Copper extraction - Knowledge (XXG)

162: 414:. The resulting pregnant leach solution is purified by solvent extraction (SX). It is treated with an organic solvent and an organic chelators. The chelators bind the copper ions (and no other ions, ideally), the resulting complexes dissolve in the organic phase. This organic solvent is evaporated, leaving a residue of the copper complexes. The copper ions are liberated from the residue with sulfuric acid. The barred (denuded) sulfuric acid recycled back on to the heaps. The organic ligands are recovered and recycled as well. Alternatively, the copper can be precipitated out of the pregnant solution by contacting it with scrap iron; a process called 2899:(first printed in 1981 and reprinted in 1998), he extensively criticizes the notion of "peak resources", and uses copper as one example. He argues that, even though "peak copper" has been a persistent scare since the early 20th century, "known reserves" grew at a rate that outpaced demand, and the price of copper was not rising but falling over the long run. For example, even though world production of copper in 1950 was only one-eighth of what it was in the early 2000s, known reserves were also much lower at the time – around 100 million metric tons – making it appear that the world would run out of copper in 40 to 50 years at most. 944: 2639: 1785: 2531: 1557: 448:, that undergo chemical processes such as oxidation or reduction. Typically, secondary sulfide ores are concentrated using froth flotation. Other extraction processes like leaching are effectively used for the extraction of secondary copper sulfides, but as demand for copper rises, extraction processes tailored for low-grade ores are required, due to the depletion of copper resources. Processes including in situ, dump, and heap leaching are cost-effective methods that are suitable for extracting copper from low-grade ores. 2747: 2903:

methods of extracting it, raising known reserves. Thus, for example, copper was so abundant 5000 years ago, occurring in pure form as well as in highly concentrated copper ores, that prehistoric peoples were able to collect and process it with very basic technology. As of the early 21st century, copper is commonly mined from ores that contain 0.3–0.6% copper by weight. Yet, despite the material being far less widespread, the cost of, for example, a copper pot was vastly lower in the late 20th century than 5000 years ago.

2423: 1728: 232: 570: 1326: 2693: 1956: 84: 1071: 578: 1041: 2774: 2504: 1671: 1396: 288: 761:(approximately 1600 °C at the burner end of the furnace and about 1200 °C at the flue end; the matte is about 1100 °C and the slag is about 1195 °C). In this equilibration process, oxygen associated with copper compounds exchanges with sulfur associated with iron compounds, increasing the iron oxide content of the furnace, and the iron oxides interact with silica and other oxide materials to form the slag. 296: 1430: 893: 2720: 2127: 2612: 2013: 43: 427: 31: 2666: 2477: 2070: 1899: 809:, the concentrate is dispersed in an air or oxygen stream and the smelting reactions are largely completed while the mineral particles are still in flight. The reacted particles then settle in a bath at the bottom of the furnace, where they behave like calcine in a reverberatory furnace. A slag layer forms on top of the matte layer, and they can separately be tapped from the furnace. 338:(MIBC). Air is constantly forced through the slurry. The air bubbles attach to the hydrophobic copper sulfide particles, which are conveyed to the surface where the froth is skimmed off. These skimmings are generally subjected to a cleaner-scavenger cell to remove excess silicates and to remove other sulfide minerals that can deleteriously impact the concentrate quality (typically, 2396: 1500: 832: 2450: 1614: 375: 2585: 2558: 2184: 1842: 1306:(Shanghai Futures Exchange). Often copper cathode is traded upon the exchanges indirectly via warrants, options, or swap contracts such that the majority of copper is traded upon the LME/COMEX/SFE, but delivery is achieved directly, logistically moving the physical copper, and transferring the copper sheet from the physical warehouses themselves. 2367:

contain about 1.8 billion metric tons of copper", and predicted "a mean of 812 undiscovered deposits within the uppermost kilometer of the earth's surface" containing another 3.1 billion metric tons of copper "which represents about 180 times 2012 global copper production from all types of copper deposits."

780:

The slag and the matte form distinct layers that can be removed from the furnace as separate streams. The slag layer is periodically allowed to flow through a hole in the wall of the furnace above the height of the matte layer. The matte is removed by draining it through a hole into ladles for it to

741:

Reverberatory furnaces are long furnaces that can treat wet, dry, or roasted concentrate. Most of the reverberatory furnaces used in the latter years treated roasted concentrate because putting dry feed materials into the reverberatory furnace is more energy efficient, and because the elimination of

706:

On the other hand, the solubility of sulfidic copper in slag decreases as the copper content of the matte increases beyond about 40%. Nagamori calculated that more than half the copper dissolved in slags from mattes containing less than 50% copper is sulfidic copper. Above this figure, oxidic copper

2866:

The US Geological Survey estimated that, as of 2013, there remained 3.5 billion metric tons of undiscovered copper resources worldwide in porphyry and sediment-hosted type deposits, two types which currently provide 80% of mined copper production. This was in addition to 2.1 billion metric tons of

1274:

is above a certain amount. Usually the refiner or smelter charges the miner a fee based on the concentration; a typical contract will specify that a credit is due for every ounce of the metal in the concentrate above a certain concentration; below that, if it is recovered, the smelter will keep the

714:

The mass of slag generated in the smelting stage depends on the iron content of the material fed into the smelting furnace and the target matte grade. The greater the iron content of the feed, the more iron that will need to be rejected to the slag for a given matte grade. Similarly, increasing the

482:

Supergene sulfide ores rich in native copper are refractory to treatment with sulfuric acid leaching on all practicable time scales, and the dense metal particles do not react with froth flotation media. Typically, if native copper is a minor part of a supergene profile it will not be recovered and

2850:

In the US, more copper is recovered and put back into service from recycled material than is derived from newly mined ore. Copper's recycle value is so great that premium-grade scrap normally has at least 95% of the value of primary metal from newly mined ore. In Europe, about 50% of copper demand

931:

ISASMELT technology has been applied to lead, copper, and nickel smelting. As of 2021, 22 plants were in operation in eleven countries, along with three demonstration plants located at Mt Isa. The installed capacity of copper/nickel operating plants in 2020 was 9.76 million tonnes per year of feed

792:

Reverberatory furnaces were often used to treat molten converter slag to recover contained copper. This would be poured into the furnaces from ladles carried by cranes. However, the converter slag is high in magnetite and some of this magnetite would precipitate from the converter slag (due to its

954:

The matte, which is produced in the smelter, contains 30–70% copper (depending on the process used and the operating philosophy of the smelter), primarily as copper sulfide, as well as iron sulfide. The sulfur is removed at a high temperature as sulfur dioxide by blowing air through molten matte:

1414:

Fifty-six new copper discoveries have been made during the three decades 1975–2005. World discoveries of new copper deposits are said to have peaked in 1996. However, according to the US Geological Survey (USGS), remaining world copper reserves have more than doubled since then, from 310 million

459:

is not used to concentrate copper oxide ores, as a result of the largely ionic and hydrophilic structure of the copper oxide mineral surface. Copper oxide ores are typically treated via chelating-reagent flotation and fatty-acid flotation, which use organic reagents to ensure adsorption onto the

2902:

Simon's own explanation for this development is that the very notion of known reserves is deeply flawed, as it does not take into account changes in mining profitability. As richer mines are exhausted, developers turn their attention to poorer sources of the element and eventually develop cheap

1357:

in terms of quantity used. It is valued for its heat and electrical conductivities, ductility, malleability and resistance to corrosion. Electrical uses account for about three quarters of total copper consumption, including power cables, data cables and electrical equipment. It is also used in

1282:

or under long term contracts as an intermediate product in its own right. Often the smelter sells the copper metal itself on behalf of the miner. The miner is paid the price at the time that the smelter-refiner makes the sale, not at the price on the date of delivery of the concentrate. Under a

1238:

Copper concentrates produced by mines are sold to smelters and refiners who treat the ore and refine the copper and charge for this service via treatment charges (TCs) and refining charges (RCs). The TCs are charged in US$ per tonne of concentrate treated and RCs are charged in cents per pound

796:

While reverberatory furnaces have very low copper losses to slag, they are not very energy-efficient and the low concentrations of sulfur dioxide in their off-gases make its capture uneconomic. Consequently, smelter operators devoted a lot of money in the 1970s and 1980s to developing new, more

756:

In the case of calcine-charged furnaces, a significant portion of the sulfur has been eliminated during the roasting stage, and the calcine consists of a mixture of copper and iron oxides and sulfides. The reverberatory furnace acts to allow these species to approach chemical equilibrium at the

491:. Often, the nature of the gangue is important, as clay-rich native copper ores prove difficult to liberate. This is because clay minerals interact with flotation reagents used in extraction processes, that are then consumed, which results in minimal recovery of a high grade copper concentrate. 2862:

Based on discovery rates and existing geologic surveys, researchers estimated in 2006 that 1.6 billion metric tons of copper could be brought into use. This figure relied on the broadest possible definition of available copper as well as a lack of energy constraints and environmental concerns.

2366:

The USGS reported a current total reserve base of copper in potentially recoverable ores of 1.6 billion tonnes as of 2005, of which 950 million tonnes were considered economically recoverable. A 2013 global assessment identified "455 known deposits (with well-defined identified resources) that

451:

Extraction processes for secondary copper sulfides and low-grade ores includes the process of heap bioleaching. Heap bioleaching presents a cost efficient extraction method that requires a less intensive energy input resulting in a higher profit. This extraction process can be applied to large

752:

Because the reverberatory furnace bath is quiescent, very little oxidation of the feed occurs (and thus very little sulfur is eliminated from the concentrate). It is essentially a melting process. Consequently, wet-charged reverberatory furnaces have less copper in their matte product than

180:

Copper was initially recovered from sulfide ores by directly smelting the ore in a furnace. The smelters were initially located near the mines to minimize the cost of transport. This avoided the prohibitive costs of transporting the waste minerals and the sulfur and iron present in the

745:

The reverberatory furnace feed is added to the furnace through feed holes along the sides of the furnace, and the solid charge is melted. Additional silica is normally added to help form the slag. The furnace is fired with burners using pulverized coal, fuel oil or natural gas.

702:

The amount of copper lost as oxide copper increases as the oxygen potential of the slag increases. The oxygen potential generally increases as the copper content of the matte is increased. Thus, the loss of copper as oxide increases as the copper content of the matte increases.

1365:

Copper has been used by humans for at least 10,000 years. More than 97% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. The increased demand for copper due to the growing Indian and Chinese economies since 2006 has led to increased prices and an increase in

793:

higher melting point), forming an accretion on the hearth of the reverberatory furnace and necessitating shut downs of the furnace to remove the accretion. This accretion formation limits the quantity of converter slag that can be treated in a reverberatory furnace.

252:, although some large mines have smelters located nearby. Such colocation of mines and smelters was more typical in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when smaller smelters could be economic. The subsequent processing techniques depend on the nature of the ore. 1245:

The typical contract for a miner is denominated against the London Metal Exchange price, minus the TC-RCs and any applicable penalties or credits. Penalties may be assessed against copper concentrates according to the level of deleterious elements such as

797:

efficient copper smelting processes. In addition, flash smelting technologies had been developed in earlier years and began to replace reverberatory furnaces. By 2002, 20 of the 30 reverberatory furnaces still operating in 1994 had been shut down.

103:

in North America has been radiometrically dated to 9500 BP—i.e., about 7480 BCE—making it one of the oldest known examples of copper extraction in the world. The earliest evidence of the cold-hammering of native copper comes from the excavation at

1239:

treated, denominated in US dollars, with benchmark prices set annually by major Japanese smelters. The customer in this case can be a smelter, who on-sells blister copper ingots to a refiner, or a smelter-refiner which is vertically integrated.

134:) contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 5,000 BCE. The find in June 2010 extends for an additional 500 years, dated to 5th millennium BCE, representing the earlier record of copper smelting from 1337:

production rate is reached. Since copper is a finite resource, at some point in the future new production from mining will diminish, and at some earlier time production will reach a maximum. When this will occur is a matter of dispute. Unlike

1386:... the age of electricity and of copper will be short. At the intense rate of production that must come, the copper supply of the world will last hardly a score of years. ... Our civilization based on electrical power will dwindle and die. 710:

The loss of copper as prills suspended in the slag depends on the size of the prills, the viscosity of the slag and the settling time available. Rosenqvist suggested that about half the copper losses to slag were due to suspended prills.

1052:, a furnace that refines the blister copper to anode-grade copper in two stages by removing most of the remaining sulfur and iron, and then removing oxygen introduced during the first stage. This second stage, often referred to as 3587:

Yu, Shichao; Liao, Rui; Yang, Baojun; Fang, Chaojun; Wang, Zhentang; Liu, Yuling; Wu, Baiqiang; Wang, Jun; Qiu, Guanzhou (January 2022). "Chalcocite (bio)hydrometallurgy—current state, mechanism, and future directions: A review".

632:

minerals (such as silica, magnesia, alumina and limestone) as possible, while minimizing the loss of copper. This is achieved by reacting iron sulfides with oxygen (in air or oxygen enriched air) to produce iron oxides (mainly as

2349:

element, with an estimated concentration of 50–70 ppm (0.005–0.007 percent) in Earth's crust (1 kg of copper per 15–20 tons of crustal rock). A concentration of 60 ppm would multiply out to 1.66 quadrillion

2362:

mass of the crust, or over 90 million years' worth at the 2013 production rate of 18.3 MT per year. However, not all of it can be extracted profitably at the current level of technology and the current market value.

181:

copper-containing minerals. However, as the concentration of copper in the ore bodies decreased, the energy costs of smelting the whole ore also became prohibitive, and it became necessary to concentrate the ores first.

3970:

Han, Baisui; Altansukh, Batnasan; Haga, Kazutoshi; Stevanović, Zoran; Jonović, Radojka; Avramović, Ljiljana; Urosević, Daniela; Takasaki, Yasushi; Masuda, Nobuyuki; Ishiyama, Daizo; Shibayama, Atsushi (2018-06-15).

1062:, or some other reducing agent, through the molten copper oxide. When this flame burns green, indicating the copper oxidation spectrum, the oxygen has mostly been burned off. This creates copper at about 99% pure. 729:

This means that there is a practical limit on how high the matte grade can be if the loss of copper to slag is to be minimized. Therefore, further stages of processing (converting and fire refining) are required.

3874:

Kariuki, Stephen; Moore, Cory; McDonald, Andrew M. (March 2009). "Chlorate-based oxidative hydrometallurgical extraction of copper and zinc from copper concentrate sulfide ores using mild acidic conditions".

239:

The average grade of copper ores in the 21st century is below 0.6% copper, with a proportion of economic ore minerals being less than 2% of the total volume of the ore rock. Thus, all mining operations, the

2867:

identified resources. Combined identified and estimated undiscovered copper resources were 5.6 billion metric tons, 306 times the 2013 global production of newly mined copper of 18.3 million metric tons.

753:

calcine-charged furnaces, and they also have lower copper losses to slag. Gill quotes a copper in slag value of 0.23% for a wet-charged reverberatory furnace vs 0.37% for a calcine-charged furnace.

4409: 188:

process was a major step forward in mineral processing. The modern froth flotation process was independently invented in the early 1900s in Australia by C.V Potter and around the same time by

4383:, Eds H Y Sohn, D B George and A D Zunkel (The Metallurgical Society of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers: Warrendale, Pennsylvania, 1983), pp. 399–426. 3677:

Panda, Sandeep; Akcil, Ata; Pradhan, Nilotpala; Deveci, Haci (November 2015). "Current scenario of chalcopyrite bioleaching: A review on the recent advances to its heap-leach technology".

3242: 479:. To ensure the best recovery of copper, it is important to acknowledge the effect copper dissolution, acid consumption, and gangue mineral composition has on the efficacy of extraction. 71:. The conversion of copper ores consists of a series of physical, chemical and electrochemical processes. Methods have evolved and vary with country depending on the ore source, local 1242:

One prevalent form of copper concentrate contains gold and silver, like the one produced by Bougainville Copper Limited from the Panguna mine from the early 1970s to the late 1980s.

112:, which dates between 7200 to 6600 BCE. Among the various items considered to be votive or amulets, there was one that looked like a fishhook and one like an awl. Another find, at 5316: 749:

Reverberatory furnaces can additionally be fed with molten slag from the later converting stage to recover the contained copper and other materials with a high copper content.

789:

lining the furnace. When the removal of the matte or slag is complete, the hole is normally plugged with clay, which is removed when the furnace is ready to be tapped again.

358:

of the water bath, causing the collector to bond more efficiently to the copper sulfides. The process can produce a concentrates with 27–29% and 37–40% copper contents from

402:. In some cases, sulfide ores are allowed to degrade to oxides. Such ores are amenable to hydrometallurgy. Specifically, such oxide ores are usually extracted into aqueous 1088:, which exploits the easy (low potential) and selective conversion of copper(II) solutions to the metal. The anodes cast from processed blister copper are placed into an 4432:

J L Bill, T E Briffa, A S Burrows, C R Fountain, D Retallick, J M I Tuppurainen, J S Edwards, and P Partington, "Isasmelt—Mount Isa copper smelter progress update," in:

3831:

Fuerstenau, D. W.; Herrera-Urbina, R.; McGlashan, D. W. (February 2000). "Studies on the applicability of chelating agents as universal collectors for copper minerals".

1402:

Globally, economic copper resources are being depleted with the equivalent production of three world-class copper mines being consumed annually. Environmental analyst

177:

copper production). As of 2002, 80% of global primary copper production was from copper–iron–sulfur minerals, and the vast majority of these were treated by smelting.

269:, where the rock is crushed to produce small particles (<100 μm) consisting of individual mineral phases. These particles are then ready to be separated to remove 5565: 5419: 896:

The installed feed capacity of Isasmelt furnaces has grown as the technology has been accepted in smelters around the world. Graph courtesy of Xstrata Technology.

184:

Initial concentration techniques included hand-sorting and gravity concentration. These resulted in high losses of copper. Consequently, the development of the

549:

As of 2005, roasting is no longer common in copper concentrate treatment because its combination with reverberatory furnaces is not energy efficient and the SO

5487: 4245:

P J Mackey (2011). "The Physical Chemistry of Copper Smelting Slags and Copper Losses at the Paipote SmelterPart 2 – Characterisation of industrial slags".

553:

concentration in the roaster offgas is too dilute for cost-effective capture. Direct smelting is now favored, and uses the following smelting technologies:

161: 2346: 4363:

G E Casley, J Middlin and D White, "Recent developments in reverberatory furnace and converter practice at the Mount Isa Mines copper smelter," in:

6035: 5506: 5186: 1314: 5294: 1104:). A potential of only 0.2–0.4 volts is required for the process to commence. In industrial plants current densities up to 420 A/m are possible. 3250: 1441:. In 2013, they were Chile, China, and Peru. Twenty-one of the 28 largest copper mines in the world (as of 2006) are not amenable to expansion. 2943: 1424: 5104: 1283:

Quotational Pricing system, the price is agreed to be at a fixed date in the future, typically 90 days from time of delivery to the smelter.

472: 5497: 4113: 842: 1406:

suggested in 2008 that copper might run out within 25 years based on what he considered a reasonable extrapolation of 2% growth per year.

1100:. Cathodes are thin rolled sheets of highly pure copper or, more commonly these days, reusable stainless steel starting sheets (as in the 5267: 3030: 1290:

is of 99.99% copper in sheets that are 1 cm thick, and approximately 1 meter square weighing approximately 200 pounds. It is a true

1027:. The sulfur dioxide is captured and converted to sulfuric acid and either sold on the open market or used in copper leaching processes. 467:

heap leach process to oxidize the sulfides to sulfuric acid, which also allows for simultaneous leaching with sulfuric acid to produce a

5558: 5237: 4687: 444:) to sulfuric leaching. Secondary copper sulfides are dominated by the mineral chalcocite; a mineral formed from primary sulfides, like 4656: 1346:

and reused, and it has been estimated that at least 80% of all copper ever mined is still available (having been repeatedly recycled).

3182: 3149: 3122: 2923: 1438: 611:

furnaces, etc. The product of this smelting stage is a mixture of copper, iron and sulfur that is enriched in copper, which is called

569: 861: 6209: 5586: 4640: 3450:

Petersen, Jochen (October 2016). "Heap leaching as a key technology for recovery of values from low-grade ores – A brief overview".

879: 231: 135: 123:, Israel, and has been used since the fourth millennium BC, with surface deposit usage occurring in the fifth and sixth millennium. 4136:

M. Nagamori (1974). "Metal loss to slag: Part I. Sulfidic and oxidic dissolution of copper in fayalite slag from low grade matte".

3973:"Development of copper recovery process from flotation tailings by a combined method of high‒pressure leaching‒solvent extraction" 6194: 4210: 2644: 1790: 1437:

As shown in the table below, the three chief national producers of copper, respectively, in 2002, were Chile, Indonesia, and the

573:

Replacement of reverberatory furnace smelting by flash smelting, related to the number of copper smelters using this technology.

127: 3544:

Rahman, Reza M.; Ata, Seher; Jameson, Graeme J. (November 2013). "Froth recovery measurements in an industrial flotation cell".

314:

In froth flotation, the crushed ore is wetted, suspended in a slurry, and mixed with reagents that render the sulfide particles

4550: 4490: 2968: 546:) than a sinter plant leaves in the sintered product (about 7% in the case of the Electrolytic Refining and Smelting smelter). 342:), and the final concentrate sent for smelting. The rock that has not floated off in the flotation cell is either discarded as 5665: 5660: 5551: 5538: 5477: 4301: 4194:

B J Elliott, J B See, and W J Rankin, "Effect of slag composition on copper losses to silica-saturated iron silicate slags,"

3423:

Tasker, Peter A.; Tong, Christine C.; Westra, Arjan N. (2007). "Co-extraction of Cations and Anions in Base Metal Recovery".

3410: 3389: 3334: 3013: 4048:

P J Wand (1980) "Copper smelting at Electrolytic Refining and Smelting Company of Australia Ltd., Port Kembla, N.S.W.", in:

943: 5939: 4449:. Eds Davenport W. G., King M., Schlesinger M., and Biswas A. K. (Elsevier Science Limited: Kidlington, Oxford, England). 5428: 6108: 3139: 5949: 4436:, Eds R L Stephens and H Y Sohn (The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society: Warrendale, Pennsylvania), 2002, 181–193. 1101: 5389: 3112: 857: 5241: 3631:

Watling, H. R. (October 2006). "The bioleaching of sulphide minerals with emphasis on copper sulphides — A review".

