Copper in renewable energy - Knowledge (XXG)

1261:/ generator enclosure) and down the mast to a grounding system. The blade incorporates a large cross-section copper conductor that runs along its length and allows current to pass along the blade without deleterious heating effects. The nacelle is protected by a lightning conductor, often copper. The grounding system, at the base of the mast, consists of a thick copper ring conductor bonded to the base or located within a meter of the base. The ring is attached to two diametrically opposed points on the mast base. Copper leads extend outward from the ring and connect to copper grounding electrodes. The grounding rings at turbines on wind farms are inter-connected, providing a networked system with an extremely small aggregate resistance. 84: 723:

storage systems (circulating pumps, cabling to consumption points). A 50 MW plant with 7.5 hours of storage contains approximately 196 tonnes of copper, of which 131,500 kg are in cables and 64,700 kg are in various equipment (generators, transformers, mirrors, and motors). This translates to about 3.9 tonnes/MW, or, in other terms, 1.2 tonnes/GWh/year. A plant of the same size without storage can have 20% less copper in the solar field and 10% less in the electronic equipment. A 100 MW plant will have 30% less relative copper content per MW in the solar field and 10% less in electronic equipment.

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transfer of heat that might otherwise escape into the atmosphere. Heat loss is further reduced by the low-emissivity of the glass that is used. Inside the glass tube is the copper heat pipe. It is a sealed hollow copper tube that contains a small amount of proprietary liquid, which under low pressure boils at a very low temperature. Other components include a solar heat exchanger tank and a solar pumping station, with pumps and controllers.

957:(which convert the slow revolutions per minute of the rotor blades to faster rpms) and in wind farm electrical grounding systems. Copper may also be used in the nacelle (the housing of the wind turbine that rests on the tower containing all the main components), auxiliary motors (motors used to rotate the nacelle as well as control the angle of the rotor blades), cooling circuits (cooling configuration for the entire 580:, which affects lifetime profitability of PV system investments. Complex cost evaluations, factoring extra costs for materials, the amount of solar radiation directed towards solar modules per year (accounting for diurnal and seasonal variations, subsidies, tariffs, payback periods, etc.) are necessary to determine whether higher initial investments for thicker cables are justified. 135:(MW), renewable technologies such as wind and solar require four to six times more copper per installed MW. This is because copper is spread over much larger land areas, particularly in solar and wind energy power plants. Power and grounding cables must run far to connect components that are widely dispersed, including to energy storage systems and to the main electrical grid. 1130:

There is increasing demand for synchronous machines and direct-drive configurations. CSG direct and geared DFAGs will lead the demand for copper. The highest growth in demand is expected to be the direct PMSGs, which is forecast to account for 7.7% of the total demand for copper in wind power systems

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The variation in the copper content of CSG generators depends upon whether they are coupled with single-stage (heavier) or three-stage (lighter) gearboxes. Similarly, the difference in copper content in PMSG generators depends on whether the turbines are medium speed, which are heavier, or high-speed

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that absorbs energy without reflection. The inner and outer layers are fused at the end, leaving an empty space between the inner and outer layers. All air is pumped out of the space between the two layers (evacuation process), thereby creating the thermos effect which stops conductive and convective

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In an evacuated tube solar hot water heater with an indirect circulation system, evacuated tubes contain a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. Solar thermal energy is absorbed within the evacuated tubes and is converted into usable concentrated heat. Copper heat pipes transfer

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is a hybrid. Over the medium term, if the cost of power electronics continues to decrease, direct-drive PMSG are expected to become more attractive. High-temperature superconductors (HTSG) technology is currently under development. It is expected that these machines will be able to attain more power

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Copper quantities also vary according to design. The solar field of a typical 50 MW power plant with 7 hours of storage capacity consists of 150 loops and 600 motors, while a similar plant without storage uses 100 loops and 400 motors. Motorized valves for mass flow control in the loops rely on more

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Generally, PMSGs deal better with grid-related faults and they could eventually offer higher efficiency, reliability, and availability than geared counterparts. This could be achieved by reducing the number of mechanical components in their design. Currently, however, geared wind turbine generators

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mixture) is pumped through the copper header. As the solution circulates through the copper header, the temperature rises. The evacuated glass tubes have a double layer. The outer layer is fully transparent to allow solar energy to pass through unimpeded. The inner layer is treated with a selective

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Cabling is the second largest copper-containing component after the generator. A wind tower system with the transformer next to the generator will have medium-voltage (MV) power cables running from the top to the bottom of the tower, then to a collection point for a number of wind towers and on to

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Either copper or aluminium conductors can be specified for generator cables. Copper has the higher electrical conductivity and therefore the higher electrical energy efficiency. It is also selected for its safety and reliability. The main consideration for specifying aluminium is its lower capital

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The largest dish Sterling installation has a total power of 1.5 MW. Relatively more copper is needed in the solar field than other CSP technologies because electricity is actually generated there. Based on existing 1.5 MW plants, the copper content is 4 tonnes/MW, or, in other terms, 2.2 tonnes of

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A 50 MW solar tower facility with 7.5 hours of storage uses about 219 tonnes of copper. This translates to 4.4 tonnes of copper/MW, or, in other terms, 1.4 tonnes/GWh/year. Of this amount, cables account for approximately 154,720 kg. Electronic equipment, such as generators, transformers, and

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and often groups them into first and second generation technologies, while the third generation includes a number of emerging technologies that are still in the research and development phase. Solar cells typically convert 20% of incident sunlight into electricity, allowing the generation of 100 -

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Locations with high-speed turbulent winds are better suited for variable-speed wind turbine generators with full-scale power converters due to the greater reliability and availability they offer in such conditions. Of the variable-speed wind turbine options, PMSGs could be preferred over DFAGs in

