Copyright law of the United States

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will infer copying by a showing of a "striking similarity" between the copyrighted work and the alleged copy, along with a showing of both access and use of that access. A plaintiff may establish "access" by proof of distribution over a large geographical area, or by eyewitness testimony that the defendant owned a copy of the protected work. Access alone is not sufficient to establish infringement. The plaintiff must show a similarity between the two works, and the degree of similarity will affect the probability that illicit copying in fact occurred in the court's eyes. Even then, the plaintiff must show that the copying amounted to improper appropriation. Indeed, the United States Supreme Court has held that not all copying constitutes infringement and a showing of misappropriation is necessary.

713: 1337:, which bars most forms of lawsuits against states in federal courts, but can be abrogated in certain circumstances by Congress. The Copyright Remedy and Clarification Act of 1990 (CRCA) states in part that states are liable to copyright infringement "in the same manner and to the same extent as any nongovernmental entity" and also that states and state entities and officials "shall not be immune, under the Eleventh Amendment to the Constitution of the United States or under any other doctrine of sovereign immunity, from suit in Federal Court by any person" alleging copyright infringement. The CRCA has been declared unconstitutional by several federal courts., and this was upheld by the US Supreme Court on March 23, 2020. 916: 776:, which extended federal copyright protection to all sound recordings, regardless of their date of creation, and preempted state copyright laws on those works. Under the Act, the first sound recordings to enter the public domain were those fixed before 1923, which entered the public domain on January 1, 2022. Recordings fixed between 1923 and February 14, 1972, will be phased into the public domain in the following decades. Specifically, works fixed 1923–1946 are public after 100 years and works fixed 1947–1956 after 110 years of fixation. Works fixed 1 January 1957 – 14 February 1972 will all become public on 15 February 2067. 1414:" problem arose in the United States with the enactment of the Copyright Act of 1976, which eliminated the need to register copyrighted works, instead declaring that all "original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression" fall into copyright status. The elimination of registration also eliminated a central recording location to track and identify copyright-holders. Consequently, potential users of copyrighted works, e.g., filmmakers or biographers, must assume that many works they might use are copyrighted. Where the planned use would not be otherwise permitted by law (for example, by 1004:. "The use must be productive and must employ the quoted matter in a different manner or for a different purpose from the original. A quotation of copyrighted material that merely repackages or republishes the original is unlikely to pass the test.... If, on the other hand, the secondary use adds value to the original—if the quoted matter is used as raw material, transformed in the creation of new information, new aesthetics, new insights and understandings—this is the very type of activity that the fair use doctrine intends to protect for the enrichment of society." 1188:

must prove to the court that, in the absence of the infringement, the plaintiff would have been able to make additional sales, or perhaps been able to charge higher prices, and that this would have resulted in profits given the owner's cost structure. In some cases, the profits earned by the infringer exploiting the copyrighted material may exceed those earned by or potentially available to the owner. In these circumstances, the copyright owner can recover the infringer's profits if he or she can demonstrate a nexus between the profits and the infringing use.

582:: A collective work is a collection of independent, separately copyrightable works of authorship, such as a newspaper, magazine, or encyclopedia. In the absence of an express assignment of copyright, the author of each individual work in the collection retains copyright in that work. The compiler, or author of the collection, owns copyright in the expression he or she contributed, which is primarily the selection and arrangement of the separate contributions, but may include such things as a preface, advertisements, etc., that the collective author created. 830: 345:

painter's canvas—they would qualify as "two-dimensional ... works of ... art". And imaginatively removing the surface decorations from the uniforms and applying them in another medium would not replicate the uniform itself. Indeed, respondents have applied the designs in this case to other media of expression—different types of clothing—without replicating the uniform. The decorations are therefore separable from the uniforms and eligible for copyright protection.

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of the common law, and the work was done within the scope of their employment (whether the work is the kind they were employed to prepare; whether the preparation takes place primarily within the employer's time and place specifications; and whether the work was activated, at least in part, by a purpose to serve the employer), then the work is a work for hire and the employer is the initial owner of the copyright.