6199: 4196:

Transactions of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy (Section C: Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy),

785:

the furnace. The matte taphole is normally a hole through a water-cooled copper block that prevents erosion of the

5061: 50: 3326: 3300: 2918: 415: 199:

In the twentieth century, most ores were concentrated before smelting. Smelting was initially undertaken using

5032: 5003: 4974: 4942: 4913: 4884: 4855: 4826: 4797: 1116: 921: 476: 319: 6189: 5834: 5491: 5208: 4765: 4736: 2953: 330:

and dithiocarbamates are also used. The slurry is introduced to a water-filled aeration tank containing a

4182:, Ed. B Mishra (The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society: Warrendale, Pennsylvania, 1998), pp. 641–655. 6002: 5970: 5921: 5574: 5503: 2963: 2928: 2895: 758: 600: 506: 500: 378:

In some hydrometallurgical schemes, copper(II) is extracted from aqueous solution as by complexation to

350:), should they exist. A variety of measures are taken to improve the efficiency of the froth flotation. 208: 5787: 5432: 5131: 4254: 4219: 4145: 3984: 3884: 3840: 3787: 3686: 3640: 3553: 3459: 3065: 2938: 2886: 934:

Smelters based on the copper ISASMELT process are among the lowest-cost copper smelters in the world.

323: 5393: 5343: 664:

temperature) of the slag, meaning that the smelting process can be operated at a lower temperature.

6055: 5944: 5830: 5777: 5583: 5158: 3347: 2958: 1325: 1054: 1049: 464: 435: 335: 226: 211:. Roasting and reverberatory furnace smelting dominated primary copper production until the 1960s. 193: 68: 3774:

Feng, Qicheng; Yang, Wenhang; Wen, Shuming; Wang, Han; Zhao, Wenjuan; Han, Guang (November 2022).

1270:

in appreciable amounts, a credit can be paid to the miner for these metals if their concentration

83: 5885: 5825: 5782: 5594: 4460: 4270: 4178:

A Yazawa and S Nakazawa, "Evaluation of non-equilibrium minor components in pyrometallurgy," in:

4161: 4018: 3813: 3718: 3613: 3405:, Ed. Michael L. Wayman, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Montreal, pp. 160–161, 3384:, Ed. Michael L. Wayman, The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Montreal, pp. 162–165, 1093: 947: 628:

The purpose of the matte smelting stage is to eliminate as much of the unwanted iron, sulfur and

613: 542:

Roasting generally leaves more sulfur in the calcined product (15% in the case of the roaster at

488: 100: 5181: 5153: 5096: 4632: 3174: 1070: 892: 4712: 4052:, Ed J T Woodcock. The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne. pp. 335–340. 487:. When rich enough, native copper ore bodies may be treated to recover the contained copper by 291:

Froth flotation cells to concentrate copper and nickel sulfide minerals, Falconbridge, Ontario.

6204: 6082: 5820: 5613: 5534: 5502:

University of Pittsburgh School of Engineering Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department,

5460: 5310: 5271: 5100: 4636: 4297: 4010: 4002: 3900: 3856: 3805: 3753: 3710: 3702: 3656: 3605: 3569: 3526: 3508: 3406: 3385: 3330: 3224: 3178: 3145: 3118: 3093: 3009: 577: 153:. The Bronze Age would not have been possible without the development of smelting technology. 72: 5245: 3380:

S A Bradford (1989) "The historical development of copper smelting in British Columbia," in:

853: 718:

Thus, the two factors that most affect the loss of copper to slag in the smelting stage are:

119:

One of the world's oldest known copper mines, as opposed to usage of surface deposits, is at

6163: 6068: 6040: 5628: 5618: 5450: 5440: 4664: 4545: 4262: 4227: 4153: 3992: 3892: 3848: 3795: 3745: 3694: 3648: 3597: 3561: 3516: 3498: 3467: 3432: 3214: 3083: 3073: 3001: 2875: 1144: 1015:

because of the broken surface created by the escape of sulfur dioxide gas as blister copper

282: 715:

target matte grade requires the rejection of more iron and an increase in the slag volume.

6153: 6113: 5989: 5805: 5797: 5734: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5510: 5481: 1359: 909: 693:

O) dissolved in the slag, as sulfide copper dissolved in the slag or as tiny droplets (or

543: 456: 379: 351: 327: 308: 287: 185: 5361: 5330: 4110:

R Altman and H H Kellogg, "Solubility of copper in silica-saturated iron silicate slag,"

3487:"Semiconductor-Microbial Mechanism of Selective Dissolution of Chalcocite in Bioleaching" 733:

The following subsections briefly describe some of the processes used in matte smelting.

452:

quantities of low-grade ores, at a lower capital cost with minimal environmental impact.

105: 5436: 5135: 5121: 4516: 4258: 4223: 4149: 4050:

Mining and Metallurgical Practices in Australasia: The Sir Maurice Mawby Memorial Volume

3988: 3888: 3844: 3791: 3690: 3644: 3557: 3463: 3069: 1378:

Concern about the copper supply is not new. In 1924 geologist and copper-mining expert

295: 6103: 5934: 5900: 5864: 5772: 5655: 5643: 5455: 5414: 5089: 4625: 4379:

P J Mackey and P Tarassoff, "New and emerging technologies in sulphide smelting," in:

3521: 3486: 3202: 3167: 2890: 1429: 1287: 1079: 806: 656:

Copper sulfide and iron oxide can mix, but when sufficient silica is added, a separate

650: 604: 554: 514: 468: 460:

mineral surface through the formation of hydrophobic compounds on the mineral surface.

346:

or further processed to extract other metals such as lead (from galena) and zinc (from

304: 92: 3852: 3749: 3088: 3053: 660:

layer is formed. Adding silica also reduces the melting point (or, more properly, the

6183: 6158: 6063: 6045: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 5895: 5890: 4274: 4266: 4165: 3948: 3817: 3617: 2973: 2933: 2509: 1676: 1379: 1295: 1279: 1097: 686: 596: 595:

stage. It can be undertaken in a variety of furnaces, including the largely obsolete

518: 411: 407: 403: 245: 204: 189: 113: 88: 35: 4494: 682:

Slag is less dense than matte, so it forms a layer that floats on top of the matte.

6095: 5815: 5810: 5767: 4022: 3896: 3722: 3698: 3652: 3471: 1403: 1085: 913: 445: 359: 300: 256: 200: 120: 46: 5474: 4035:

B V Borgelt, G E Casley and J Pritchard (1974) "Fluid Bed Roasting at Mount Isa,"

3997: 3972: 3919: 3052:

Braidwood, Robert J.; Çambel, Halet; Redman, Charles L.; Watson, Patty Jo (1971).

1395: 1040: 235:

The decreasing concentration of copper in ores now requires pre-treatment of ores.

173:

sulfide ores was almost the sole means of producing copper metal from mined ores (

42: 3565: 1084:

The final stage in the production of copper is refining. Refining is achieved by

5965: 5929: 5757: 5689: 5123:

Mass and Composition of the Continental Crust Estimated Using the CRUST2.0 Model

3800: 3775: 3601: 2779: 1367: 1339: 1313:

grade copper is ASTM B 115-00 (a standard that specifies the purity and maximum

1310: 1148: 1140: 1059: 585:

The initial melting of the material to be smelted is usually referred to as the

426: 395: 315: 265: 220: 30: 4579: 3920:"Advances in high-temperature heap leaching of refractory copper sulphide ores" 3219: 6168: 6118: 5911: 5850: 5840: 5697: 5638: 4039:. The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne, pp. 123–130. 3436: 2948: 2725: 2132: 1120: 786: 440: 363: 347: 331: 150: 146: 5516: 4231: 4006: 3904: 3860: 3809: 3757: 3736:

Brierley, C. L. (December 2008). "How will biomining be applied in future?".

3706: 3660: 3609: 3573: 3512: 3503: 3228: 3005: 6010: 5975: 5845: 5729: 5672: 5445: 2913: 2617: 2428: 2018: 1733: 1354: 1291: 1136: 928:. It has relatively low capital and operating costs for a smelting process. 638: 399: 391: 5464: 4037:

The Aus. I.M.M. North West Queensland Branch, Regional Meeting, August 1974

4014: 3714: 3530: 3097: 3078: 509:. In the roaster, the copper concentrate is partially oxidised to produce " 17: 4399:(Elsevier Science Limited: Kidlington, Oxford, England, 2002), pp. 73–102. 3401:

E Kossatz and P J Mackey (1989) "The first copper smelter in Canada," in:

2854:

As of 2011, recycled copper provided 35% of total worldwide copper usage.

1349:

Copper is among the most important industrial metals, ranking third after

6138: 5905: 5877: 5702: 5490:, from an online text on metals, Illinois Sustainable Technology Center, 5397: 4367:(The Metallurgical Society: Warrendale, Pennsylvania, 1976), pp. 117–138. 4070:(Elsevier Science Limited: Kidlington, Oxford, England, 2002), pp. 57–72. 3367:"BP Minerals completes US$ 400 million modernization at Bingham Canyon," 1303: 1259: 1132: 932:

materials and 750 thousand tonnes per year across lead operating plants.

917: 905: 901: 819: 781:

be carried by crane to the converters. This draining process is known as

661: 608: 587: 558: 484: 343: 249: 170: 109: 5543: 4627:

Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble

1023:

are cooled. By-products generated in the process are sulfur dioxide and

255:

In the usual case when it is primarily sulfide copper minerals (such as

116:

in Mergasur, Iraq, contained copper beads, and dates back to 8,700 BCE.

5762: 5739: 5707: 5633: 4157: 3203:"Early Balkan Metallurgy: Origins, Evolution and Society, 6200–3700 BC" 1251: 1247: 1211: 1168: 1152: 1089: 950:

aka "Tough-pitch" copper (ca. 98% pure), containing antimony and nickel

510: 387: 374: 3329:, The MacMillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne, pp. 233–235, 6143: 5650: 5498:

National Pollutant Inventory – Copper and copper compounds fact sheet

3918:

Robertson, S.W.; Van Staden, P.J.; Seyedbagheri, A. (December 2012).

2698: 2671: 2590: 2563: 2482: 2189: 2075: 1961: 1904: 1847: 1334: 1299: 1263: 1124: 695: 339: 270: 139: 131: 64: 3485:

Wu, Biao; Yang, Xinlong; Wen, Jiankang; Wang, Dianzuo (2019-11-05).

3031:"Ancient Native Americans were among the world's first coppersmiths" 430:

A specimen of the mineral chalcocite from the Geevor Mine, Cornwall.

5519:, college course syllabus, emphasis on chemistry, last updated 2000 5677: 4208:

Matousek, J (1993). "Oxygen potentials of copper smelting slags".

3927:

Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy

3054:"Beginnings of Village-Farming Communities in Southeastern Turkey" 2752: 2536: 2401: 2351: 1562: 1505: 1428: 1394: 1343: 1324: 1191: 1156: 1112: 1108: 1069: 1039: 1020: 942: 925: 908:

process that was jointly developed from the 1970s to the 1990s by

891: 742:

some of the sulfur in the roaster results in higher matte grades.

576: 568: 425: 373: 294: 286: 230: 160: 82: 41: 29: 505:

The roasting process is generally undertaken in combination with

6148: 5215: 5065: 5039: 5010: 4981: 4949: 4920: 4891: 4862: 4833: 4804: 4772: 4743: 4459:

Filzwieser A, Hanel MB, Filzwieser I, Wallner S (May 13, 2019).