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These plants are an emerging technology that has potential as a solution for decentralized applications. The technology does not require water for cooling in the conversion cycle. These plants are non-dispatchable. Energy production ceases when clouds pass overhead. Research is being conducted on

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When choosing electrical conductors, facility planners and engineers factor capital investment costs of materials against operational savings due to their electrical energy efficiencies over their useful lives, plus maintenance costs. Copper often fares well in these calculations. A factor called

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Direct-drive configurations of the synchronous type machines usually contain the most copper, but some use aluminium. Conventional synchronous generators (CSG) direct-drive machines have the highest per-unit copper content. The share of CSGs will increase from 2009 to 2020, especially for direct

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There are two types of solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and passive, which don't. Passive solar techniques do not require working electrical or mechanical elements. They include the selection of materials with favorable thermal properties, designing

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Solar generation systems cover large areas. There are many connections among modules and arrays, and connections among arrays in sub-fields and linkages to the network. Solar cables are used for wiring solar power plants. The amount of cabling involved can be substantial. Typical sizes of copper

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A 50 MW linear Fresnel power plant requires about 1,960 tracking motors. The power required for each motor is much lower than the parabolic trough plant. A 50 MW lineal Fresnel plant without storage will contain about 127 tonnes of copper. This translates to 2.6 tonnes of copper/MW, or in other

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Copper is required in the heliostat field (power cables, signal, earthing, motors), receiver (trace heating, signal cables), storage system (circulating pumps, cabling to consumption points), electricity generation (alternator, transformer), steam cycle (water pumps, condenser fans), cabling to

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Copper usage intensity is high because turbines in wind generation farms are spread over large areas. In land-based wind farms, copper intensity can range between 5,600 and 14,900 pounds per MW, depending on whether the step-up transformers have copper or aluminium conductors. In the off-shore

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In parabolic trough plants, copper is specified in the solar collector field (power cables, signals, earthing, electrical motors); steam cycle (water pumps, condenser fans, cabling to consumption points, control signal and sensors, motors), electricity generators (alternator, transformer), and

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Energy efficiency and renewable energy are twin pillars of a sustainable energy future. However, there is little linking of these pillars despite their potential synergies. The more efficiently energy services are delivered, the faster renewable energy can become an effective and significant

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energy systems have the highest copper content of all renewable energy technologies. A single wind farm can contain between 2000 and 7000 tons of copper. A photovoltaic solar power plant contains approximately 5.5 tons of copper per megawatt of power generation. A single 660-kW turbine is

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Integrated life-cycle assessment of electricity-supply scenarios confirms global environmental benefit of low-carbon technologies; Edgar G. Hertwich, Thomas Gibon, Evert A. Bouman, Anders Arvesen, Sangwon Suh, Garvin A. Heath, Joseph D. Bergesen, Andrea Ramirez, Mabel I. Vega, and Lei Shi;

1272:. However, manufacturers are moving towards less expensive bi-metal copper clad or aluminium grounding wires and cables. Copper-plating wire is being explored. Current disadvantages of copper plated wire include lower conductivity, size, weight, flexibility and current carrying capability. 558:

contributor of primary energy. The more energy is obtained from renewable sources, the less fossil fuel energy is required to provide that same energy demand. This linkage of renewable energy with energy efficiency relies in part on the electrical energy efficiency benefits of copper.

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plants are the most common CSP technology, representing about 94% of power installed in Spain. These plants collect solar energy in parabolic trough concentrators with linear collector tubes. The heat transfer fluids are typically synthetic oil that circulates through tubes at inlet

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terms, 1.3 tonnes of copper/GWh/year. Of this amount, 69,960 kg of copper are in cables from process area, solar field, earthing and lightning protection and controls. Another 57,300 kg of copper is in equipment (transformers, generators, motors, mirrors, pumps, fans).

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There are four main types of CSP technologies, each containing a different amount of copper: parabolic trough plants, tower plants, distributed linear absorber systems including linear Fresnel plants, and dish Stirling plants. The use of copper in these plants is described here.

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but there may be similar problems with the heat transfer between the absorber plate and the pipes as well. One way around this is to simply use the same material for both the piping and the absorber plate. This material can be copper off course but also aluminium or PEX-AL-PEX.

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system for wind turbine farms. Grounding systems can either be all-copper (solid or stranded copper wires and copper bus bars) often with an American gauge rating of 4/0 but perhaps as large as 250 thousands of circular mils or copper-clad steel, a lower cost alternative.

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motors, account for approximately 64,620 kg of copper. A 100 MW plant has slightly more copper per MW in the solar field because the efficiency of the heliostat field diminishes with the size. A 100 MW plant will have somewhat less copper per MW in process equipment.

890:. The basic components of a wind power system consist of a tower with rotating blades containing an electricity generator and a transformer to step up voltage for electricity transmission to a substation on the grid. Cabling and electronics are also important components. 1131:

in 2015. However, since permanent magnets that contain the rare earth element neodymium may not be able to escalate globally, direct drive synchronous magnet (DDSM) designs may be more promising. The amount of copper required for a 3 MW DDSM generator is 12.6 t.

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cost. Over time, this benefit is offset by higher energy losses over years of power transmission. Deciding which conductor to use is determined during a project's planning phase when utility teams discuss these matters with turbine and cable manufacturers.

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The amount of copper used for wind energy systems in 2011 was estimated to be 120 kt. The cumulative amount of copper installed through 2011 was estimated to be 714 kt. As of 2018, global production of wind turbines use 450,000 tonnes of copper per year.

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have increased more than 700% since 1950, from almost 100 million tonnes to 720 million tonnes in 2017, despite the fact that world refined usage has more than tripled in the last 50 years. Copper resources are estimated to exceed 5,000 million tonnes.

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environment, copper intensity is much higher: approximately 21,000 pounds per MW, which includes submarine cables to shore. In both onshore and offshore environments, additional copper cabling is used to connect wind farms to main electrical grids.