164:, is "to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries." This includes incentivizing the creation of art, literature, architecture, music, and other works of authorship. As with many legal doctrines, the effectiveness of copyright law in achieving its stated purpose is a matter of debate. 1172:

seizure order. At any time during the lawsuit, the court may order the impoundment of any and all copies of the infringing products. The seizure order may include materials used to produce such copies, such as master tapes, film negatives, printing plates, etc. Items that are impounded during the course of the lawsuit can, if the plaintiff wins, be ordered destroyed as part of the final decree.

988:: Here, courts review whether, and to what extent, the unlicensed use harms the existing or future market for the copyright owner's original work. In assessing this factor, courts consider whether the use is hurting the current market for the original work (for example, by displacing sales of the original) and/or whether the use could cause substantial harm if it were to become widespread. 4532: 1434:, entitled the Copyright Clause Restoration Act of 2022, seeks to reduce the protection from 70 years after the creator's death (post-1978) and 95 years (pre-1978) to 28 years, with the option to renew it at the end of that term for a limit of 56 years total. These same terms were in place from 1909 up until 1976. A similar bill was also introduced in 2023. 317:"the design of a useful article, as defined in this section, shall be considered a pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work only if, and only to the extent that, such design incorporates pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features that can be identified separately from, and are capable of existing independently of, the utilitarian aspects of the article." 299:" doctrine. That is, copyright protection requires creativity, and no amount of hard work ("sweat of the brow") can transform a non-creative list (like an alphabetical listing of phone numbers) into copyrightable subject matter. A mechanical, non-selective collection of facts (e.g., alphabetized phone numbers) cannot be protected by copyright. 3461:, 982 F.2d 693, (2nd Cir. 1992) (where court chose the subtraction method for two computer programs whose total concept were the same. Individual copied elements of the program were non-protectible material because they constituted a process or idea in the program, their utilitarian aspects barring copyright protection; no infringement found). 745:(which was January 1, 1978) this requirement was removed and these unpublished, unregistered works received protection. However, Congress intended to provide an incentive for these authors to publish their unpublished works. To provide that incentive, these works, if published before 2003, would not have their protection expire before 2048. 48:, copyright law assigns a set of exclusive rights to authors: to make and sell copies of their works, to create derivative works, and to perform or display their works publicly. These exclusive rights are subject to a time and generally expire 70 years after the author's death or 95 years after publication. In the United States, works 277:, allows copyright protection for "compilations", as long as there is some "creative" or "original" act involved in developing the compilation, such as in the selection (deciding which facts to include or exclude) and arrangement (how facts are displayed and in what order). Copyright protection in compilations is limited to the 752:; works created but not published or copyrighted before January 1, 1978, may be protected until 2047. For works that received their copyright before 1978, a renewal had to be filed in the work's 28th year with the Copyright Office for its term of protection to be extended. The need for renewal was eliminated by the 704:, amending US copyright law in 1989, makes copyright automatic. However, the lack of notice of copyright using these marks may have consequences in terms of reduced damages in an infringement lawsuit—using notices of this form may reduce the likelihood of a defense of "innocent infringement" being successful. 1248:

Cost and attorney fees: Copyright Act § 505 permits courts, in their discretion, to award costs against either party and to award reasonable attorney fees to the prevailing party. The court may (but is not required to) award to the "prevailing party" reasonable attorney's fees. This applies to both a

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To bring a copyright infringement lawsuit, a copyright holder must establish ownership of a valid copyright and the copying of constituent elements of the work that are original. The copyright owner must also establish both (a) actual copying and (b) improper appropriation of the work. The copyright

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The United States copyright law protects "original works of authorship" fixed in a tangible medium, including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and other intellectual works. This protection is available to both published and unpublished works. Copyright law includes the following types of works:

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For works created before 1978, but not published or registered before 1978, the standard §302 copyright duration of 70 years from the author's death also applies. Prior to 1978, works had to be published or registered to receive copyright protection. Upon the effective date of the 1976 Copyright Act

682:

The United States Copyright Office requires a deposit copy of the work for which copyright registration is sought. Deposits can be made through the Copyright Office's eCO System. This deposit requirement serves two purposes. First, if a copyright infringement lawsuit arises, the owner may prove that