2455: 1619: 1350: 1267: 1255: 1172: 1128: 1024: 657: 54: 5547: 5413:

R. B. Gordon*, M. Bertram and T. E. Graedel (31 January 2006).

4693:. Mineral Commodity Surveys. U.S. Geological Survey. p. 53 1262:. Because a large portion of copper sulfide ore bodies contain 5623: 5362:"The Ultimate Resource II: People, Materials, and Environment" 4718:. Mineral Commodity Surveys. U.S. Geological Survey. p. 2 4445:

Robinson T. (2002). "Electrolytic refining." pp. 265–288 in:

4381:

Advances in Sulfide Smelting Volume 2: Technology and Practice

3949:"Growing Role of Solvent Extraction in Copper Ores Processing" 3303:, The MacMillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne, 1984. 3290:(Elsevier Science Limited: Kidlington, Oxford, England, 2002). 982:

In a parallel reaction the iron sulfide is converted to slag:

825: 634: 625:

is normally used to refer to the copper content of the matte.

241: 4461:

FAQS with regard to operating a Cu ER tankhouse above 400 A/m

1333:

Peak copper is the point in time at which the maximum global

248:(concentrated). The concentrate is typically sold to distant 5331:

Estimate of undiscovered copper resources of the world, 2013

5187:

The Geological Society of America: Annual Meeting & Expo

5182:"Undiscovered Porphyry Copper Resources—A Global Assessment" 3947:

Ochromowicz, Katarzyna; Chmielewski, Tomasz (January 2008).

1294:, deliverable to and tradeable upon the metal exchanges in 355: 5383: 5299:, p. 50, archived from the original on 5 January 2013 4116:(Section C: Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy), 1433:

Production trends in the top five copper-producing nations

418:. Cement copper is normally less pure than SX-EW copper. 5333:, US Geological Survey, Fact Sheet 2014–3004, Jan. 2014. 4088:(Hayes Publishing Company: Brisbane, 1993), pp. 173–179. 1415:

metric tons in 1996 to 890 million metric tons in 2022.

4086:

Process Principles in Minerals and Materials Production

2893:

and a professor of business and economics. In his book

2878:

are estimated to contain 700 million tonnes of copper.

849: 463:

Some supergene sulfide deposits can be leached using a

5091:

Nature's building blocks: an A–Z guide to the elements

3780:

International Journal of Mining Science and Technology

219:

Further information on copper ore body formation:

4604:"Copper and electricity to vanish in twenty years?". 4395:

W G Davenport, M King, M Schlesinger and A K Biswas,

4066:

W G Davenport, M King, M Schlesinger and A K Biswas,

3286:

W G Davenport, M King, M Schlesinger and A K Biswas,

475:

technologies are used to recover the copper from the

3403:

All that Glitters: Readings in Historical Metallurgy

3382:

All that Glitters: Readings in Historical Metallurgy

3111:

R.S. Solecki; R.L. Solecki; A.P. Agelarakis (2004).

1175:

remain in solution unless a higher voltage is used.

1143:, which forms a salable by-product. Copper(II) ions 860:, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a 685:

Copper can be lost from the matte in three ways: as

6131: 6094: 6081: 6054: 6001: 5988: 5958: 5920: 5876: 5863: 5796: 5750: 5688: 5606: 5593: 4294:

Principles of Extractive Metallurgy, Second Edition

3942: 3940: 3201:Radivojević, Miljana; Roberts, Benjamin W. (2021). 5238:"Copper in the USA: Bright Future – Glorious Past" 5088: 4624: 3738:Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 3243:"Serbian site may have hosted first copper makers" 3166: 1011:The purity of this product is 98%, it is known as 5128:American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting Abstracts 5120:Peterson, B. T.; Depaolo, D. J. (December 2007). 4336:(John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980) pp. 29–35 273:(silicate rocks residues) using froth flotation. 5315:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 1167:plates out, but less noble constituents such as 386:Oxidised copper ores include carbonates such as 5420:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5154:"Measure of Metal Supply Finds Future Shortage" 4447:Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Fourth Edition 4397:Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Fourth Edition 4068:Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Fourth Edition 3288:Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Fourth Edition 561:, Noranda, Mitsubishi or El Teniente furnaces. 5344:Chapt 12, "People, Materials, and Environment" 4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 3776:"Flotation of copper oxide minerals: A review" 3117:. Texas A&M University Press. p. 53. 2998:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 1044:Copper anodes after fire refining and casting. 5559: 5147: 5145: 4375: 4373: 4349:(John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980) p. 23 4288: 4286: 4284: 4101:(John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980) p. 19 3672: 3670: 3316:(John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980) p. 32 3114:The Proto-neolithic Cemetery in Shanidar Cave 1074:Apparatus for electrolytic refining of copper 8: 3769: 3767: 1178:The reactions involving metallic copper and 145:Copper smelting technology gave rise to the 130:archaeological site in southeastern Europe ( 27:Process of extracting copper from the ground 4969: 4967: 4792: 4790: 4296:, Tapir Academic Press: Trondheim, p. 331, 4131: 4129: 4127: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4062: 4060: 4058: 3833:International Journal of Mineral Processing 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3144:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 582–583. 169:Until the latter half of the 20th century, 6091: 5998: 5873: 5603: 5566: 5552: 5544: 4365:Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Volume 1, 4190: 4188: 2369: 1443: 1182:ions at the electrodes are the following: 318:. Typical reagents ("collectors") include 5454: 5444: 4539: 4537: 4359: 4357: 4355: 3996: 3933:(12): 1045–1050 – via ResearchGate. 3799: 3520: 3502: 3218: 3087: 3077: 880:Learn how and when to remove this message 5180:Hammarstrom, Jane M. (29 October 2013). 4391: 4389: 1278:Copper concentrate is traded either via 1115:reaction), copper and less noble metals 535: 531: 527: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4310: 3590:Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering 3173:. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 2985: 1163:ions are reduced in copper metal and Cu 299:Copper sulfide loaded air bubbles on a 192:. It made the development of the giant 5308: 4686:Edelstein, Daniel L. (February 1997). 4544:National Minerals Information Center. 2991: 2989: 2944:List of countries by copper production 2371:Copper reserves (thousands of tonnes) 1425:List of countries by copper production 841:contains content that is written like 5473:The Copper Development Association's 3953:Fizykochemiczne Problemy Mineralurgii 1445:Copper production (thousands tonnes) 1362:, water pipes and consumer products. 473:solvent extraction and electrowinning 149:, aka Chalcolithic Age, and then the 63:refers to the methods used to obtain 7: 5095:. Oxford University Press. pp. 4711:Flanagan, Daniel M. (January 2023). 4114:Institution of Mining and Metallurgy 1139:settle to the bottom of the cell as 764:The main equilibration reaction is: 438:secondary enrichment—are resistant ( 4546:"Copper Statistics and Information" 4478:Engineering Metals and their Alloys 2996:Lossin, Adalbert (2001). "Copper". 2858:Undiscovered conventional resources 2851:comes from recycling (as of 2016). 1275:metal and sell it to defray costs. 434:Secondary sulfides—those formed by 5293:International Copper Study Group, 4663:. 29 December 2005. Archived from 2924:Copper mining in the United States 1358:cooling and refrigeration tubing, 1329:World copper production, 1900–2012 1048:The blister copper is put into an 699:) of matte suspended in the slag. 25: 5587:Non-ferrous extractive metallurgy 5533:, John Wiley and Sons: New York, 5429:U.S. National Academy of Sciences 5415:"Metal Stocks and Sustainability" 5342:Simon, Julian (16 February 1998) 5152:Biello, David (17 January 2006). 4631:. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 4347:Non-ferrous Extractive Metallurgy 4334:Non-ferrous Extractive Metallurgy 4099:Non-ferrous Extractive Metallurgy 3314:Non-ferrous Extractive Metallurgy 581:Flash smelting furnace from Inco. 5531:Nonferrous Extractive Metallurgy 5329:Kathleen M. Johnson and others, 4578:Leonard, Andrew (2 March 2006). 4267:10.1179/000844311X13112418194806 4247:Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 4211:Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly 3029:Malakof, David (19 March 2021). 2772: 2745: 2718: 2691: 2664: 2637: 2610: 2583: 2556: 2529: 2502: 2475: 2448: 2421: 2394: 2182: 2125: 2068: 2011: 1954: 1897: 1840: 1783: 1726: 1669: 1612: 1555: 1498: 1234:Concentrate and copper marketing 830: 818:This section is an excerpt from 4657:"Peak Copper Means Peak Silver" 4551:United States Geological Survey 3249:. July 17, 2010. Archived from 2969:Mineral resource classification 1309:The chemical specification for 904:process is an energy-efficient 5296:The World Copper Factbook 2012 5242:Copper Development Association 4606:Engineering and Mining Journal 4410:"ISASMELT Technology Brochure" 3977:Journal of Hazardous Materials 3897:10.1016/j.hydromet.2008.08.008 3699:10.1016/j.biortech.2015.08.064 3653:10.1016/j.hydromet.2006.05.001 3472:10.1016/j.hydromet.2015.09.001 3425:Coordination Chemistry Reviews 737:Reverberatory furnace smelting 667:The slag forming reaction is: 303:at the flotation plant of the 1: 5940:Bottom-blown oxygen converter 3998:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.03.014 3853:10.1016/S0301-7516(99)00058-7 3750:10.1016/S1003-6326(09)60002-9 3165:King, PJ; Stager, LE (2001). 1302:(London Metals Exchange) and 1216:(reduction and precipitation) 1119:. More noble metals and less 215:Concentration (beneficiation) 165:World copper production, 1946 4121:, September 1972, C163–C175. 3566:10.1016/j.mineng.2013.08.003 534:→ 2 FeO + 2 CuS + 2 SO 3801:10.1016/j.ijmst.2022.09.011 3602:10.1016/j.cjche.2021.12.014 3371:, November 1988, 1017–1020. 3207:Journal of World Prehistory 3141:A Dictionary of Archaeology 2889:was a senior fellow at the 1196:(oxidation and dissolution) 6226: 5268:"Europe's Copper Industry" 4138:Metallurgical Transactions 3220:10.1007/s10963-021-09155-7 1422: 1077: 817: 498: 471:solution. For oxide ores, 280: 224: 218: 36:Chino open-pit copper mine 5581: 5390:"US Minerals Databrowser" 3437:10.1016/j.ccr.2007.03.014 3350:. Minerals Separation Ltd 263:), the ore is treated by 221:Ore genesis § Copper 73:environmental regulations 6210:Peak resource production 5666:Underground in soft rock 5661:Underground in hard rock 5348:The Ultimate Resource II 4476:Samans, Carl H. (1949). 4232:10.1179/cmq.1993.32.2.97 3504:10.1021/acsomega.9b02294 3327:Out of the Fiery Furnace 3301:Out of the Fiery Furnace 3058:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 3006:10.1002/14356007.a07_471 2919:Category:Copper minerals 2871:Unconventional resources 6195:Metallurgical processes 5446:10.1073/pnas.0509498103 4612:(4): 122. 26 July 1924. 4198:September 1978, C–C211. 3169:Life In Biblical Israel 2896:The Ultimate Resource 2 1151:to the cathode. At the 922:Government of Australia 477:pregnant leach solution 398:, and sulfates such as 336:methylisobutyl carbinol 320:potassium ethylxanthate 207:, or with roasters and 5494:, archived in May 2017 5492:University of Illinois 5360:Simon, Julian (1998). 4623:Brown, Lester (2006). 3679:Bioresource Technology 3325:Robert Raymond (1984) 3079:10.1073/pnas.68.6.1236 2954:2000s commodities boom 1434: 1410:New copper discoveries 1399: 1330: 1315:electrical resistivity 1272:within the concentrate 1075: 1045: 951: 897: 801:Flash furnace smelting 601:reverberatory furnaces 582: 574: 507:reverberatory furnaces 431: 383: 311: 292: 236: 209:reverberatory furnaces 166: 96: 57: 39: 5994:(by aqueous solution) 5826:Gravity Concentration 5575:Extractive metallurgy 5087:Emsley, John (2003). 4434:Sulfide Smelting 2002 2964:List of copper alloys 2929:Extractive metallurgy 1432: 1398: 1328: 1073: 1043: 946: 895: 862:neutral point of view 759:operating temperature 580: 572: 501:Roasting (metallurgy) 429: 377: 354:is used to raise the 298: 290: 234: 164: 86: 75:, and other factors. 45: 33: 6109:Hall–Héroult process 5788:Mechanical screening 4497:on 23 September 2015 4292:T Rosenqvist (2004) 4112:Transactions of the 3546:Minerals Engineering 3431:(13–14): 1868–1877. 2939:List of copper mines 707:begins to dominate. 521:of the reaction is: 324:sodium ethylxanthate 5831:Magnetic separation 5778:Cyclonic separation 5599:(by physical means) 5584:Metallurgical assay 5529:Gill, C. B. (1980) 5437:2006PNAS..103.1209G 5159:Scientific American 5136:2007AGUFM.V33A1161P 5062:"Copper Statistics" 4491:"About the Company" 4259:2011CaMQ...50..330C 4224:1993CaMQ...32...97M 4150:1974MT......5..531N 3989:2018JHzM..352..192H 3889:2009HydMe..96...72K 3845:2000IJMP...58...15F 3792:2022IJMST..32.1351F 3691:2015BiTec.196..694P 3645:2006HydMe..84...81W 3558:2013MiEng..53..193R 3497:(19): 18279–18288. 3464:2016HydMe.165..206P 3070:1971PNAS...68.1236B 2959:Hubbert peak theory 2372: 1446: 1058:is done by blowing 854:promotional content 483:will report to the 465:bacterial oxidation 227:List of copper ores 194:Bingham Canyon mine 5912:Refractory linings 5783:Gyratory equipment 5595:Mineral processing 5509:2005-12-06 at the 5480:2013-09-07 at the 4667:on 4 November 2013 4517:"Copper Recycling" 4158:10.1007/BF02644646 3369:Mining Engineering 3138:Shaw, Ian (2002). 2370: 1444: 1435: 1400: 1331: 1076: 1046: 952: 948:Oxygen-free copper 898: 856:and inappropriate 583: 575: 517:is liberated. The 489:gravity separation 455:Generally, direct 432: 384: 312: 293: 237: 196:in Utah possible. 167: 101:Old Copper Complex 97: 58: 40: 6200:Mining techniques 6177: 6176: 6127: 6126: 6088: 6083:Electrometallurgy 6077: 6076: 6036:Gold chlorination 5995: 5984: 5983: 5870: 5859: 5858: 5821:Jig concentrators 5619:Natural resources 5614:Geological survey 5600: 5488:Copper Processing 5475:copper production 5274:on 10 August 2020 5248:on 15 August 2013 5209:"pg. 50 – Copper" 5106:978-0-19-850340-8 5033:"pg. 55 – Copper" 5004:"pg. 55 – Copper" 4975:"pg. 49 – Copper" 4943:"pg. 48 – Copper" 4914:"pg. 49 – Copper" 4885:"pg. 49 – Copper" 4856:"pg. 49 – Copper" 4827:"pg. 49 – Copper" 4798:"pg. 54 – Copper" 4766:"pg. 56 – Copper" 4737:"pg. 54 – Copper" 4180:EPD Congress 1998 3348:"Historical Note" 3189:timna millennium. 2838: 2837: 2338: 2337: 1317:of the product). 