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in terms of tonnage of copper per unit of installed power. The copper usage intensity of renewable energy systems is four to six times higher than in fossil fuel or nuclear plants. So for example, while conventional power requires approximately 1

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Geared; most common wind generator in Europe (70% in 2009; strong demand until 2015, then neutral as high cost of maintenance and servicing and need for power correction equipment for grid compliance will make these less popular in next ten years.

595:. Copper is the preferred material when high electrical conductivity characteristics and flexibility of the cable are of paramount importance. Also, copper is more suitable for small roof facilities, in smaller cable trays, and when ducting in 1319:

materials are being tested within and outside of wind turbines. They offer higher electrical efficiencies, the ability to carry higher currents, and lighter weights. These materials are, however, much more expensive than copper at this time.

828:, aluminium is sometimes used as it is cheaper, yet when combined with copper piping, there may be problems in regards to allow the absorber plate to transfer its heat to the piping suitably. An alternative material that is currently used is 909:

Copper is an important conductor in wind power generation. Wind farms can contain several hundred-thousand feet of copper weighing between 4 million to 15 million pounds, mostly in wiring, cable, tubing, generators and step-up transformers.

848:; They can be direct circulation (i.e., heats water and brings it directly to the home for use) or indirect circulation (i.e., pumps heat a transfer fluid through a heat exchanger, which then heats water that flows into the home) systems. 465:

as the preferred conductor material. Challenges with solar cell metallization lie in the creation of a homogenous and qualitatively high-value layer between silicon and copper to serves as a barrier against copper diffusion into the

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Current and projected wind and solar renewable electric generating capacity and resulting copper demand; Copper Development Association Sustainable Electrical Energy Program; July 20, 2011, by BFF Associates and Konrad J.A. Kundig;

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Solar hot water collectors are used by more than 200 million households as well as many public and commercial buildings worldwide. The total installed capacity of solar thermal heating and cooling units in 2010 was 185 GW-thermal.

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farms means that the individual components need to be more rugged and corrosion protected than their onshore components. Increasingly long connections to shore with subsea MV and HV cables are required at this time. The need for

395:. In residential systems, copper intensity appears to be linearly scalable with the capacity of the electrical generation system. Residential and community-based systems generally range in capacity from 10 kW to 1 MW. 1226:

the grid substation, or direct to the substation. The tower assembly will incorporate wire harnesses and control/signal cables, while low-voltage (LV) power cables are required to power the working parts throughout the system.

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For wind farms with three-stage gearbox doubly fed 3 MW induction generators, approximately 2.7 t per MW is needed with standard wind turbines. For wind turbines with LV/MV transformers in the nacelle, 1.85 t per MW is needed.

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Copper is a sustainable material that is 100% recyclable and has a higher recycling rate than any other metal. At the end of the useful life of equipment, its copper can be recycled with no loss of its beneficial properties.

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outlet/temperatures of 300 °C to 400 °C. The typical storage capacity of a 50 MW facility is 7 hours at nominal power. A plant of this size and storage capacity can generate 160 GWh/year in a region like Spain.

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Class 5 copper power cabling is exclusively used from the generator through the loop and tower interior wall. This is due to its ability to withstand the stress from 15,000 torsion cycles for 20 years of service life.

824:, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks). For the 765:

plants use linear reflectors to concentrate the Sun's rays in an absorber tube similar to parabolic trough plants. Since the concentration factor is less than in parabolic trough plants, the temperature of the

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have minimal amounts of copper compared to other equipment. As turbine capacities increase, converter ratings also increase from low voltage (<1 kV) to medium voltage (1–5 kV). Most wind turbines have full

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Bang, D., Polinder, H. Shrestha, G. and Ferreira, J.A., 2009. Possible solutions to overcome drawbacks of direct-drive generator for large wind turbines; In: Ewc 2009 Proceedings, CT3 session, available at

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than in conventional fossil fuel plants. The usage of copper in photovoltaic systems averages around 4-5 tonnes per MW or higher if conductive ribbon strips that connect individual PV cells are considered.

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The total amount of copper used in renewable-based and distributed electricity generation in 2011 was estimated to be 272 kilotonnes (kt). Cumulative copper use through 2011 was estimated to be 1,071 kt.

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connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields (field cable). Whether a system is connected to the grid or not, electricity collected from the PV cells needs to be converted from

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García-Olivares, Antonio, Joaquim Ballabrera-Poy, Emili García-Ladona, and Antonio Turiel. "A global renewable mix with proven technologies and common materials." Energy Policy 41 (2012): 561-574.

1309:, except the DFAG that has a power converter that is 30% of the rating of the generator. Finally, minor amounts of copper are used in air/oil and water cooled circuits on gearboxes or generators. 2632: 2351: 2328: 1883: 1694: 1661: 1591: 1423:

García-Olivares, Antonio, Joaquim Ballabrera-Poy, Emili García-Ladona, and Antonio Turiel. A global renewable mix with proven technologies and common materials, Energy Policy, 41 (2012): 561-57,

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A photovoltaic cell manufacturing process has been developed that makes it possible to print CIGS semi-conductors. This technology has the potential to reduce the price per solar watt delivered.

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García-Olivares, Antonio, Joaquim Ballabrera-Poy, Emili García-Ladona, and Antonio Turiel. A global renewable mix with proven technologies and common materials, Energy Policy 41 (2012): 561-57,

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plays an important role in these renewable energy systems. Copper usage averages up to five times more in renewable energy systems than in traditional power generation, such as fossil fuel and

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that concentrate the sun's rays to temperatures between 400C and 1000C. Electrical power is produced when the concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a

972:, causes energy to be lost by heating up the wire. In wind power systems, this resistance can be reduced with thicker copper wire and with a cooling system for the generator, if required. 1572: 2643: 2639:; citing the study: Current and projected wind and solar renewable electric generating capacity and resulting copper demand; by BFF Associates and Konrad J.A. Kundig; published at: 2362: 2358:; citing the study: Current and projected wind and solar renewable electric generating capacity and resulting copper demand; by BFF Associates and Konrad J.A. Kundig; published at: 1903: 1642: 703:

It has been estimated that copper usage in concentrated solar thermal power plants was 2 kt in 2011. Cumulative copper usage in these plants through 2011 was estimated to be 7 kt.

