracing provided the first direct evidence that

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secondary exposures of those contact to halt the cycle of transmission. During the

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Three ways to sign in for contact tracing during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany

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Finding and identifying people in contact with someone with an infectious disease

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An individual is identified as having a communicable disease (often called the

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Lucivero F, Hallowell N, Johnson S, Prainsack B, Samuel G, Sharon T (2020).

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Lee SW, Yuh WT, Yang JM, Cho YS, Yoo IK, Koh HY, et al. (August 2020).

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Offering diagnosis, counseling and treatment to already infected individuals

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are linked to known cases of the disease, and to determine if secondary

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Learning about the epidemiology of a disease in a particular population

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Contact tracing generally involves the following steps as provided by

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doing so, public health officials utilize contact tracing to conduct

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is the process of identifying people who may have been exposed to an

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Visual depiction of disease spread with and without contact tracing.

2620:"Digital contact tracing technologies in epidemics: a rapid review" 1047:"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) – multi-country outbreak" 1855: 1562: 976:

Ontario Provincial Infectious Diseases Advisory Committee (2009).

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Diseases for which contact tracing is commonly performed include

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Vogt F, Haire B, Selvey L, Katelaris AL, Kaldor J (2022-03-01).

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Contact tracing during a cholera outbreak in Bangladesh (2014):

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The Doctor's World; Sex, Privacy And Tracking H.I.V. Infections

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Blattner W, Gallo RC, Temin HM (July 1988). "HIV causes AIDS".

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Challenges with contact tracing can arise related to issues of

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that may have specialized features such as the ability to use

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Alerting the general public about exposures or outbreaks (IE:

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Interrupting ongoing transmission and reduce the spread of an

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and confidentiality. Public health practitioners often are

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offering contact tracing case management software include

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Keeling MJ, Hollingsworth TD, Read JM (October 2020).

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A 1984 paper traced the sexual contacts of 40 early

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Assessing feasibility of self-quarantine and support:

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Privacy-preserving controls for sharing mHealth data