1229: 1228: 1123:elements such as 1092:solution of 3–4% 912:(a subsidiary of 890: 889: 882: 787:refractory bricks 61:Copper extraction 16:(Redirected from 6217: 6092: 6087:(by electricity) 6086: 6069:Pan amalgamation 6041:Gold cyanidation 6031:In situ leaching 5999: 5993: 5874: 5868: 5629:Economic geology 5604: 5598: 5568: 5561: 5554: 5545: 5468: 5458: 5448: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5400:on 11 March 2011 5396:. Archived from 5372: 5371: 5369: 5368: 5357: 5351: 5340: 5334: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5314: 5306: 5305: 5304: 5290: 5284: 5283: 5281: 5279: 5270:. Archived from 5264: 5258: 5257: 5255: 5253: 5244:. Archived from 5234: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5213: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5196: 5194: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5149: 5140: 5139: 5117: 5111: 5110: 5094: 5084: 5078: 5077: 5075: 5073: 5058: 5052: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5037: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5020: 5018: 5008: 5000: 4994: 4993: 4991: 4989: 4979: 4971: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4957: 4947: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4918: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4899: 4889: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4860: 4852: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4831: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4812: 4802: 4794: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4770: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4741: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4723: 4717: 4708: 4702: 4701: 4699: 4698: 4692: 4683: 4677: 4676: 4674: 4672: 4661:Charleston Voice 4653: 4647: 4646: 4630: 4620: 4614: 4613: 4601: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4575: 4562: 4561: 4559: 4558: 4541: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4528: 4513: 4507: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4493:. Archived from 4487: 4481: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4456: 4450: 4443: 4437: 4430: 4424: 4423: 4421: 4419: 4414: 4406: 4400: 4393: 4384: 4377: 4368: 4361: 4350: 4343: 4337: 4330: 4305: 4290: 4279: 4278: 4242: 4236: 4235: 4205: 4199: 4192: 4183: 4176: 4170: 4169: 4133: 4122: 4108: 4102: 4095: 4089: 4082: 4071: 4064: 4053: 4046: 4040: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4000: 3967: 3961: 3960: 3944: 3935: 3934: 3924: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3828: 3822: 3821: 3803: 3786:(6): 1351–1364. 3771: 3762: 3761: 3744:(6): 1302–1310. 3733: 3727: 3726: 3674: 3665: 3664: 3628: 3622: 3621: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3524: 3506: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3420: 3414: 3399: 3393: 3378: 3372: 3365: 3359: 3358: 3356: 3355: 3344: 3338: 3323: 3317: 3310: 3304: 3299:Robert Raymond, 3297: 3291: 3284: 3263: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3222: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3172: 3162: 3156: 3155: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3091: 3081: 3064:(6): 1236–1240. 3049: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3026: 3020: 3019: 2993: 2876:Deep-sea nodules 2841:Known resources 2819: 2778: 2776: 2775: 2751: 2749: 2748: 2724: 2722: 2721: 2697: 2695: 2694: 2670: 2668: 2667: 2643: 2641: 2640: 2616: 2614: 2613: 2589: 2587: 2586: 2562: 2560: 2559: 2535: 2533: 2532: 2508: 2506: 2505: 2481: 2479: 2478: 2454: 2452: 2451: 2427: 2425: 2424: 2400: 2398: 2397: 2373: 2361: 2359: 2289: 2188: 2186: 2185: 2131: 2129: 2128: 2074: 2072: 2071: 2017: 2015: 2014: 1960: 1958: 1957: 1903: 1901: 1900: 1846: 1844: 1843: 1789: 1787: 1786: 1732: 1730: 1729: 1675: 1673: 1672: 1618: 1616: 1615: 1561: 1559: 1558: 1504: 1502: 1501: 1447: 1187: 1186: 1181: 1162: 916:and now part of 885: 878: 874: 871: 865: 843:an advertisement 834: 833: 826: 637:, but with some 538: 422:Specialized ores 366:, respectively. 328:dithiophosphates 283:Froth floatation 244:must usually be 21: 6225: 6224: 6220: 6219: 6218: 6216: 6215: 6214: 6180: 6179: 6178: 6173: 6123: 6114:Castner process 6085: 6073: 6050: 5992: 5990:Hydrometallurgy 5980: 5954: 5950:IsaKidd process 5916: 5867: 5855: 5806:Froth flotation 5792: 5746: 5684: 5597: 5589: 5577: 5572: 5526: 5511:Wayback Machine 5504:Froth Flotation 5482:Wayback Machine 5412: 5403: 5401: 5388: 5380: 5375: 5366: 5364: 5359: 5358: 5354: 5341: 5337: 5328: 5324: 5307: 5302: 5300: 5292: 5291: 5287: 5277: 5275: 5266: 5265: 5261: 5251: 5249: 5236: 5235: 5231: 5221: 5219: 5211: 5207: 5206: 5202: 5192: 5190: 5179: 5178: 5174: 5164: 5162: 5151: 5150: 5143: 5119: 5118: 5114: 5107: 5086: 5085: 5081: 5071: 5069: 5060: 5059: 5055: 5045: 5043: 5035: 5031: 5030: 5026: 5016: 5014: 5006: 5002: 5001: 4997: 4987: 4985: 4977: 4973: 4972: 4965: 4955: 4953: 4945: 4941: 4940: 4936: 4926: 4924: 4916: 4912: 4911: 4907: 4897: 4895: 4887: 4883: 4882: 4878: 4868: 4866: 4858: 4854: 4853: 4849: 4839: 4837: 4829: 4825: 4824: 4820: 4810: 4808: 4800: 4796: 4795: 4788: 4778: 4776: 4768: 4764: 4763: 4759: 4749: 4747: 4739: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4721: 4719: 4715: 4710: 4709: 4705: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4685: 4684: 4680: 4670: 4668: 4655: 4654: 4650: 4643: 4622: 4621: 4617: 4603: 4602: 4598: 4588: 4586: 4577: 4576: 4565: 4556: 4554: 4543: 4542: 4535: 4526: 4524: 4521:Copper Alliance 4515: 4514: 4510: 4500: 4498: 4489: 4488: 4484: 4475: 4471: 4463: 4458: 4457: 4453: 4444: 4440: 4431: 4427: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4408: 4407: 4403: 4394: 4387: 4378: 4371: 4362: 4353: 4344: 4340: 4331: 4308: 4291: 4282: 4244: 4243: 4239: 4207: 4206: 4202: 4193: 4186: 4177: 4173: 4135: 4134: 4125: 4109: 4105: 4096: 4092: 4083: 4074: 4065: 4056: 4047: 4043: 4034: 4030: 3969: 3968: 3964: 3946: 3945: 3938: 3922: 3917: 3916: 3912: 3877:Hydrometallurgy 3873: 3872: 3868: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3773: 3772: 3765: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3676: 3675: 3668: 3633:Hydrometallurgy 3630: 3629: 3625: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3543: 3542: 3538: 3484: 3483: 3479: 3452:Hydrometallurgy 3449: 3448: 3444: 3422: 3421: 3417: 3400: 3396: 3379: 3375: 3366: 3362: 3353: 3351: 3346: 3345: 3341: 3324: 3320: 3311: 3307: 3298: 3294: 3285: 3266: 3256: 3254: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3200: 3199: 3195: 3185: 3164: 3163: 3159: 3152: 3137: 3136: 3132: 3125: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3051: 3050: 3046: 3036: 3034: 3028: 3027: 3023: 3016: 2995: 2994: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2909: 2884: 2873: 2860: 2848: 2843: 2817: 2799:Other countries 2773: 2771: 2746: 2744: 2719: 2717: 2692: 2690: 2665: 2663: 2638: 2636: 2611: 2609: 2584: 2582: 2557: 2555: 2530: 2528: 2503: 2501: 2476: 2474: 2449: 2447: 2422: 2420: 2395: 2393: 2357: 2355: 2343: 2287: 2239:Other countries 2183: 2181: 2126: 2124: 2069: 2067: 2012: 2010: 1955: 1953: 1898: 1896: 1841: 1839: 1784: 1782: 1727: 1725: 1670: 1668: 1613: 1611: 1556: 1554: 1499: 1497: 1427: 1421: 1412: 1393: 1376: 1360:heat exchangers 1323: 1236: 1225: 1202: 1179: 1166: 1160: 1102:IsaKidd process 1082: 1068: 1038: 1033: 1007: 1003: 999: 993: 989: 978: 974: 966: 962: 941: 936: 935: 910:Mount Isa Mines 886: 875: 869: 866: 847: 835: 831: 823: 815: 803: 775: 771: 739: 692: 678: 674: 648: 644: 567: 552: 544:Mount Isa Mines 537: 533: 529: 525: 503: 497: 457:froth flotation 424: 406:, usually in a 394:, the silicate 380:salicylaldoxime 372: 370:Hydrometallurgy 309:South Australia 285: 279: 277:Froth flotation 262: 229: 223: 217: 186:froth flotation 159: 81: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6223: 6221: 6213: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6182: 6181: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6171: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6135: 6133: 6129: 6128: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6104:Electrowinning 6100: 6098: 6089: 6079: 6078: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6071: 6066: 6060: 6058: 6052: 6051: 6049: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6007: 6005: 5996: 5986: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5979: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5962: 5960: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5935:Parkes process 5932: 5926: 5924: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5914: 5909: 5903: 5901:Flash smelting 5898: 5893: 5888: 5882: 5880: 5871: 5865:Pyrometallurgy 5861: 5860: 5857: 5856: 5854: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5802: 5800: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5754: 5752: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5737: 5727: 5726: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5705: 5700: 5694: 5692: 5686: 5685: 5683: 5682: 5681: 5680: 5670: 5669: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5648: 5647: 5646: 5644:Precious metal 5641: 5636: 5631: 5621: 5616: 5610: 5608: 5601: 5591: 5590: 5582: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5571: 5570: 5563: 5556: 5548: 5542: 5541: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5520: 5514: 5500: 5495: 5485: 5470: 5469: 5410: 5394:Mazama Science 5386: 5379: 5378:External links 5376: 5374: 5373: 5352: 5335: 5322: 5285: 5259: 5229: 5200: 5172: 5141: 5112: 5105: 5079: 5053: 5024: 4995: 4963: 4934: 4905: 4876: 4847: 4818: 4786: 4757: 4728: 4703: 4678: 4648: 4641: 4615: 4596: 4580:"Peak copper?" 4563: 4533: 4508: 4482: 4469: 4451: 4438: 4425: 4401: 4385: 4369: 4351: 4338: 4306: 4280: 4253:(4): 330–340. 4237: 4200: 4184: 4171: 4144:(3): 531–538. 4123: 4103: 4090: 4072: 4054: 4041: 4028: 3962: 3936: 3910: 3866: 3823: 3763: 3728: 3666: 3623: 3579: 3536: 3477: 3442: 3415: 3394: 3373: 3360: 3339: 3318: 3305: 3292: 3264: 3253:on May 8, 2013 3234: 3213:(2): 195–278. 3193: 3184:978-0664221485 3183: 3157: 3151:978-0631235835 3150: 3130: 3124:978-1585442720 3123: 3103: 3044: 3021: 3014: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2976: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2946: 2941: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2916: 2910: 2908: 2905: 2891:Cato Institute 2883: 2880: 2872: 2869: 2859: 2856: 2847: 2844: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2826: 2823: 2814: 2813: 2810: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2785: 2782: 2768: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2741: 2740: 2737: 2734: 2731: 2728: 2714: 2713: 2710: 2707: 2704: 2701: 2687: 2686: 2683: 2680: 2677: 2674: 2660: 2659: 2656: 2653: 2650: 2647: 2645:Congo-Kinshasa 2633: 2632: 2629: 2626: 2623: 2620: 2606: 2605: 2602: 2599: 2596: 2593: 2579: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2552: 2551: 2548: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2525: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2515: 2512: 2498: 2497: 2494: 2491: 2488: 2485: 2471: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2458: 2444: 2443: 2440: 2437: 2434: 2431: 2417: 2416: 2413: 2410: 2407: 2404: 2390: 2389: 2386: 2385:2015 Reserves 2383: 2380: 2379:1996 Reserves 2377: 2342: 2339: 2336: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2311: 2308: 2305: 2302: 2299: 2296: 2293: 2284: 2283: 2280: 2277: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2121: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2090: 2087: 2084: 2081: 2078: 2064: 2063: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2039: 2036: 2033: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2007: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1950: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1893: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1859: 1856: 1853: 1850: 1836: 1835: 1832: 1829: 1826: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1808: 1805: 1802: 1799: 1796: 1793: 1791:Congo-Kinshasa 1779: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1766: 1763: 1760: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1736: 1722: 1721: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1679: 1665: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1622: 1608: 1607: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1577: 1574: 1571: 1568: 1565: 1551: 1550: 1547: 1544: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1472: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1420: 1417: 1411: 1408: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1387: 1375: 1372: 1322: 1319: 1288:copper cathode 1280:spot contracts 1235: 1232: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1207: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1164: 1094:copper sulfate 1080:Electrowinning 1078:Main article: 1067: 1064: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1001: 997: 994: 991: 990:→ 2 FeO + 2 SO 987: 980: 979: 976: 972: 968: 967: 964: 963:→ 2 CuO + 2 SO 960: 940: 937: 888: 887: 858:external links 838: 836: 829: 824: 816: 814: 811: 807:flash smelting 802: 799: 778: 777: 773: 769: 738: 735: 727: 726: 723: 690: 680: 679: 676: 672: 651:sulfur dioxide 646: 642: 605:flash furnaces 597:blast furnaces 593:matte smelting 566: 563: 555:flash smelting 550: 540: 539: 515:Sulfur dioxide 496: 493: 469:copper sulfate 423: 420: 371: 368: 305:Prominent Hill 281:Main article: 