551:

within the scope of their employment. In Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989), the Supreme Court held that the term "employee" in this context should be interpreted according to common law agency principles. If the person doing the work is an "employee" within the meaning

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As a matter of longstanding public policy, the U.S. Copyright Office will not register a government edict that has been issued by any state, local, or territorial government, including legislative enactments, judicial decisions, administrative rulings, public ordinances, or similar types of official

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Works created by the federal government are not copyrightable. This restriction on copyright applies to publications produced by the United States Government, and its agents or employees within the scope of their employment. However, government contractors are generally not considered employees, and

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to determine when a "pictorial, graphic, or sculptural feature" incorporated into a useful article is eligible for copyright protection, holding that such features are eligible for copyright protection "only if the feature (1) can be perceived as a two- or three-dimensional work of art separate from

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A plaintiff establishes "actual copying" with direct or indirect evidence. Direct evidence is satisfied either by a defendant's admission to copying or the testimony of witnesses who observed the defendant in the act. More commonly, a plaintiff relies on circumstantial or indirect evidence. A court

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Copyright is automatically granted to the author of an original work (that otherwise meets the basic copyright requirements, discussed above). Registration is not necessary. However, registration amplifies a copyright holder's rights in a number of ways. Registration, or refusal of registration, is

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Title 17, United States Code, Section 108 places limitations on exclusive copyrights for the purposes of certain limited reproduction by a public library or an archive. Title 17, United States Code, Section 107 also places statutory limits on copyright which are commonly referred to as the fair use

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In addition to the civil remedies, the Copyright Act provides for criminal prosecution in some cases of willful copyright infringement. There are also criminal sanctions for fraudulent copyright notice, fraudulent removal of copyright notice, and false representations in applications for copyright

1240:, a 2003 lawsuit between a publisher of stock analysis newsletters against a company that buys one copy of the newsletters and makes multiple copies for use in-house, the jury awarded damages – actual damages for some newsletters and statutory damages for other newsletters – totaling $ 20 million. 1194:

are available as an alternative to actual damages and profits. If the copyright was registered either (a) within three months of publication or (b) before the infringement, then the plaintiff is eligible to seek statutory damages. Statutory damages can be awarded by the court within the range of $

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The copyright owner may recover the profits he or she would have earned absent the infringement (actual damages) and any profits the infringer might have made as a result of the infringement but that are not already considered in calculating actual damages. To recover actual damages, the plaintiff

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Both temporary and permanent injunctions are available to prevent or restrain infringement of a copyright. An "injunction" is a court order directing the defendant to stop doing something (e.g., stop selling infringing copies). One form of equitable relief that is available in copyright cases is a

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copyright. Subsequent amendments had extended this latter provision until 2067. As a result, older sound recordings were not subject to the expiration rules that applied to contemporary visual works. Although these could have entered the public domain as a result of government authorship or formal

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Copyright protection generally lasts for 70 years after the death of the author. If the work was a "work for hire", then copyright persists for 120 years after creation or 95 years after publication, whichever is shorter. For works created before 1978, the copyright duration rules are complicated.

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Specially ordered or commissioned works. Works created by independent contractors (rather than employees) can be deemed works for hire only if two conditions are satisfied. First, the work must fit into one of these categories: a contribution to a collective work, part of a motion picture or other

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granted the motion for reconsideration which North Carolina promptly appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. The 4th Circuit denied the state's motion on October 14, 2022. Nautilus then filed their second amended complaint on February 8, 2023, alleging 5th and 14th

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First, one can identify the decorations as features having pictorial, graphic, or sculptural qualities. Second, if the arrangement of colors, shapes, stripes, and chevrons on the surface of the cheerleading uniforms were separated from the uniform and applied in another medium—for example, on a

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The US copyright law recognizes joint authorship in Section 101. The authors of a joint work are co-owners of a single copyright in the work. A joint work is "a work prepared by two or more authors with the intention that their contributions be merged into inseparable or independent parts of a

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courts. (With an exception for works not protected under Federal law, but are protected under state law, e.g. state laws prohibiting copying of sound recordings made before February 15, 1972.) Note that the Copyright Office handles copyright registrations, but it does not adjudicate copyright