1522:"[Addendum] Japan's Cluster-based Approach" 1015: 1013: 1011: 1009: 1007: 1005: 1003: 1001: 2828:"Digital contact tracing poses ethical challenges" 1597:"Uruguay is winning against covid-19. This is how" 2421: 2419: 2288:"Contact Tracing Platform Developed in QuickBase" 636:"Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Contact tracing" 2787:"Maintaining HIPAA Privacy with Contact Tracing" 1295: 1293: 798:"Reflections on the History of Contact Tracing" 768:"Reflections on the History of Contact Tracing" 70:or focused testing may be more cost-effective. 1177: 1175: 982:Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care 8: 1426:"The 'Japan model' that tackled coronavirus" 1136:Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 604:Mathematical modelling of infectious disease 2457:"Contact Tracing – Bluetooth Specification" 1984:"A survey of COVID-19 contact-tracing apps" 971: 969: 967: 965: 963: 961: 959: 957: 955: 298:is taking place in a particular community. 2190:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2096:"The Tech Behind COVID-19 Contact Tracing" 939:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 914:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 736:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 476:App-based contact tracing during COVID-19. 2903: 2757: 2700: 2643: 2567: 2342: 2164: 2064: 2015: 1955: 1826: 1808: 1767: 1702: 1650: 1612: 1571: 1561: 1489: 1238: 1155: 1106: 1096: 707: 256:investigators interview the mother of an 1683:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 502:, which account for most of the world's 445:tracing activities. This is typically a 268:Backward versus forward contact tracing. 2624:Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2325:O'Connell J, O'Keeffe DT (2021-08-05). 1917: 1915: 1913: 1911: 1478:Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases 620: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2208: 2206: 2180: 2178: 2176: 1977: 1975: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1891: 1530:Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare 904: 902: 900: 898: 896: 894: 892: 890: 888: 886: 884: 882: 880: 878: 876: 874: 872: 870: 325:, vaccine-preventable infections like 73:The goals of contact tracing include: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2847: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2807: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2186:"Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)" 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2084: 1396: 1394: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1382: 868: 866: 864: 862: 860: 858: 856: 854: 852: 850: 824: 822: 820: 818: 677: 675: 7: 2466:(Preliminary ed.). 2020-04-10. 1185:Principles of public health practice 792: 790: 788: 762: 760: 758: 756: 754: 752: 673: 671: 669: 667: 665: 663: 661: 659: 657: 655: 630: 628: 626: 624: 411:contact tracing efforts in the U.S. 1022:Australasian Contact Tracing Manual 208:Recommendations for close contacts: 1752:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.15850 599:Intentional contagion of infection 168:A visualization of contact tracing 25: 1988:Computers in Biology and Medicine 688:American Journal of Public Health 2966: 2000:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104787 1928:Iranian Journal of Public Health 1310:The American Journal of Medicine 2473:from the original on 2020-04-10 2438:from the original on 2020-04-10 2426:Sherr I, Nieva R (2020-04-10). 2331:New England Journal of Medicine 834:Online Masters in Public Health 331:sexually transmitted infections 129:sexually transmitted infections 1: 2876:Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 2552:10.1016/S2468-2667(22)00010-X 1264:Social Science & Medicine 2932:American Medical Association 2730:Emerging Infectious Diseases 2673:Emerging Infectious Diseases 2464:covid19-static.cdn-apple.com 2045:Emerging Infectious Diseases 1797:Clinical Infectious Diseases 1472:Oshitani H (November 2020). 