278: 275: 260: 216: 213: 205:blast furnaces 158: 155: 93:Copper Country 87:Miners at the 80: 77: 49:specimen from 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6222: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6190:Copper mining 6188: 6187: 6185: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6130: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6097: 6093: 6090: 6084: 6080: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6064:Patio process 6062: 6061: 6059: 6057: 6053: 6047: 6046:Bayer process 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6026:Tank leaching 6024: 6022: 6021:Dump leaching 6019: 6017: 6016:Heap leaching 6014: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5997: 5991: 5987: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5957: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5923: 5919: 5913: 5910: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5896:Zinc smelting 5894: 5892: 5891:Lead smelting 5889: 5887: 5886:Iron smelting 5884: 5883: 5881: 5879: 5875: 5872: 5866: 5862: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5836: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5799: 5798:Concentration 5795: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5755: 5753: 5749: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5731: 5728: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5691: 5687: 5679: 5676: 5675: 5674: 5671: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5653: 5652: 5649: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5605: 5602: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5585: 5580: 5576: 5569: 5564: 5562: 5557: 5555: 5550: 5549: 5546: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5527: 5523: 5518: 5515: 5512: 5508: 5505: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5493: 5489: 5486: 5483: 5479: 5476: 5472: 5471: 5466: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5431:: 1209–1214. 5430: 5426: 5422: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5381: 5377: 5363: 5356: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5339: 5336: 5332: 5326: 5323: 5318: 5312: 5298: 5297: 5289: 5286: 5273: 5269: 5263: 5260: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5233: 5230: 5217: 5210: 5204: 5201: 5189: 5188: 5183: 5176: 5173: 5161: 5160: 5155: 5148: 5146: 5142: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5124: 5116: 5113: 5108: 5102: 5098: 5093: 5092: 5083: 5080: 5067: 5063: 5057: 5054: 5041: 5034: 5028: 5025: 5012: 5005: 4999: 4996: 4983: 4976: 4970: 4968: 4964: 4951: 4944: 4938: 4935: 4922: 4915: 4909: 4906: 4893: 4886: 4880: 4877: 4864: 4857: 4851: 4848: 4835: 4828: 4822: 4819: 4806: 4799: 4793: 4791: 4787: 4774: 4767: 4761: 4758: 4745: 4738: 4732: 4729: 4714: 4707: 4704: 4689: 4682: 4679: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4652: 4649: 4644: 4642:0-393-32831-7 4638: 4634: 4629: 4628: 4619: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4597: 4585: 4581: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4564: 4553: 4552: 4547: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4522: 4518: 4512: 4509: 4496: 4492: 4486: 4483: 4479: 4473: 4470: 4462: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4442: 4439: 4435: 4429: 4426: 4411: 4405: 4402: 4398: 4392: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4376: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4360: 4358: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4342: 4339: 4335: 4329: 4327: 4325: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4281: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4241: 4238: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4218:(2): 97–101. 4217: 4213: 4212: 4204: 4201: 4197: 4191: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4175: 4172: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4107: 4104: 4100: 4094: 4091: 4087: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4045: 4042: 4038: 4032: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3966: 3963: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3943: 3941: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3921: 3914: 3911: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3870: 3867: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3827: 3824: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3770: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3729: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3673: 3671: 3667: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3639:(1): 81–108. 3638: 3634: 3627: 3624: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3540: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3481: 3478: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3446: 3443: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3398: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3370: 3364: 3361: 3349: 3343: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3315: 3309: 3306: 3302: 3296: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3265: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3235: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3170: 3161: 3158: 3153: 3147: 3143: 3142: 3134: 3131: 3126: 3120: 3116: 3115: 3107: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3045: 3032: 3025: 3022: 3017: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2990: 2986: 2980: 2975: 2974:Peak minerals 2972: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2942: 2940: 2937: 2935: 2934:In-situ leach 2932: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2920: 2917: 2915: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2904: 2900: 2898: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2881: 2879: 2877: 2870: 2868: 2864: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2845: 2840: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2824: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2811: 2808: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2762: 2759: 2756: 2754: 2743: 2742: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2727: 2716: 2715: 2711: 2708: 2705: 2702: 2700: 2689: 2688: 2684: 2681: 2678: 2675: 2673: 2662: 2661: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2648: 2646: 2635: 2634: 2630: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2592: 2581: 2580: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2554: 2553: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2540: 2538: 2527: 2526: 2522: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2511: 2510:United States 2500: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2473: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2457: 2446: 2445: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2430: 2419: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2374: 2368: 2364: 2353: 2348: 2347:fairly common 2340: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2321: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2309: 2306: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2278: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2263: 2260: 2257: 2254: 2251: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2240: 2237: 2236: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2220: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2180: 2179: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2123: 2122: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2077: 2066: 2065: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2052: 2049: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2009: 2008: 2004: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1992: 1989: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1952: 1951: 1947: 1944: 1941: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1895: 1894: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1838: 1837: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1781: 1780: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1767: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1743: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1724: 1723: 1719: 1716: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1686: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1677:United States 1667: 1666: 1662: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1621: 1610: 1609: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1553: 1552: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1496: 1495: 1491: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1442: 1440: 1439:United States 1431: 1426: 1418: 1416: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1397: 1391:Copper supply 1390: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1381: 1380:Ira Joralemon 1373: 1371: 1369: 1363: 1361: 1356: 1352: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1336: 1327: 1320: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1307: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1296:New York City 1293: 1289: 1284: 1281: 1276: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1243: 1240: 1233: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1209: 1208: 1204: 1198: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1176: 1174: 1170: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1098:sulfuric acid 1095: 1091: 1087: 1081: 1072: 1065: 1063: 1061: 1057: 1056: 1051: 1050:anode furnace 1042: 1036:Fire refining 1035: 1030: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 995: 985: 984: 983: 970: 969: 958: 957: 956: 949: 945: 938: 933: 929: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 894: 884: 881: 873: 870:December 2023 863: 859: 855: 851: 845: 844: 839:This article 837: 828: 827: 821: 812: 810: 808: 800: 798: 794: 790: 788: 784: 767: 766: 765: 762: 760: 754: 750: 747: 743: 736: 734: 731: 725:mass of slag. 724: 721: 720: 719: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 698: 697: 688: 687:cuprous oxide 683: 670: 669: 668: 665: 663: 659: 654: 652: 640: 636: 631: 626: 624: 620: 616: 615: 610: 606: 603:, as well as 602: 598: 594: 590: 589: 579: 571: 564: 562: 560: 556: 547: 545: 524: 523: 522: 520: 519:stoichiometry 516: 512: 508: 502: 494: 492: 490: 486: 480: 478: 474: 470: 466: 461: 458: 453: 449: 447: 443: 442: 437: 428: 421: 419: 417: 413: 412:dump leaching 409: 408:heap leaching 405: 404:sulfuric acid 401: 397: 393: 389: 381: 376: 369: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 310: 306: 302: 297: 289: 284: 276: 274: 272: 268: 267: 258: 253: 251: 247: 243: 233: 228: 222: 214: 212: 210: 206: 202: 201:sinter plants 197: 195: 191: 190:G. D. Delprat 187: 182: 178: 176: 172: 163: 156: 154: 152: 148: 143: 141: 137: 133: 129: 124: 122: 117: 115: 114:Shanidar Cave 111: 107: 106:Çayönü Tepesi 102: 94: 90: 89:Tamarack mine 85: 78: 76: 74: 70: 66: 62: 56: 52: 48: 44: 38:in New Mexico 37: 32: 19: 6096:Electrolysis 6056:Amalgamation 5811:Jameson cell 5768:Hydrocyclone 5530: 5524:Bibliography 5424: 5418: 5402:. Retrieved 5398:the original 5365:. Retrieved 5355: 5347: 5338: 5325: 5301:, retrieved 5295: 5288: 5276:. Retrieved 5272:the original 5262: 5250:. Retrieved 5246:the original 5232: 5220:. Retrieved 5203: 5191:. Retrieved 5185: 5175: 5163:. Retrieved 5157: 5138:. V33A–1161. 5127: 5122: 5115: 5090: 5082: 5070:. Retrieved 5056: 5044:. Retrieved 5027: 5015:. Retrieved 4998: 4986:. Retrieved 4954:. Retrieved 4937: 4925:. Retrieved 4908: 4896:. Retrieved 4879: 4867:. Retrieved 4850: 4838:. Retrieved 4821: 4809:. Retrieved 4777:. Retrieved 4760: 4748:. Retrieved 4731: 4720:. Retrieved 4706: 4695:. Retrieved 4681: 4669:. Retrieved 4665:the original 4660: 4651: 4626: 4618: 4609: 4605: 4599: 4587:. Retrieved 4583: 4555:. Retrieved 4549: 4525:. Retrieved 4520: 4511: 4499:. Retrieved 4495:the original 4485: 4480:. MacMillan. 4477: 4472: 4454: 4446: 4441: 4433: 4428: 4418:26 September 4416:. Retrieved 4404: 4396: 4380: 4364: 4346: 4341: 4333: 4293: 4250: 4246: 4240: 4215: 4209: 4203: 4195: 4179: 4174: 4141: 4137: 4118: 4111: 4106: 4098: 4093: 4085: 4067: 4049: 4044: 4036: 4031: 3980: 3976: 3965: 3956: 3952: 3930: 3926: 3913: 3883:(1): 72–76. 3880: 3876: 3869: 3839:(1): 15–33. 