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Provisions for the Blind and Disabled: The Copyright Act, in 17 USC 121 and 17 USC 110(8), includes specific statutory exceptions for reproduction of material for the blind or other persons with disabilities. Section 121 (the "Chafee Amendment") permits the reproduction of copyright works in

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A copyright can be registered online at the US Copyright Office's website. The Copyright Office reviews applications for obvious errors or lack of copyrightable subject matter and then issues a certificate of registration. The Copyright Office does not compare the author's new work against a

1418:), they must themselves individually investigate the copyright status of each work they plan to use. With no central database of copyright-holders, identifying and contacting copyright-holders can sometimes be difficult; those works that fall into this category may be considered "orphaned". 961:

mean that all nonprofit education and noncommercial uses are fair use or that all commercial uses are not fair. Instead, courts will balance the purpose and character of the use against the other factors below. Additionally, "transformative" uses are more likely to be considered fair.

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In addition to these four factors, the statute also allows courts to consider any other factors that may be relevant to the fair use analysis. Courts evaluate fair use claims on a case-by-case basis, and the outcome of any given case depends on the specific facts of that case. There is

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However, many industrial designers create works that are both artistic and functional. Under these circumstances, copyright law only protects the artistic expression of such a work, and only to the extent that the artistic expression can be separated from its utilitarian function.

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commercials portraying "McDonaldland" had used as its basis the "H.R. Pufnstuf" television show. Corresponding characters to each, while displaying marked differences, taken altogether demonstrated that McDonald's had captured the total concept and feel of the show and had thus

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winning plaintiff (copyright owner) and a winning defendant (accused infringer). However, attorney's fees award is not available against the government. Like statutory damages, attorney's fees are not available if the work infringed is not registered at the time of infringement.

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If a work is not a work for hire, then the author will be the initial copyright owner. The author generally is the person who conceives of the copyrightable expression and "fixes" it in a "tangible medium of expression." Special rules apply when multiple authors are involved:

1159:§411(a) states that a civil action to enforce a copyright claim in a US work cannot be made until the work has been registered with the U.S. Copyright Office, with a narrow exception if the claim was filed and rejected by the Copyright Office. In 2019, the U.S. Supreme Court 1395:

A work may enter the public domain in a number of different ways. For example, (a) the copyright protecting the work may have expired, or (b) the owner may have explicitly donated the work to the public, or (c) the work is not the type of work that copyright can protect.

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Injunctions: Copyright Act § 502 authorizes courts to grant both preliminary and permanent injunctions against copyright infringement. There are also provisions for impounding allegedly infringing copies and other materials used to infringe, and for their destruction.

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audiovisual work, a translation, a supplementary work, a compilation, an instructional text, a test, answer material for a test, or an atlas. Second, the parties must expressly agree in a written, signed instrument that the work will be considered a work made for hire.

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In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such

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between the two works. The intended audience may be the general public, or a specialized field. The degree of similarity necessary for a court to find misappropriation is not easily defined. Indeed, "the test for infringement of a copyright is of necessity vague."

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In case of "innocent infringement", the amount may be reduced to a sum "not less than $ 200" for an effective range of $ 200 to $ 30,000 per work. "Innocent" is a technical term. In particular, if the work carries a copyright notice, the infringer cannot claim

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the useful article and (2) would qualify as a protectable pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work—either on its own or fixed in some other tangible medium of expression—if it were imagined separately from the useful article into which it is incorporated."

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decision "really has ensured that all but the subtlest graphic designs will be able to gain copyright protection...once we determine that the designs 'hav … graphic … qualities … applied … on a painter's canvas,' the test for copyrightability is met."

763:

and statutes, some of which had no duration limit. The Sound Recording Amendment of 1971 extended federal copyright to recordings fixed on or after February 15, 1972, and declared that recordings fixed before that date would remain subject to state or

1129:(1970). The individual elements of the alleged infringing work may by themselves be substantially different from their corresponding part in the copyrighted work, but nevertheless taken together be a clear misappropriation of copyrightable material. 787:

that "remastered" versions of pre-1972 recordings can receive a federal copyright as a distinct work due to the amount of creative effort expressed in the process. The Ninth Circuit appeals court reversed the decision in favor of ABS Entertainment.