1322:10.1016/0002-9343(84)90668-5 1276:10.1016/0277-9536(85)90269-2 381:Backward and forward tracing 2149:10.1016/j.treng.2021.100072 1677:, Rajan S (November 2020). 1652:10.1101/2020.07.24.20161802 1595:Taylor L (September 2020). 1491:10.7883/yoken.JJID.2020.363 3056: 3025:Infection-control measures 2888:10.1007/s11673-020-10016-9 2491:Heberlein M (2020-01-04). 2137:Transportation Engineering 1445:Nishimura Y (2020-07-07). 1188:. Clifton Park, New York: 2636:10.1002/14651858.CD013699 1051:Global Alert and Response 682:Brandt AM (August 2022). 189:Notification of exposure: 2540:The Lancet Public Health 2292:insightfromanalytics.com 1940:10.18502/ijph.v50i8.6800 1870:Mueller B (2020-10-03). 1695:10.1177/0141076820965533 1550:JMIR Medical Informatics 1148:10.1136/jech-2020-214051 700:10.2105/AJPH.2022.306949 539:Ethical and legal issues 504:mobile operating systems 2826:Volkin S (2020-05-26). 1922:Koçak C (August 2021). 1452:The Wall Street Journal 1365:10.1126/science.3399881 1240:10.1126/science.1086478 1182:Scutchfield FD (2003). 1098:10.1126/science.abb6936 594:Government by algorithm 438:digital contact tracing 304:eradication of smallpox 2742:10.3201/eid2902.220959 2685:10.3201/eid2902.220959 2057:10.3201/eid2909.230494 555: 477: 433: 377: 339:blood-borne infections 269: 261: 177: 169: 119: 37: 2387:Prasad A (May 2016). 1406:Public Health Ontario 553: 475: 431: 371: 279:modes of transmission 267: 251: 175: 167: 117: 35: 2344:10.1056/NEJMp2102256 935:"Health Departments" 910:"Health Departments" 732:"Health Departments" 589:Disease surveillance 520:Bluetooth Low Energy 347:bacterial infections 138:Partner notification 59:disease surveillance 1810:10.1093/cid/ciad163 1357:1988Sci...241..515B 1231:2003Sci...300.1961R 1225:(5627): 1961–1966. 980:. Toronto, Canada: 229:Medical monitoring: 176:Transmission chains 3040:Medical monitoring 2976:has a profile for 1876:The New York Times 1091:(6491): eabb6936. 564:mandated reporters 556: 478: 434: 378: 353:infections (e.g., 270: 262: 236:Contact close out: 201:Contact interview: 178: 170: 120: 38: 2982: 2791:The HIPAA E-TOOL® 1740:JAMA Network Open 1614:10.1136/bmj.m3575 1351:(4865): 515–516. 1270:(11): 1203–1216. 1032:978-1-920773-95-3 551: 388:COVID-19 pandemic 16:(Redirected from 3047: 2980: 2979:contact tracing 2970: 2969: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2939: 2924: 2918: 2917: 2907: 2867: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2838: 2823: 2802: 2801: 2799: 2798: 2783: 2772: 2771: 2761: 2721: 2715: 2714: 2704: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2647: 2615: 2590: 2589: 2571: 2546:(3): e250–e258. 2531: 2508: 2507: 2505: 2504: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2479: 2478: 2472: 2461: 2453: 2447: 2446: 2444: 2443: 2423: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2408: 2401: 2395: 2394: 2384: 2373: 2372: 2346: 2322: 2303: 2302: 2300: 2299: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2275: 2274: 2260: 2254: 2253: 2251: 2250: 2235: 2229: 2228: 2226: 2225: 2210: 2201: 2200: 2198: 2197: 2182: 2171: 2170: 2168: 2128: 2111: 2110: 2108: 2107: 2092: 2079: 2078: 2068: 2051:(9): 1921–1924. 2036: 2030: 2029: 2019: 1979: 1970: 1969: 1959: 1934:(8): 1547–1554. 1919: 1886: 1885: 1883: 1882: 1867: 1861: 1860: 1847: 1841: 1840: 1830: 1812: 1788: 1782: 1781: 1771: 1731: 1725: 1724: 1706: 1670: 1664: 1656: 1654: 1641: 1635: 1634: 1616: 1592: 1586: 1585: 1575: 1565: 1541: 1535: 1534: 1526: 1518: 1512: 1511: 1493: 1469: 1463: 1462: 1460: 1459: 1442: 1436: 1435: 1422: 1416: 1415: 1413: 1412: 1398: 1377: 1376: 1340: 1334: 1333: 1297: 1288: 1287: 1259: 1253: 1252: 1242: 1210: 1204: 1203: 1179: 1170: 1169: 1159: 1127: 1121: 1120: 1110: 1100: 1076: 1070: 1069: 1067: 1066: 1057:. Archived from 1043: 1037: 1036: 1017: 996: 995: 991:978-1-42497946-2 973: 950: 949: 947: 946: 931: 925: 924: 922: 921: 906: 845: 844: 842: 841: 826: 813: 812: 810: 809: 794: 783: 782: 780: 779: 764: 747: 746: 744: 743: 728: 722: 721: 711: 694:(8): 1097–1099. 