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among engineering metals (second only to silver), electrical systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts.

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Cable ducting is not needed in smaller power facilities where copper cables are less than 25mm. Without duct work, installation costs are lower with copper than with aluminium.

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copper/GWh/year. A 1.5 MW power plant has some 6,060 kg of copper in cables, induction generators, drives, field and grid transformers, earthing and lightning protection.

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field in a central receiver mounted at the top of the tower. Each heliostat tracks the Sun along two axes (azimuth and elevation). Therefore, two motors per unit are required.

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are being researched as alternatives to conventional single crystals and thin films for photovoltaic devices. This technology, which is still in its infancy, has potential for

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For a 2 MW wind turbine, the vertical cable could range from 1,000 to 1,500 kg of copper, depending upon its type. Copper is the dominant material in underground cables.

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In the coils of wind generators, electric current suffers from losses that are proportional to the resistance of the wire that carries the current. This resistance, called

285:, and information cable. Copper usage is approximately the same in turbines/generators, transformers/inverters, and cables. Much less copper is used in power electronics. 1860:; citing, Integrated life-cycle assessment of electricity-supply scenarios confirms global environmental benefit of low-carbon technologies; by Edgar G. Hertwich et al.; 731:

protection to the reflective silver layer. Changes in the size of the plants, size of collectors, efficiencies of heat transfer fluids will also affect material volumes.

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links. Each material has its advantages and disadvantages. Copper is more reliable than radio links. Signal attenuation with copper wires and cables can be resolved with

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Copper content assessment of wind turbines, Final Report V01, by Frost & Sullivan. Presented to ECI on July 12, 2010. Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert;

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The Emerging Electrical Markets for Copper, Bloomsbury Minerals Economics Ltd., July 6, 2010; Independent research study available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert;

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Solar heating capacity increased by an estimated 27% in 2011 to reach approximately 232 GWth, excluding unglazed swimming pool heating. Most solar thermal is used for

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Copper content assessment of wind turbines, Final Report V01, by Frost & Sullivan. Presented to ECI; July 12, 2010. Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert;

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Pops, Horace, 1995. Physical Metallurgy of Electrical Conductors, in Nonferrous Wire Handbook, Volume 3: Principles and Practice, The Wire Association International

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The amount of copper in offshore wind farms increases with the distance to the coast. Copper usage in offshore wind turbines is on the order of 10.5 t per MW. The

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Copper used in photovoltaic systems in 2011 was estimated to be 150 kt. Cumulative copper usage in photovoltaic systems through 2011 was estimated to be 350 kt.

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Nascent stage of development. It is expected that these machines will attain more power than other WTGs. Offshore could be the most suitable niche application.

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A generator in a direct drive configuration could be 3.5 times to 6 times heavier than in a geared configuration, depending on the type of generator.

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Current and Projected Wind and Solar Renewable Electric Generating Capacity and Resulting Copper Demand; BBF Associates and Konrad J.A. Kundig, July 20, 2011;

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than other wind turbine generators. If the offshore market follows the trend of larger unit machines, offshore could be the most suitable niche for HTSGs.

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When planning for a new renewable power facility, engineers and product specifiers seek to avoid supply shortages of selected materials. According to the

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Critical Component — Cables: Choosing the right cable for specific turbine applications is essential for wind farm success; Wind Systems; Uwe Schenk;

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Critical Component—Cables: Choosing the right cable for specific turbine applications is essential for wind farm success; Wind Systems; Uwe Schenk;

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have become significant sectors of the energy market. The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of

2381: 403: 519:(~20%) among thin film materials. Because CIGS strongly absorbs sunlight, a much thinner film is required than with other semiconductor materials. 2181: 1329: 1093: 1020: 742:, also called central tower power plants, may become the preferred CSP technology in the future. They collect solar energy concentrated by the 1980:

Wadia, C. et al., 2008. Synthesis of copper (I) sulfide nanocrystals for photovoltaic application; Nanotech 2008 Conference Program Abstract;

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Maximization of use of copper in photovoltaics. Presentation by Generalia Group to ECI, 2012; Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert;

461:. In order to reduce costs of this wafer-based technology, copper-contacted silicon solar cells are emerging as an important alternative to 2640: 2359: 1900: 1639: 658:

and deliver it to the receiver; 2) a receiver that absorbs concentrated sunlight and transfers heat energy to a working fluid (usually a

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The current trend is for PMSG hybrid installations with a single-stage or two-stage gearbox. The most recent wind turbine generator by

2443: 1436: 384: 80:"copper usage intensity,” is a measure of the quantity of copper necessary to install one megawatt of new power-generating capacity. 2032: 802:

can be a cost-effective way to generate hot water for homes. They can be used in any climate. The fuel they use, sunshine, is free.