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imposes criminal sanctions for certain acts of circumvention and interference with copyright management information. There are not criminal sanctions for violating the rights of attribution and integrity held by the author of a work of visual art.

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clarified the requirements for copyright in compilations. The Feist case denied copyright protection to a "white pages" phone book (a compilation of telephone numbers, listed alphabetically). In making this ruling, the Supreme Court rejected the

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Copyright infringement occurs when someone violates one of the exclusive rights listed in 17 USC 106. Commonly, this involves someone creating or distributing a "copy" of a protected work that is "substantially similar" to the original version.

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The Supreme Court has also ruled that annotated versions of statutes or court decisions at the federal, state, and local level, when such annotations are done by members of the government as part of their duties, are ineligible for copyright in

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The US government, its agencies and officials, and corporations owned or controlled by it, are subject to suit for copyright infringement. All infringement claims against the U.S. that did not arise in a foreign country must be filed with the

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Modern courts may sometimes use both methods in their analysis of misappropriation. In other instances, one method may find misappropriation while the other would not, making misappropriation a contentious topic in infringement litigation.

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A "useful article" is an article having an intrinsic utilitarian function that is not merely to portray the appearance of the article or to convey information. An article that is normally a part of a useful article is considered a "useful

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The Copyright Act includes specific exemptions for types of works and particular entities, such as libraries, public broadcasters, braille software backup copies, "cover license" permitting sound recording covers, and jukebox compulsory

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The first two, assignment and exclusive licenses, require the transfer to be in writing. Nonexclusive licenses need not be in writing and they may be implied by the circumstances. Transfers of copyright always involve one or more of the

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Statutory damages are not available if the work is published but the infringement commenced after the first publication and before the effective date of its registration, unless registration is made within three months after the first

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the first sale by the copyright owner. The owner of a particular copy is entitled to "sell or otherwise dispose of the possession of that copy" and to "display the copy publicly ... to viewers present at the place where the copy is

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The "good faith" defense (Section 504(c)(2)) reduces the statutory damages where the infringer was an educational institution, library, archive, or public broadcaster and reasonably believed that the infringing use was "fair

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The citizens are the authors of the law, and therefore its owners, regardless of who actually drafts the provisions, because the law derives its authority from the consent of the public, expressed through the democratic

978:: Courts look at both the quantity and quality of the copyrighted material that was used. Using a large portion of the copyrighted work is less likely to be fair use. However, courts have occasionally found use of an 4977: 4691: 725:

However, works published before January 1, 1929 (other than sound recordings), have made their way into the public domain. All copyright terms run to the end of the calendar year in which they would otherwise expire.

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legal materials. Likewise, the Office will not register a government edict issued by any foreign government or any translation prepared by a government employee acting within the course of his or her official duties.

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Although fundamental, the idea–expression dichotomy is often difficult to put into practice. Reasonable people can disagree about where the unprotectable "idea" ends and the protectable "expression" begins. As Judge

1088:. A plaintiff alleging misappropriation must first demonstrate that what the defendant appropriated from the copyrighted work was protectable. Second, a plaintiff must show that the intended audience will recognize 3078:

To qualify as a work of 'authorship' a work must be created by a human being.... Works that do not satisfy this requirement are not copyrightable. The Office will not register works produced by nature, animals, or

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Statutory damages are sometimes preferable for the plaintiff if actual damages and profits are too small, too difficult to prove, or both. There are, however, situations where statutory damages are not available.

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codifies that copyright protection does not extend to ideas, procedures, processes, systems, etc. Facts may not be copyrighted. "Useful articles" may not be copyrighted. Useful articles includes typeface designs

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Statutory damages are calculated per work infringed. According to clause (1) of Title 17, U.S.C. Section 504(c), statutory damages range from $ 750 per work to $ 30,000 per work, with two principal exceptions:

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The totality method, also known as the "total concept and feel" approach, takes the work as a whole with all elements included when determining if a substantial similarity exists. This was first formulated in

946:, and states that "the fair use of a copyrighted work ... is not an infringement of copyright." The section lists four factors that must be assessed to determine whether a particular use is fair. There are no 501:

the work, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, pantomimes, and pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, including the individual images of a motion picture or other audiovisual

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The Congress shall have Power to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.