3836: 3832: 3826: 3783: 3779: 3741: 3737: 3731: 3682: 3678: 3636: 3632: 3626: 3593: 3589: 3582: 3549: 3545: 3539: 3494: 3490: 3480: 3455: 3451: 3445: 3428: 3424: 3418: 3402: 3397: 3381: 3376: 3368: 3363: 3352:. Retrieved 3342: 3321: 3313: 3308: 3295: 3287: 3255:. Retrieved 3251:the original 3246: 3237: 3210: 3206: 3196: 3188: 3168: 3160: 3140: 3133: 3113: 3106: 3061: 3057: 3047: 3035:. Retrieved 3024: 2997: 2901: 2894: 2887:Julian Simon 2885: 2874: 2865: 2861: 2853: 2849: 2820: 2798: 2365: 2345:Copper is a 2344: 2290: 2238: 1436: 1413: 1404:Lester Brown 1401: 1377: 1368:copper theft 1364: 1348: 1342:, copper is 1340:fossil fuels 1332: 1311:electrolytic 1308: 1285: 1277: 1271: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1219:: Cu + 2 e 1205:→ Cu + 2 e 1177: 1147:through the 1106: 1086:electrolysis 1083: 1066:Electrolysis 1053: 1047: 1016: 1012: 1010: 981: 953: 930: 914:MIM Holdings 899: 876: 867: 852:by removing 848:Please help 840: 804: 795: 791: 782: 779: 772:O + FeS → Cu 763: 755: 751: 748: 744: 740: 732: 728: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 694: 684: 681: 666: 655: 629: 627: 622: 619:copper matte 618: 612: 592: 586: 584: 548: 541: 504: 481: 462: 454: 450: 446:chalcopyrite 439: 433: 385: 360:chalcopyrite 313: 301:Jameson Cell 264: 257:chalcopyrite 254: 246:beneficiated 238: 198: 183: 179: 174: 168: 144: 125: 121:Timna Valley 118: 98: 60: 59: 47:Chalcopyrite 6132:Co-products 5966:Calcination 5930:Cupellation 5846:Dry washing 5835:Magnetation 5758:Ore sorting 5723:Pebble mill 5690:Comminution 5517:Copper Mine 4084:P C Hayes, 3983:: 192–203. 3685:: 694–706. 3596:: 109–120. 3552:: 193–202. 3458:: 206–212. 3247:ScienceNews 2780:Philippines 1321:Peak copper 1159:reaction), 1149:electrolyte 1141:anode slime 1096:and 10–16% 1060:natural gas 996:2 FeO + SiO 986:2 FeS + 3 O 959:2 CuS + 3 O 722:matte grade 623:matte grade 621:. The term 416:cementation 396:chrysocolla 316:hydrophobic 266:comminution 136:Rudna Glava 108:in eastern 18:Copper mine 6184:Categories 6169:Stamp sand 6119:Downs cell 5851:Buddle pit 5841:Rocker box 5698:Stamp mill 5639:Base metal 5607:Extraction 5539:0471059803 5513:Lab notes. 5384:Copper.org 5367:2023-02-08 5303:2023-02-08 5278:10 January 4722:2023-02-08 4697:2023-02-08 4557:2023-02-08 4527:2023-02-08 4345:C B Gill, 4332:C B Gill, 4302:8251919223 4097:C B Gill, 3411:0919086241 3390:0919086241 3354:2007-12-30 3335:027100441X 3312:C B Gill, 3257:January 3, 3015:3527306730 2981:References 2949:Metallurgy 2726:Kazakhstan 2360:10 kg 2133:Kazakhstan 1423:See also: 1419:Production 939:Converting 920:) and the 850:improve it 499:See also: 441:refractory 364:chalcocite 348:sphalerite 332:surfactant 225:See also: 151:Bronze Age 147:Copper Age 6011:Lixiviant 5976:Liquation 5869:(by heat) 5730:Ball mill 5673:Recycling 4501:24 August 4466:(Report). 4275:137350753 4166:135507603 4007:0304-3894 3905:0304-386X 3861:0301-7516 3818:253788625 3810:2095-2686 3758:1003-6326 3707:0960-8524 3661:0304-386X 3618:245562646 3610:1004-9541 3574:0892-6875 3513:2470-1343 3491:ACS Omega 3229:0892-7537 3033:. Science 2914:Biomining 2882:Criticism 2846:Recycling 2618:Indonesia 2429:Australia 2354:over the 2019:Indonesia 1734:Australia 1355:aluminium 1298:(COMEX), 1292:commodity 1210:– At the 1190:– At the 1157:reduction 1137:tellurium 1113:oxidation 975:→ Cu + SO 675:→ FeO.SiO 671:FeO + SiO 639:magnetite 436:supergene 400:atacamite 392:malachite 95:, in 1905 6205:Smelting 6139:Tailings 6003:Leaching 5971:Roasting 5922:Refining 5906:ISASMELT 5878:Smelting 5735:Rod mill 5718:SAG mill 5703:Arrastra 5507:Archived 5478:Archived 5465:16432205 5404:25 March 5311:citation 5222:12 April 5193:12 April 5165:23 March 5072:29 March 5046:29 March 5017:29 March 4988:29 March 4956:11 April 4927:29 March 4869:29 March 4713:"Copper" 4688:"Copper" 4589:23 March 4015:29609151 3959:: 29–36. 3715:26318845 3531:31720528 3098:16591930 2907:See also 2831:700,000 2825:310,000 2412:209,000 2388:Percent 2382:Percent 2376:Country 2341:Reserves 1450:Country 1382:warned: 1344:scrapped 1304:Shanghai 1286:A-grade 1260:tungsten 1133:selenium 1117:dissolve 1031:Refining 918:Glencore 906:smelting 902:ISASMELT 820:ISASMELT 813:ISASMELT 757:furnace 662:liquidus 609:Isasmelt 588:smelting 565:Smelting 559:Isasmelt 495:Roasting 485:tailings 344:tailings 334:such as 307:mine in 250:smelters 171:smelting 157:Smelting 110:Anatolia 69:its ores 6164:Red mud 6154:Clinker 5908:furnace 5816:Panning 5773:Trommel 5763:Vanning 5740:IsaMill 5713:AG mill 5708:Crusher 5656:Surface 5634:Mineral 5456:1360560 5433:Bibcode 5252:9 April 5132:Bibcode 4898:15 July 4840:15 July 4811:9 April 4779:9 April 4750:9 April 4671:9 April 4255:Bibcode 4220:Bibcode 4146:Bibcode 4023:4879400 3985:Bibcode 3885:Bibcode 3841:Bibcode 3788:Bibcode 3723:2254790 3687:Bibcode 3641:Bibcode 3554:Bibcode 3522:6844112 3460:Bibcode 3066:Bibcode 2809:90,000 2803:55,000 2757:11,000 2730:14,000 2709:11,000 2703:11,000 2682:20,000 2676:12,000 2655:20,000 2628:25,000 2622:11,000 2601:28,000 2595:20,000 2574:30,000 2568:20,000 2547:30,000 2544:0.968% 2520:35,000 2514:45,000 2493:38,000 2466:68,000 2439:93,000 2406:88,000 2334:19,100 2331:18,400 2328:18,200 2325:16,900 2322:16,100 2319:16,100 2316:16,100 2313:15,600 2310:15,500 2307:15,100 2304:15,000 2301:14,700 2298:13,800 2295:13,600 1374:History 1252:bismuth 1248:arsenic 1212:cathode 1169:arsenic 1153:cathode 1145:migrate 1121:soluble 1107:At the 1090:aqueous 1013:blister 971:CuS + O 783:tapping 776:S + FeO 649:)) and 511:calcine 388:azurite 259:, FeCuS 175:primary 128:Pločnik 79:History 6144:Gangue 5945:Poling 5751:Sizing 5651:Mining 5537: 5463: 5453: 5218:. 1996 5103: 5099:–125. 5068:. 2016 5042:. 2017 5013:. 2016 4984:. 2015 4952:. 2014 4923:. 2013 4894:. 2012 4865:. 2011 4836:. 2010 4807:. 2008 4775:. 2006 4746:. 2004 4639: 4523:. 2021 4300: 4273: 4164: 4021: 4013: 4005: 3903: 3859: 3816: 3808: 3756: 3721: 3713: 3705: 3659: 3616: 3608: 3572: 3529: 3519: 3511: 3409: 3388: 3333: 3227: 3181: 3148: 3121: 3096: 3089:389161 3086: 3037:6 June 3012: 2818: 2812:12.9% 2806:17.7% 2787:2.26% 2784:7,000 2777: 2760:3.55% 2750: 2739:0.86% 2736:6,000 2733:4.52% 2723: 2712:1.57% 2706:3.55% 2699:Canada 2696: 2685:2.86% 2679:3.87% 2672:Zambia 2669: 2658:2.86% 2642: 2631:3.57% 2625:3.55% 2615: 2604:4.00% 2598:6.45% 2591:Poland 2588: 2577:4.29% 2571:6.45% 2564:Russia 2561: 2550:4.29% 2541:3,000 2534: 2523:5.00% 2517:14.5% 2507: 2496:5.43% 2483:Mexico 2480: 2469:9.71% 2463:2.26% 2460:7,000 2453: 2442:13.2% 2436:2.26% 2433:7,000 2426: 2415:29.9% 2409:28.4% 2399: 2352:tonnes 2288: 2282:3,800 2279:3,600 2276:2,200 2273:2,000 2270:1,970 2267:1,900 2264:2,190 2261:2,030 2258:1,800 2255:1,835 2252:1,750 2249:1,610 2246:1,500 2243:1,500 2190:Poland 2187: 2130: 2076:Mexico 2073: 2032:1,050 2026:1,170 2023:1,160 2016: 1962:Canada 1959: 1905:Zambia 1902: 1848:Russia 1845: 1834:1,020 1831:1,030 1788: 1731: 1720:1,380 1717:1,360 1714:1,250 1711:1,170 1708:1,110 1705:1,110 1702:1,180 1699:1,310 1696:1,190 1693:1,200 1690:1,150 1687:1,160 1684:1,120 1681:1,140 1674: 1663:1,700 1660:1,380 1657:1,380 1654:1,300 1651:1,240 1648:1,250 1645:1,275 1642:1,270 1639:1,200 1636:1,049 1633:1,090 1630:1,040 1617: 1606:1,710 1603:1,760 1600:1,600 1597:1,630 1594:1,310 1591:1,190 1560: 1549:5,760 1546:5,750 1543:5,780 1540:5,430 1537:5,260 1534:5,420 1531:5,390 1528:5,330 1525:5,700 1522:5,560 1519:5,320 1516:5,410 1513:4,860 1510:4,580 1503: 1335:copper 1300:London 1264:silver 1135:, and 1125:silver 1055:poling 1021:ingots 696:prills 630:gangue 530:+ 3 O 340:galena 326:, but 271:gangue 140:Serbia 132:Serbia 65:copper 53:mine, 51:Huarón 5959:Other 5678:Scrap 5484:page. 5427:(5). 5212:(PDF) 5036:(PDF) 5007:(PDF) 4978:(PDF) 4946:(PDF) 4917:(PDF) 4888:(PDF) 4859:(PDF) 4830:(PDF) 4801:(PDF) 4769:(PDF) 4740:(PDF) 4716:(PDF) 4691:(PDF) 4584:Salon 4464:(PDF) 4413:(PDF) 4271:S2CID 4162:S2CID 4019:S2CID 3923:(PDF) 3814:S2CID 3719:S2CID 3614:S2CID 2834:100% 2828:100% 2821:World 2753:Zaire 2537:China 2402:Chile 2291:World 1563:China 1506:Chile 1492:2015 1489:2014 1486:2013 1483:2012 1480:2011 1477:2010 1474:2009 1471:2008 1468:2007 1465:2006 1462:2005 1459:2004 1456:2003 1453:2002 1192:anode 1109:anode 926:CSIRO 614:matte 526:CuFeS 67:from 6159:Chat 6149:Slag 5535:ISBN 5461:PMID 5406:2010 5317:link 5280:2019 5254:2008 5224:2014 5216:USGS 5195:2014 5167:2008 5101:ISBN 5074:2017 5066:USGS 5048:2017 5040:USGS 5019:2017 5011:USGS 4990:2015 4982:USGS 4958:2014 4950:USGS 4929:2015 4921:USGS 4900:2012 4892:USGS 4871:2015 4863:USGS 4842:2012 4834:USGS 4813:2008 4805:USGS 4781:2008 4773:USGS 4752:2008 4744:USGS 4673:2008 4637:ISBN 4591:2008 4503:2015 4420:2021 4298:ISBN 4011:PMID 4003:ISSN 3901:ISSN 3857:ISSN 3806:ISSN 3754:ISSN 3711:PMID 3703:ISSN 3657:ISSN 3606:ISSN 3570:ISSN 3527:PMID 3509:ISSN 3407:ISBN 3386:ISBN 3331:ISBN 3259:2013 3225:ISSN 3179:ISBN 3146:ISBN 3119:ISBN 3094:PMID 3039:2022 3010:ISBN 2793:N/A 2790:N/A 2766:N/A 2763:N/A 2652:N/A 2649:N/A 2490:N/A 2487:N/A 2456:Peru 2356:2.77 2233:N/A 2230:N/A 2227:429 2224:427 2221:427 2218:425 2215:439 2212:430 2209:470 2206:512 2203:530 2200:531 2197:500 2194:503 2176:N/A 2173:N/A 2170:446 2167:424 2164:417 2161:380 2158:390 2155:420 2152:460 2149:457 2146:400 2143:461 2140:480 2137:490 2119:594 2116:515 2113:480 2110:440 2107:443 2104:260 2101:238 2098:247 2095:400 2092:338 2089:420 2086:406 2083:330 2080:330 2062:N/A 2059:N/A 2056:504 2053:360 2050:543 2047:872 2044:996 2041:651 2038:780 2035:816 2029:840 2005:697 2002:696 1999:632 1996:579 1993:566 1990:525 1987:491 1984:607 1981:585 1978:607 1975:580 1972:546 1969:580 1966:600 1948:712 1945:708 1942:760 1939:690 1936:668 1933:690 1930:697 1927:546 1924:530 1921:476 1918:450 1915:427 1912:330 1909:330 1891:732 1888:742 1885:833 1882:883 1879:713 1876:703 1873:725 1870:750 1867:730 1864:725 1861:675 1858:675 1855:700 1852:695 1828:970 1825:600 1822:520 1819:343 1816:N/A 1813:N/A 1810:N/A 1807:N/A 1804:N/A 1801:N/A 1798:N/A 1795:N/A 1777:971 1774:970 1771:990 1768:958 1765:958 1762:870 1759:854 1756:886 1753:860 1750:859 1747:930 1744:854 1741:870 1738:873 1627:850 1624:843 1620:Peru 1588:995 1585:950 1582:920 1579:890 1576:640 1573:620 1570:565 1567:585 1353:and 1351:iron 1268:gold 1256:lead 1222:→ Cu 1199:: Cu 1173:zinc 1171:and 1129:gold 1025:slag 1017:pigs 1000:→ Fe 900:The 658:slag 599:and 390:and 362:and 352:Lime 322:and 203:and 126:The 99:The 55:Peru 34:The 5624:Ore 5451:PMC 5441:doi 5425:103 5346:in 5097:121 4633:109 4610:118 4263:doi 4228:doi 4154:doi 3993:doi 3981:352 3931:112 3893:doi 3849:doi 3796:doi 3746:doi 3695:doi 3683:196 3649:doi 3598:doi 3562:doi 3517:PMC 3499:doi 3468:doi 3456:165 3433:doi 3429:251 3215:doi 3175:165 3084:PMC 3074:doi 3002:doi 1266:or 1258:or 1224:(s) 1201:(s) 1165:(s) 1019:or 1004:SiO 924:'s 805:In 689:(Cu 641:(Fe 635:FeO 617:or 591:or 513:". 410:or 242:ore 142:). 91:in 6186:: 5459:. 5449:. 5439:. 5423:. 5417:. 5392:. 5313:}} 5309:{{ 5240:. 5214:. 5184:. 5156:. 5144:^ 5130:. 5126:. 5064:. 5038:. 5009:. 4980:. 4966:^ 4948:. 4919:. 4890:. 4861:. 4832:. 4803:. 4789:^ 4771:. 4742:. 4659:. 4635:. 4608:. 4582:. 4566:^ 4548:. 4536:^ 4519:. 4388:^ 4372:^ 4354:^ 4309:^ 4283:^ 4269:. 4261:. 4251:50 4249:. 4226:. 4216:32 4214:. 4187:^ 4160:. 4152:. 4140:. 4126:^ 4119:81 4075:^ 4057:^ 4017:. 4009:. 4001:. 3991:. 3979:. 3975:. 3957:42 3955:. 3951:. 3939:^ 3929:. 3925:. 3899:. 3891:. 3881:96 3879:. 3855:. 3847:. 3837:58 3835:. 3812:. 3804:. 3794:. 3784:32 3782:. 3778:. 3766:^ 3752:. 3742:18 3740:. 3717:. 3709:. 3701:. 3693:. 3681:. 3669:^ 3655:. 3647:. 3637:84 3635:. 3612:. 3604:. 3594:41 3592:. 3568:. 3560:. 3550:53 3548:. 3525:. 3515:. 3507:. 3493:. 3489:. 3466:. 3454:. 3427:. 3267:^ 3245:. 3223:. 3211:34 3209:. 3205:. 3187:. 3177:. 3092:. 3082:. 3072:. 3062:68 3060:. 3056:. 3008:. 3000:. 2988:^ 1370:. 1254:, 1250:, 1180:Cu 1161:Cu 1131:, 1127:, 768:Cu 653:. 607:, 557:, 356:pH 5837:) 5833:( 5567:e 5560:t 5553:v 5467:. 5443:: 5435:: 5408:. 5370:. 5350:. 5319:) 5282:. 5256:. 5226:. 5197:. 5169:. 5134:: 5109:. 5076:. 5050:. 5021:. 4992:. 4960:. 4931:. 4902:. 4873:. 4844:. 4815:. 4783:. 4754:. 4725:. 4700:. 4675:. 4645:. 4593:. 4560:. 4530:. 4505:. 4422:. 4304:. 4277:. 4265:: 4257:: 4234:. 4230:: 4222:: 4168:. 4156:: 4148:: 4142:5 4025:. 3995:: 3987:: 3907:. 3895:: 3887:: 3863:. 3851:: 3843:: 3820:. 3798:: 3790:: 3760:. 3748:: 3725:. 3697:: 3689:: 3663:. 3651:: 3643:: 3620:. 3600:: 3576:. 3564:: 3556:: 3533:. 3501:: 3495:4 3474:. 3470:: 3462:: 3439:. 3435:: 3413:. 3392:. 3357:. 3337:. 3261:. 3231:. 3217:: 3154:. 3127:. 3100:. 3076:: 3068:: 3041:. 3018:. 3004:: 2358:× 1155:( 1111:( 1006:4 1002:2 998:2 992:2 988:2 977:2 973:2 965:2 961:2 883:) 877:( 872:) 868:( 864:. 846:. 822:. 774:2 770:2 691:2 677:2 673:2 647:4 645:O 643:3 551:2 536:2 532:2 528:2 382:. 261:2 138:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index