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Miles of copper make it possible, Copper and Wind Energy: Partners for a Clean Environment; Copper Development Association Inc.,

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After generators and cable, minor amounts of copper are used in the remaining equipment. In yaw and pitch auxiliary motors, the

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http://imedea.uib-csic.es/master/cambioglobal/Modulo_I_cod101601/Ballabrera_Diciembre_2011/Articulos/Garcia-Olivares.2011.pdf

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http://imedea.uib-csic.es/master/cambioglobal/Modulo_I_cod101601/Ballabrera_Diciembre_2011/Articulos/Garcia-Olivares.2011.pdf

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http://imedea.uib-csic.es/master/cambioglobal/Modulo_I_cod101601/Ballabrera_Diciembre_2011/Articulos/Garcia-Olivares.2011.pdf

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Mattera, Michael; 2010. An alternative to copper-based grounding; Windpoweer Engineering & Development; August 4, 2010;

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Tatakis, Jim 2011. Copper truly is the green metal; Granite's Edge – Investment insight from Granite Investment Advisors;

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uses 5,800 t for a 400 MW, 200 kilometer connection to the external grid, or approximately 14.5 t of copper per MW. The

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Will the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper?, Renewable Energy World; Jan 15, 2016; by Zolaikha Strong;

1857: 678:); 3) a transport and storage system that passes the fluid from the receiver to the power conversion system; and 4) a 2630:

https://www.windpowerengineering.com/business-news-projects/uncategorized/growing-renewable-energy-needs-more-copper/

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https://www.windpowerengineering.com/business-news-projects/uncategorized/growing-renewable-energy-needs-more-copper/

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https://www.windpowerengineering.com/business-news-projects/uncategorized/growing-renewable-energy-needs-more-copper/

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https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/01/will-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-be-paved-in-copper.html

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https://www.windpowerengineering.com/business-news-projects/uncategorized/growing-renewable-energy-needs-more-copper/

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https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/01/will-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-be-paved-in-copper.html

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https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/01/will-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-be-paved-in-copper.html

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For a 2 MW turbine system, the following amounts of copper were estimated for components other than the generator:

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The majority of copper usage, worldwide, is for electrical wiring, including the coils of generators and motors.

2582: 2060: 953:, in the coils of transformers (which steps up low voltage AC to high voltage AC compatible with the grid), in 549:

cables used are 4–6 mm for module cable, 6–10 mm for array cable, and 30–50 mm for field cable.

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systems. When lightning strikes a turbine blade, current passes along the blade, through the blade hub in the

406:, arrays can form sub-fields from which electricity is collected and transported towards the grid connection. 2606: 2459: 2298:

The Rise Of Solar: A Unique Opportunity For Copper; Solar Industry Magazine; April 2017; by Zolaika Strong;

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Copper content assessment of solar thermal electric power plants (2010), Presentation by Protermosolar <

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Distributed generation and renewables – wind power; Power Quality and Utilisation Guide; Leonardo Energy;

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http://copperalliance.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/ICA-long-term-availability-201802-A4-HR.pdf

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Copper at the core of renewable energies; European Copper Institute; European Copper Institute; 18 pages;

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The Rise Of Solar: A Unique Opportunity For Copper; Solar Industry Magazine; April 2017; Zolaika Strong;

470:. Copper-based front-side metallization in silicon solar cells is a significant step towards lower cost. 1265: 686: 590: 571: 498: 478: 288: 108: 107:

is the more than 30 percent of copper installed from 2007 to 2017 that came from recycled sources. Its

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http://copperalliance.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Projected-wind-solar-copper-demand-1.pdf

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http://copperalliance.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Projected-wind-solar-copper-demand-1.pdf

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Solar water heaters; Energy Savers; Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy; U.S. Department of Energy;

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http://copperalliance.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Projected-wind-solar-copper-demand-1.pdf

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http://copperalliance.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Projected-wind-solar-copper-demand-1.pdf

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Renewables 2012: Global status report; REN 21 (Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century;

1957:

http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/07/pv-technology-swapping-silver-for-copper

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PV Technology: Swapping Silver for Copper, 2012. Renewable Energy World International; July 2, 2012;

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such locations. In conditions with low wind speed and turbulence, DFAGs could be preferred to PMSGs.

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Characterization of 19.9%-Efficient CIGS Absorbers; National Renewable Energy Laboratory, May 2008;

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Will the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper?, Renewable Energy World; Jan 15, 2016;

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have been more thoroughly field-tested and are less expensive due to the greater volumes produced.

1065: 1008: 992: 894: 852:

thermal energy from within the solar tube into a copper header. A thermal transfer fluid (water or

799: 609: 583:

Depending upon circumstances, some conductors in PV systems can be specified with either copper or

450: 418: 350: 316: 35: 2532:

Frost and Sullivan, 2009, cited in Wind Generator Technology, by Eclareon S.L., Madrid, May 2012;

820:

Copper is an important component of solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of its high

529: 1981: 1437:"Energy saving - A kilo more of copper increases environmental performance by 100 to 1,000 times" 1306: 934: 883: 728: 266: 995:

usually contain more copper, as the generator itself is bigger due to the absence of a gearbox.

2036: 1607:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA; May 19, 2015. 112 (20) 6277-6282;

2223: 1316: 1293: 1289: 962: 879: 739: 621: 494: 291:

rely on copper for their thermal energy efficiency benefits. Copper is also used as a special

282: 104: 69: 43: 2594: 2133: 1544: 1462:

http://www.eurocopper.org/files/presskit/press_kit_copper_in_renewables_final_29_10_2008.pdf

1285: 930: 817:

spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun.

715: 278: 19: 2440: 1268:

has been traditionally deployed for grounding and lightning equipment due to its excellent

2696: 2647: 2636: 2613: 2570: 2466: 2447: 2439:

Meyers, C. Bracken, 2009. Energy loss of a wind turbine; Centurion Energy; July 31, 2009;

2366: 2355: 2332: 2306: 2284: 2250: 2185: 2140: 2121: 2067: 1988: 1907: 1887: 1698: 1646: 1627: 1595: 1576: 1511: 1487: 1468: 1412: 984:

Regarding copper, its weight in a generator will vary according to the type of generator,

858: 771: 655: 617: 2564:

http://www.energyandinfrastructure.com/sections/columns1/469-winds-of-trade-toward-copper

2244:

http://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/energy/casestudy/wind_energy_a6101.html#top

2081:

2011 global status report by Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21)

1621:

http://www.energyandinfrastructure.com/sections/columns1/469-winds-of-trade-toward-copper

1557: 988:, and configuration. Its weight has an almost linear relationship to the power rating. 875: 690: 526: 509: 422: 414: 340: 39: 1744:> for the European Copper Institute; Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert; 1690:

Growing Renewable Energy Needs More Copper, Windpower Engineering, November 21, 2012;

1480: 1376: 2670: 903: 810: 679: 644: 613: 512: 482: 467: 399: 65: 425:

which contain copper windings, as well as with copper-containing power electronics.