5978: 5761: 1145:. As of 2019, the United States Supreme Court has held that a copyright holder must register his copyright with the U.S. copyright office before he may seek any judicial remedies for infringement. 982:

work to be fair use, and in other contexts, using even a small amount of a copyrighted work was determined not to be fair use because the selection was an important part—or the "heart"—of the work.

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began as a suit by Varsity Brands against Star Athletica for infringing the copyright of five cheerleader uniform designs. Applying its new test to the cheerleader uniform designs, the court said:

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The terms of the license are governed by the applicable contract law; however, there is substantial academic debate about to what extent the Copyright Act preempts state contract law principles.

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This produces a relatively low threshold for pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features on useful articles to be eligible for copyright protection, which one commentator clearly highlighted: the

756:, but works that had already entered the public domain by non-renewal did not regain copyright protection. Therefore, works published before 1964 that were not renewed are in the public domain. 683:

the material that is infringed is exactly the same material for which the owner has secured a registration. Second, this requirement helps the Library of Congress build its collection of works.

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The subtractive method, also known as the "abstraction/subtraction approach", seeks to analyze which parts of a copyrighted work are protectible and which are not. The unprotected elements are

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Damages and/or Profits: Copyright Act § 504 gives the copyright owner a choice of recovering: (1) their actual damages and any additional profits of the defendant; or (2) statutory damages.

1184:. One can have injunctions and no damages, or damages and no injunctions, or both injunctions and damages. There are two types of damages: actual damages and profits, or statutory damages. 733:

For works published or registered before 1978, the maximum copyright duration is 95 years from the date of publication, if copyright was renewed during the 28th year following publication.

258:

put it, "Obviously, no principle can be stated as to when an imitator has gone beyond copying the 'idea,' and has borrowed its 'expression.' Decisions must therefore inevitably be ad hoc."

75:

has the power "To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries."

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Registration is not required to establish copyright protection, but registration is necessary before bringing a lawsuit. Registration is also useful because it creates a presumption of a

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may not be protected by copyright, but are restricted by other applicable laws. Even in case of non-classified materials, there may be specific prohibitions against usage, such as the

6077: 5785: 5738: 5698: 894: 6752: 6101: 6029: 5954: 5866: 4401: 3699: 3542: 3533: 1160: 135:), which increased it even more, to 95 years after publication (120 years after creation for unpublished works), or the life of the author plus 70 years, whichever ends earlier. 6744: 6109: 2023: 1334: 1232:

In case of "willful infringement" (again, "willful" is a technical term), statutory damages can be no more than $ 150,000 for an effective range of $ 750 to $ 150,000 per work.

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likely to support fair use than using a factual work (such as a technical article or news item). In addition, use of an unpublished work is less likely to be considered fair.

2182:

Bryan M. Carson. Legally Speaking—Independent Contractors, Work For Hire Agreements and The Way To Avoid A Sticky Mess. Against the Grain 16.6 (December 2005/January 2006).

897:("OCILLA", passed as part of the DMCA in 1998) provides a contingent "safe harbor" for online service providers from secondary liability for their users' copy infringements. 6093: 4363: 1479: 3903: 616:

An author, after transferring a copyright, can terminate the transfer under certain circumstances. This right to terminate the transfer is absolute and cannot be waived.

6464: 6133: 2795: 4143: 2301: 6173: 5470: 331: 3120: 1917: 2342: 2332:(c)(5) ("Termination of the grant may be effected notwithstanding any agreement to the contrary, including an agreement to make a will or to make any future grant.") 6776: 6037: 5938: 686:

Failure to comply with the deposit requirement, as modified by Copyright Office regulations, is punishable by fine, but does not result in forfeiture of copyright.

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Bryan M. Carson. Basic Copyright Exceptions for Educators. Bowling Green, Kentucky: Faculty Center for Excellence in Teaching, Western Kentucky University, 2013.

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and the fact finder then determines whether substantial similarities exist in the protectible expression which remains. For instance, if the copyright holder for

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states that the author must write a letter requesting a termination of the original copyright grant at least two years before the effective termination date.