679: 650: 649: 647: 646: 632: 552: 21: 3055: 3054: 3050: 3049: 3048: 3046: 3045: 3044: 3010: 3009: 2988: 2987: 2986: 2971: 2967: 2962: 2952: 2947: 2946: 2937: 2935: 2926: 2925: 2921: 2869: 2868: 2845: 2836: 2834: 2825: 2824: 2805: 2796: 2794: 2785: 2784: 2775: 2723: 2722: 2718: 2666: 2665: 2661: 2630:(8): CD013699. 2617: 2616: 2593: 2533: 2532: 2511: 2502: 2500: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2459: 2455: 2454: 2450: 2441: 2439: 2425: 2424: 2417: 2410: 2403: 2402: 2398: 2386: 2385: 2376: 2324: 2323: 2306: 2297: 2295: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2272: 2270: 2268:ukauthority.com 2262: 2261: 2257: 2248: 2246: 2237: 2236: 2232: 2223: 2221: 2220:(Press release) 2212: 2211: 2204: 2195: 2193: 2184: 2183: 2174: 2130: 2129: 2114: 2105: 2103: 2094: 2093: 2082: 2038: 2037: 2033: 1981: 1980: 1973: 1921: 1920: 1889: 1880: 1878: 1869: 1868: 1864: 1849: 1848: 1844: 1790: 1789: 1785: 1746:(6): e2115850. 1733: 1732: 1728: 1689:(11): 422–427. 1672: 1671: 1667: 1643: 1642: 1638: 1594: 1593: 1589: 1543: 1542: 1538: 1524: 1520: 1519: 1515: 1471: 1470: 1466: 1457: 1455: 1444: 1443: 1439: 1431:Financial Times 1424: 1423: 1419: 1410: 1408: 1400: 1399: 1380: 1342: 1341: 1337: 1299: 1298: 1291: 1261: 1260: 1256: 1212: 1211: 1207: 1200: 1190:Delmar Learning 1181: 1180: 1173: 1142:(10): 861–866. 1129: 1128: 1124: 1078: 1077: 1073: 1064: 1062: 1045: 1044: 1040: 1033: 1019: 1018: 999: 992: 975: 974: 953: 944: 942: 933: 932: 928: 919: 917: 908: 907: 848: 839: 837: 828: 827: 816: 807: 805: 796: 795: 786: 777: 775: 766: 765: 750: 741: 739: 730: 729: 725: 681: 680: 653: 644: 642: 634: 633: 622: 617: 585: 560:medical privacy 543: 541: 532: 483: 426: 417: 383: 287: 275: 246: 162: 125: 46:contact tracing 28: 23: 22: 18:Contact tracers 15: 12: 11: 5: 3053: 3051: 3043: 3042: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3012: 3011: 3005: 3004: 2999: 2994: 2972: 2965: 2964: 2963: 2961: 2960:External links 2958: 2957: 2956: 2951: 2948: 2945: 2944: 2919: 2882:(4): 835–839. 2843: 2803: 2773: 2736:(2): 426–430. 2716: 2679:(2): 426–430. 2659: 2591: 2509: 2483: 2448: 2415: 2396: 2374: 2337:(6): 484–487. 2304: 2279: 2255: 2230: 2218:prnewswire.com 2202: 2172: 2112: 2080: 2031: 1971: 1887: 1862: 1842: 1803:(2): 212–219. 1783: 1726: 1665: 1636: 1587: 1536: 1513: 1484:(6): 491–493. 1464: 1437: 1417: 1378: 1335: 1316:(3): 487–492. 1289: 1254: 1205: 1198: 1192:. p. 71. 1171: 1122: 1071: 1038: 1031: 997: 990: 951: 926: 846: 814: 784: 748: 723: 651: 619: 618: 616: 613: 612: 611: 609:Trace evidence 606: 601: 596: 591: 584: 581: 540: 537: 531: 528: 518:. Relying on 482: 479: 425: 422: 416: 413: 408:Laurie Garrett 382: 379: 292:probable cases 286: 283: 274: 271: 245: 242: 241: 240: 233: 226: 219: 205: 198: 161: 158: 124: 121: 112: 111: 108: 105: 102: 99: 84: 81: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3052: 3041: 3038: 3036: 3033: 3031: 3028: 3026: 3023: 3021: 3020:Public health 3018: 3017: 3015: 3008: 3003: 3000: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2990: 2989: 2984: 2983: 2975: 2959: 2954: 2953: 2949: 2933: 2929: 2923: 2920: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2844: 2833: 2829: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2792: 2788: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2720: 2717: 2712: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2663: 2660: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2608: 2606: 2604: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2498: 2497:Tagesschau.de 2494: 2487: 2484: 2469: 2465: 2458: 2452: 2449: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2420: 2416: 2406: 2405:WO 2019139630 2400: 2397: 2392: 2391: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2293: 2289: 2283: 2280: 2269: 2265: 2259: 2256: 2244: 2240: 2234: 2231: 2219: 2215: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2191: 2187: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2167: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2101: 