261:

Copper conductors are used in major electrical renewable energy components, such as

2581:

Introduction to wind turbine cables: Cables 101: by Kathie Zipp, January 17, 2012;

2114: 1858:

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/renewables-are-as-green-as-you-d-expect/

1302: 985: 950: 938: 871: 694: 434: 300: 139: 23: 1037:

Copper in wind turbine generator technologies in multi-megawatt wind power plants

813:, but solar space heating and cooling are gaining ground, particularly in Europe. 2624:

Growing renewable energy needs more copper; by Nic Sharpley; November 21, 2012;

2343:

Growing renewable energy needs more copper; by Nic Sharpley; November 21, 2012;

2320:

Growing renewable energy needs more copper; by Nic Sharpley; November 21, 2012;

2300:

https://issues.solarindustrymag.com/article/rise-solar-unique-opportunity-copper

2266:

http://www.copper.org/environment/green/casestudies/wind_energy/wind_energy.html

1505:

https://issues.solarindustrymag.com/article/rise-solar-unique-opportunity-copper

969: 958: 942: 887: 697: 659: 577: 442: 410: 47: 31: 27: 2005: 122:

Copper plays a larger role in renewable energy generation than in conventional

1968: 1352: 1336:

uses 8.75 tons of copper per MW to transmit 160 MW 21 kilometers to the grid.

1281: 1079: 1014: 2583:

https://www.windpowerengineering.com/mechanical/cables-connectors/cables-101/

2542: 2498: 2419: 2061:

http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=12850/

1935: 1832: 1789: 1750: 1246: 1001:

Five different types of generator technologies are used in wind generation:

954: 743: 587:. As with other electrical conducting systems, there are advantages to each 584: 380: 344: 334: 945:

cable conductors including the vertical electrical cable that connects the

1865: 1608: 1033:

The amount of copper in each of these generator types is summarized here.

2607:

http://www.windsystemsmag.com/article/detail/538/critical-componentcables

2460:

http://www.windsystemsmag.com/article/detail/538/critical-componentcables

2157: 562: 504:

CIGS, which is actually copper (indium-gallium) diselenide, or Cu(InGa)Se

392: 353:

cables that connect inverters to metering systems and protection cabinets

296: 274: 262: 132: 2102: 485:

is still lower. Commercially significant thin film technologies include

1258: 1254: 1147: 965:(which enable the wind turbine systems to perform like a power plant). 946: 767: 700:. Typically, there is about 200 tonnes copper for a 50 MW power plant. 600: 2520: 2278:

http://www.granitesedge.com/2011/02/01/copper-truly-is-the-green-metal

693:

for tracking and pumping fluids, as well as in the main generator and

1143: 926: 853: 667: 651: 640: 462: 315:

There is eleven to forty times more copper per unit of generation in

61: 2179:

http://www.bayatenergy.co.uk/Solar%20Water%20Heaters%20Catalogue.pdf

1568:

Long-Term Availability of Copper; International Copper Association;

650:

A CSP system consists of: 1) a concentrator or collector containing

402:. These modules are connected to panels and then into PV arrays. In 2091:

PEX-AL-PEX used frequently for solar thermal collector construction

1074:

Geared; neutral demand until 2015; will become negligible by 2020.

1533:

http://www.icsg.org/index.php/component/jdownloads/finish/170/2462

1441:

Renewable Energy Magazine, at the heart of clean energy journalism

671: 663: 596: 501:(m-Si) tandem cells are slowly being outcompeted in recent years. 128: 2264:

Wind energy basics – how copper helps make wind energy possible;

1123:

drive machines. DFAGs accounted for the most unit sales in 2009.

2154:"Technical Info, Haining Mayca Solar Energy Technology Co., Ltd" 1822:

Wind Generator Technology, by Eclareon S.L., Madrid, May 2012;

1741: 1479:

Copper in energy systems; Copper Development Association Inc.;

2382:"Fast pace of growth in wind energy driving demand for copper" 1982:

http://www.nsti.org/Nanotech2008/showabstract.html?absno=70355

774:

as the working fluid in both the solar field and the turbine.

675: 143:

estimated to contain some 800 pounds (350 kg) of copper.

1662:"Will the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper?" 1499: 1497: 1495: 1400:

Will the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper?,

937:(which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy), in 1619:

Winds of Trade Toward Copper; Energy & Infrastructure,

750:

consumption points, control signal and sensors, and motors.

2562:

Winds of Trade Toward Copper; Energy & Infrastructure;

2316: 2314: 1875: 1873: 1146:

is geared drive. The most recent wind turbine generator by

2595:

http://www.windpowerengineering.com/tag/copper-clad-steel/

2533: 1862:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA

1823: 2134:

http://www.mirasolenergysystems.com/pdf/et-technology.pdf

1545:

https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/

2441:

http://centurionenergy.net/energy-loss-of-a-wind-turbine

727:

copper. Mirrors use a small amount of copper to provide

2113:

How solar hot water system works; SolarPlusGreen.com;

1163:

Copper Content by other Component Types, 2 MW turbine

795:

Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

682:

that converts thermal power to electricity on demand.

337:

earth pegs, horizontal plates, naked cables, and wires

2397: 2395: 1558:

http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2014/3004/pdf/fs2014-3004.pdf

1088:

Geared and direct; may become more popular by 2020.