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Transformative uses are those that add something new, with a further purpose or different character, and do not substitute for the original use of the work.

6866: 6213: 5946: 5630: 5463: 2419: 1258: 373: 4241: 3591:

Gordon V. Smith & Russel L. Parr, "Intellectual Property: Valuation, Exploitation, and Infringement Damages," John Wiley & Sons, 2005, pp 617–630.

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of copyright. For instance, a license may provide a right to perform a work, but not to reproduce it or to prepare a derivative work (adaptation right).

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Copyright protects artistic expression. Copyright does not protect useful articles, or objects with some useful functionality. The Copyright Act states:

250:, and is not copyrightable. Another author is free to describe the same theory in their own words without infringing on the original author's copyright. 5858: 3727: 2769: 2082: 6559: 6453: 6197: 4075: 540:

is deemed to be the author and will own the copyright as though it were the true author. These circumstances under which a work may be found to be a

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There are six basic rights protected by copyright. The owner of a copyright has the exclusive right to do and authorize others to do the following:

4490: 3837:"Statement of Marybeth Peters, The Register of Copyrights, before the Subcommittee on Courts and Intellectual Property, Committee on the Judiciary" 3062: 3019: 6837: 6829: 5818: 5687: 5033: 3639: 1330: 5930: 4391: 1637: 67:. The United States Constitution explicitly grants Congress the power to create copyright law under Article 1, Section 8, Clause 8, known as the 3082:

The Compendium lists several examples of such ineligible works, including "a photograph taken by a monkey" and "a mural painted by an elephant".

1019:

Infringements requires copying. If two people happen to write exactly the same story, without knowledge of the other, there is no infringement.

997:

to ensure that a predetermined percentage or amount of a work—or specific number of words, lines, pages, copies—may be used without permission.

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of 1998 (also called the "Mickey Mouse Protection Act", because it prevented the copyright from expiring on the first commercial success of the

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Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com LLC et al. 586 U.S. ___, 139 S. Ct. 881; 203 L. Ed. 2d 147; 129 U.S.P.Q. 2d 1453 (2019).

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750 to $ 30,000, but this can be lowered if the infringement is deemed inadvertent, or increased significantly if the infringement is willful.

1125: 2979: 2698: 2278: 1721: 6874: 6320: 6125: 5131: 4137: 4098:"AN ACT TO MAKE VARIOUS CHANGES TO THE STATUTES GOVERNING THE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL AND CULTURAL RESOURCES, AS RECOMMENDED BY THE DEPARTMENT" 3396: 2370: 1350:

filed a motion for reconsideration in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina. On August 18, 2021, Judge

1319: 398:

and are ineligible for copyright, a concept known as the government edicts doctrine. It is not difficult to see the motivations behind this:

369:

their works may be subject to copyright. Additionally, the government can purchase and hold the copyright to works created by third parties.

6905: 6336: 6312: 6189: 5962: 494:

the work, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, pantomimes, and motion pictures and other audiovisual works;

453: 1541: 3942: 3502:"Opinion analysis: A copyright owner can't sue for infringement before the Register has processed its copyright registration application" 3402: 3158: 1887: 1866: 1845: 1813: 1163:

that §411(a) requires that a lawsuit cannot be initiated until the Copyright Office has processed, not merely received, the application.

6543: 6344: 6245: 5906: 5588: 5519: 5435: 5060: 4838: 4576: 4466: 4165: 2083:"US Supreme Court Rules Georgia's Official Annotated Code Outside the Scope of Copyright Protection Under "Government Edicts" Doctrine" 1061:

A plaintiff establishes ownership by authorship (by the plaintiff itself or by someone who assigned rights to the plaintiff) of (1) an

825:), fashion designs, blank forms, titles, names, short phrases, slogans, lists of ingredients and contents, domain names and band names. 6450: 6304: 6149: 6061: 5970: 5882: 5652: 5497: 5225: 3883: 3866: 3749: 3680: 3655: 3616: 3576: 3558: 3480: 3290: 2945: 2930: 2914: 2899: 2884: 2869: 2861: 2846: 2644: 2629: 2579: 2564: 2549: 2535: 2325: 2317: 2262: 2167: 2113: 1978: 1963: 1948: 1518: 1375: 1200: 939: 847: 810: 801: 636: 430: 285: 226: 64: 4298: 4260: 3990: 2013: 1739:

Bryan M. Carson. Legally Speaking—The Top Ten Intellectual Property Cases of the Past 25 Years. Against the Grain 17.2 (April 2005).