2097: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2072: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2035: 2032: 2027: 2023: 2018: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1877: 1873: 1866: 1863: 1858: 1857: 1852: 1846: 1843: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1787: 1784: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1730: 1727: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1669: 1666: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1648: 1640: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1591: 1588: 1583: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1563:10.2196/20992 1559: 1556:(8): e20992. 1555: 1551: 1547: 1540: 1537: 1533:. 2020-05-28. 1532: 1531: 1523: 1517: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1468: 1465: 1454: 1453: 1448: 1441: 1438: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1421: 1418: 1407: 1403: 1397: 1395: 1393: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1339: 1336: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1300:Auerbach DM, 1296: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1258: 1255: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1209: 1206: 1201: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1186: 1178: 1176: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1126: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1075: 1072: 1061:on 2003-06-18 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1042: 1039: 1034: 1028: 1024: 1023: 1016: 1014: 1012: 1010: 1008: 1006: 1004: 1002: 998: 993: 987: 983: 979: 972: 970: 968: 966: 964: 962: 960: 958: 956: 952: 940: 936: 930: 927: 915: 911: 905: 903: 901: 899: 897: 895: 893: 891: 889: 887: 885: 883: 881: 879: 877: 875: 873: 871: 869: 867: 865: 863: 861: 859: 857: 855: 853: 851: 847: 835: 831: 825: 823: 821: 819: 815: 803: 799: 793: 791: 789: 785: 773: 769: 763: 761: 759: 757: 755: 753: 749: 737: 733: 727: 724: 719: 715: 710: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 678: 676: 674: 672: 670: 668: 666: 664: 662: 660: 658: 656: 652: 641: 637: 631: 629: 627: 625: 621: 614: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 586: 582: 580: 576: 572: 569: 565: 561: 538: 536: 529: 527: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 508:COVID-19 apps 505: 501: 497: 491: 488: 480: 474: 470: 468: 464: 460: 455: 451: 448: 442: 439: 430: 423: 421: 414: 412: 409: 403: 399: 397: 393: 389: 380: 375: 370: 366: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 319: 317: 313: 309: 305: 299: 297: 293: 284: 282: 280: 273:Contact types 272: 266: 259: 255: 250: 243: 237: 234: 230: 227: 223: 220: 217: 213: 209: 206: 202: 199: 196: 195: 190: 187: 186: 185: 183: 174: 166: 159: 157: 155: 151: 147: 141: 139: 134: 130: 122: 116: 109: 106: 103: 100: 97: 93: 89: 85: 82: 80: 76: 75: 74: 71: 69: 65: 60: 55: 51: 47: 43: 42:public health 34: 30: 19: 3030:Epidemiology 3006: 2978: 2936:. 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Retrieved 639: 577: 573: 557: 533: 506:, announced 492: 484: 443: 435: 418: 404: 400: 384: 323:tuberculosis 320: 300: 296:transmission 288: 276: 235: 228: 221: 207: 200: 192: 188: 179: 142: 126: 72: 45: 39: 29: 2499:(in German) 2100:www.gao.gov 1673:Crozier A, 640:www.who.int 530:Limitations 436:The age of 392:South Korea 351:novel virus 333:(including 244:Application 3014:Categories 2981:(Q1128437) 2938:2022-11-14 2837:2022-11-14 2797:2022-11-18 2503:2020-04-05 2477:2020-04-10 2442:2020-04-10 2298:2020-07-14 2273:2020-07-14 2249:2020-07-14 2224:2020-07-14 2196:2020-07-18 2143:: 100072. 2106:2022-11-14 1994:: 104787. 1881:2021-04-19 1458:2020-10-19 1411:2022-11-10 1065:2013-05-28 945:2022-11-10 920:2022-11-03 840:2022-11-14 808:2022-11-10 778:2022-11-03 742:2022-11-03 645:2022-11-03 615:References 524:SARS-CoV-2 459:Salesforce 424:Technology 363:SARS-CoV-2 258:index case 212:quarantine 194:index case 154:SARS-CoV-2 152:, and now 64:prevalence 3035:Pandemics 2896:1176-7529 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