2488: 2486: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1917: 1915: 1818: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1779: 1777: 1775: 1773: 1771: 1769: 1767: 1736: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1481:

http://www.copper.org/environment/green/energy.html

846:solar thermal collector: Evacuated tube collectors 2077: 2075: 925:Copper is primarily used in coil windings in the 2536:; Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert; 2115:http://www.solarplusgreen.com/solar-know-how.htm 2055: 2053: 1826:; Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert; 1556:Global Mineral Resource Assessment (USGS, 2014) 906:cladding as the preferred alloy for the towers. 289:Solar thermal heating and cooling energy systems 1543:Copper Mineral Commodity Summary (USGS, 2017) 647:) connected to an electrical power generator. 2294: 2292: 481:than conventional PV technology, the overall 295:material in renewable energy systems in wet, 8: 2151:How solar heaters work; Mayca Solar Energy; 787:advanced storage and hybridization systems. 446:150 kWh per square meter of panel per year. 343:cables that connect photovoltaic modules to 151:Copper usage in renewable energy generation 1969:http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/42539.pdf 565:of a copper cable increases its electrical 421:and stepped up in voltage. This is done by 68:power plants. Since copper is an excellent 2376: 2374: 2260: 2258: 1108:High-temperature superconductor generators 1027:high-temperature superconductor generators 487:copper indium gallium selenide solar cells 473:The second-generation technology includes 2033:"REN21 - Renewables Global Status Report" 1852:Renewables Are as Green as You'd Expect; 1708: 1706: 1005:double-fed asynchronous generators (DFAG) 1161: 1053:Double-fed asynchronous generator (DFAG) 1035: 536:, all-inorganic solar cells, and hybrid 404:grid-connected photovoltaic power system 383:are highly scalable, ranging from small 149: 82: 2101:Solar hot water; B&R Service Inc.; 2026: 2024: 2022: 1866:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1312753111 1609:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1312753111 1377:"REN21 Renewables Global Status Report" 1344: 1176:Auxiliary motors (pitch and yaw drives) 1094:Permanent magnet synchronous generators 1021:permanent magnet synchronous generators 840:are used for residential applications: 508:, differs from silicon in that it is a 2539:"Ask an expert | Leonardo ENERGY" 2495:"Ask an expert | Leonardo ENERGY" 2416:"Ask an expert | Leonardo ENERGY" 2228:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2221: 1932:"Ask an expert | Leonardo ENERGY" 1829:"Ask an expert | Leonardo ENERGY" 1786:"Ask an expert | Leonardo ENERGY" 1747:"Ask an expert | Leonardo ENERGY" 1656: 1654: 770:is lower. This is why most plants use 2103:http://www.bandrservice.com/solar.htm 16:The use of copper in renewable energy 7: 2002:"Solar cable photovoltaic equipment" 1864:; May 19, 2015. 112 (20) 6277-6282; 1102:Market expected to develop by 2015. 1066:Conventional asynchronous generators 1009:conventional asynchronous generators 2521:http://www.ewec2009proceedings.info 2177:Bayat Energy: solar water heaters; 1080:Conventional synchronous generators 1015:conventional synchronous generators 553:Energy efficiency and system design 311:Solar photovoltaic power generation 161:Cumulative installed power to 2011 844:, integral collector-storage, and 477:. Despite having a slightly lower 376:Photovoltaic system configurations 14: 1668:. 15 January 2016. Archived from 1531:The World Copper Factbook, 2017; 1216:Earthing and lightning protection 628:Concentrating solar thermal power 398:PV cells are grouped together in 540:-polymer composite solar cells. 437:industry uses several different 240:Total for all three technologies 111:is higher than any other metal. 1045:Average copper content (kg/MW) 491:cadmium telluride photovoltaics 391:with capacities of hundreds of 381:Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems 93:United States Geological Survey 2132:Mirasol Solar Energy Systems; 1292:with minor amounts of copper. 685:Copper is used in field power 449:Conventional first-generation 327:small wires that interconnect 167:Cumulative copper use to 2011 1: 1324:Copper in offshore wind farms 1200:Power electronics (converter) 1127:turbines, which are lighter. 1971:. Retrieved 10 February 2011 1742:http://www.protermosolar.com 1353:"Renewables 2022 – Analysis" 1334:Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm 517:energy conversion efficiency 1330:Borkum 2 offshore wind farm 1233:Copper in grounding systems 515:. It has the highest solar 453:(c-Si) technology includes 362:inverters/power electronics 103:Bolstering the supply from 2713: 1184:Other parts of the nacelle 1155:Copper in other components 993:direct-drive wind turbines 886:, which in turn generates 689:, grounding networks, and 534:dye-sensitized solar cells 389:photovoltaic power station 87:Copper wires for recycling 1276:Copper in other equipment 1249:strikes, so they require 662:, or more rarely, molten 637:solar thermal electricity 633:Concentrating solar power 612:networks rely on copper, 205:Solar thermal electricity 1171:Average Cu content (kg) 838:solar thermal collectors 576:. Thicker cables reduce 439:semiconducting materials 158:Installed power in 2011 131:of copper per installed 2534:http://www.eclareon.com 1824:http://www.eclareon.com 1270:electrical conductivity 1237:Copper is vital to the 711:Parabolic trough plants 459:polycrystalline silicon 455:monocrystalline silicon 2386:Riviera Maritime Media 1666:Renewable Energy World 1402:Renewable Energy World 1301:, which have the same 1284:uses a combination of 1245:Turbine masts attract 893:The harsh environment 639:(STE), uses arrays of 441:for the production of 356:high-voltage AC cables 88: 2626:Windpower Engineering 2345:Windpower Engineering 2322:Windpower Engineering 842:flat plate collectors 758:Linear Fresnel plants 635:(CSP), also known as 591:Copper wire and cable 572:Copper wire and cable 499:micromorphous silicon 479:conversion efficiency 475:thin film solar cells 368:transformer windings. 86: 56:significantly lowered 2682:Solar thermal energy 1999:Solar First Source; 1251:lightning protection 1239:electrical grounding 976:Copper in generators 900:corrosion protection 782:Dish Stirling plants 359:communication cables 329:photovoltaic modules 323:Copper is used in: 317:photovoltaic systems 124:thermal power plants 74:electrical conductor 52:environmental impact 1856:; October 8, 2014; 1854:Scientific American 1290:planetary gearboxes 1164: 1038: 949:to the base of the 800:Solar water heaters 768:heat transfer fluid 610:Data communications 578:resistive (IR) loss 451:crystalline silicon 293:corrosion-resistant 164:Copper use in 2011 152: 95:, in-ground copper 2646:2017-06-24 at the 2635:2018-06-22 at the 2612:2018-07-20 at the 2569:2018-06-22 at the 2465:2018-07-20 at the 2446:2012-10-30 at the 2365:2017-06-24 at the 2354:2018-06-22 at the 2331:2018-06-22 at the 2305:2022-10-30 at the 2283:2013-06-02 at the 2249:2012-10-18 at the 2184:2013-11-03 at the 2139:2013-11-04 at the 2120:2012-09-04 at the 2066:2012-08-25 at the 1987:2013-11-04 at the 1906:2017-06-24 at the 1886:2018-06-22 at the 1712:REN 21 2012 report 1697:2018-06-22 at the 1645:2017-06-24 at the 1626:2018-06-22 at the 1594:2018-06-22 at the 1575:2018-06-29 at the 1547:mcs-2017-coppe.pdf 1510:2022-10-30 at the 1486:2020-08-01 at the 1467:2012-05-23 at the 1411:2018-06-22 at the 1162: 1036: 878:is converted into 729:galvanic corrosion 333:earthing grids in 150: 89: 1294:Power electronics 1223: 1222: 1120: 1119: 963:power electronics 880:mechanical energy 822:heat conductivity 622:signal amplifiers 567:energy efficiency 495:amorphous silicon 283:power electronics 279:electrical cables 259: 258: 105:copper extraction 50:as well as their 2704: 2677:Renewable energy 2662: 2656: 2650: 2622: 2616: 2603: 2597: 2591: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2560: 2554: 2553: 2551: 2550: 2541:. Archived from 2530: 2524: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2507: 2506: 2497:. Archived from 2490: 2469: 2456: 2450: 2437: 2431: 2430: 2428: 2427: 2418:. Archived from 2411: 2405: 2399: 2390: 2389: 2378: 2369: 2341: 2335: 2318: 2309: 2296: 2287: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2253: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2227: 2219: 2217: 2216: 2210: 2204:. Archived from 2203: 2194: 2188: 2175: 2169: 2168: 2166: 2165: 2156:. Archived from 2149: 2143: 2130: 2124: 2111: 2105: 2099: 2093: 2088: 2082: 2079: 2070: 2057: 2048: 2047: 2045: 2044: 2035:. Archived from 2028: 2017: 2016: 2014: 2013: 2004:. Archived from 1997: 1991: 1978: 1972: 1965: 1959: 1953: 1947: 1946: 1944: 1943: 1934:. Archived from 1927: 1910: 1896: 1890: 1877: 1868: 1850: 1844: 1843: 1841: 1840: 1831:. Archived from 1820: 1801: 1800: 1798: 1797: 1788:. Archived from 1781: 1762: 1761: 1759: 1758: 1749:. Archived from 1738: 1713: 1710: 1701: 1688: 1682: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1658: 1649: 1636: 1630: 1617: 1611: 1604: 1598: 1585: 1579: 1566: 1560: 1554: 1548: 1541: 1535: 1529: 1523: 1520: 1514: 1501: 1490: 1477: 1471: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1449: 1448: 1433: 1427: 1421: 1415: 1404:; Jan 15, 2016; 1398: 1392: 1391: 1389: 1388: 1373: 1367: 1366: 1364: 1363: 1349: 1299:power converters 1288:and multi-stage 1286:induction motors 1208:Cooling circuits 1165: 1039: 716:Parabolic trough 301:saline corrosive 153: 22:sources such as 20:Renewable energy 2712: 2711: 2707: 2706: 2705: 2703: 2702: 2701: 2667: 2666: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2648:Wayback Machine 2637:Wayback Machine 2623: 2619: 2614:Wayback Machine 2604: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2571:Wayback Machine 2561: 2557: 2548: 2546: 2537: 2531: 2527: 2517: 2513: 2504: 2502: 2493: 2491: 2472: 2467:Wayback Machine 2457: 2453: 2448:Wayback Machine 2438: 2434: 2425: 2423: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2400: 2393: 2380: 2379: 2372: 2367:Wayback Machine 2356:Wayback Machine 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109:recycling rate 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2709: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2680: 2678: 2675: 2674: 2672: 2661: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2645: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2631: 2627: 2621: 2618: 2615: 2611: 2608: 2602: 2599: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2584: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2568: 2565: 2559: 2556: 2545:on 2012-11-26 2544: 2540: 2535: 2529: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2512: 2501:on 2012-11-26 2500: 2496: 2489: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2468: 2464: 2461: 2455: 2452: 2449: 2445: 2442: 2436: 2433: 2422:on 2012-11-26 2421: 2417: 2410: 2407: 2404: 2398: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2383: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2368: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2350: 2346: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2330: 2327: 2323: 2317: 2315: 2311: 2308: 2304: 2301: 2295: 2293: 2289: 2286: 2282: 2279: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2261: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2248: 2245: 2239: 2236: 2231: 2225: 2211:on 2012-11-01 2207: 2200: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2183: 2180: 2174: 2171: 2160:on 2012-10-28 2159: 2155: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2138: 2135: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2119: 2116: 2110: 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