1366:

Eight years after the passage of Blackbeard's Law, on June 30, 2023, North Carolina Gov. Roy Cooper signed a bill repealing the law.

217:

Copyright law protects the "expression" of an idea, but copyright does not protect the "idea" itself. This distinction is called the

6910: 6796: 6587: 6205: 5997: 5098: 5028: 4349: 3093: 2732:"The New Music Modernization Act Has a Major Fix: Older Recordings Will Belong to the Public, Orphan Recordings Will Be Heard Again" 1660: 1405: 1388:

rights at all (copyright, trademark, patent, or otherwise). However, this article discusses public domain with respect to copyright

6551: 3388:

Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure: The Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights

915: 6805: 5692: 5350: 5315: 4931: 4772: 4646: 4396: 4250: 3968: 3239: 1265: 195: 2825: 112:. The length of copyright established by the Founding Fathers was 14 years, plus the ability to renew it one time, for 14 more. 6784: 6478: 6394: 6261: 2662:"Protection for Pre-1972 Sound Recordings under State Law and Its Impact on Use by Nonprofit Institutions: A 10-State Analysis" 759:

Before 1972, sound recordings were not subject to federal copyright, but copying was nonetheless regulated under various state

6667: 3844: 2791: 1702: 1588: 1355:

Amendment violations of Nautilus' constitutional rights, additional copyright violations, and claiming that North Carolina's "

1309:

Felony penalties for first offenses begin at seven copies for audiovisual works, and one hundred copies for sound recordings.

1096:

Two methods are used to determine if unlawful appropriation has occurred: the "subtractive method" and the "totality method".

1072:

copyright, it allows the plaintiff to collect enhanced "statutory damages", and to be eligible for an award of attorney fees.

955:

Purpose and character of the use, including whether the use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes

6712: 6704: 6635: 6604: 5507: 3058: 2735: 2298: 2052: 1604: 938:

Fair use is the use of limited amounts of copyrighted material in such a way as to not be an infringement. It is codified at

808:. Works that are not "original works of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression" are not subject to copyright. 79: 2468: 2444: 2396: 1899: 1825: 1768: 1426:

Critics of copyright assert that copyright protections last too long before copyrighted works are allowed to enter into the

4802: 3269: 3128: 1384:

are free for anyone to copy and use. Strictly speaking, the term "public domain" means that the work is not covered by any

1211:

Statutory damages are not available if the work is unpublished and the infringement began before the effective date of its

6253: 6221: 6157: 5658: 5385: 5370: 4777: 4521: 4478: 3188: 3024: 753: 738: 661: 4514: 4235: 796:

United States copyright law includes numerous defenses, exceptions, and limitations. Some of the most important include:

487:

copies or phonorecords of the work to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending;

6687: 6527: 6360: 6328: 5681: 5669: 5410: 5390: 5325: 5320: 5215: 5085: 5045: 4718: 4713: 4593: 2608: 1489: 124: 83: 3774: 2511: 2206: 2186: 2142: 1743: 6768: 6728: 5842: 5420: 5285: 5170: 5165: 5001: 4792: 4708: 4656: 4651: 4018: 3004: 1484: 1323: 1031: 920: 908: 119:

It was not until a full 180 years after its establishment that it was significantly extended beyond that, through the

6407: 218: 3805: 3600:

R. B. Troxel and W.O. Kerr, "Assets and Finance: Calculating Intellectual Property Damages", West, 2014, pp 462-472.

1084:

A copyrighted work may contain elements that are not copyrightable, such as facts, ideas, themes, or content in the

6813: 6141: 5445: 5400: 5255: 5160: 5155: 5080: 4863: 4782: 4676: 4666: 4630: 4546: 4386: 670:

required before a lawsuit can be filed, and registration creates the possibility for enhanced "statutory" damages.

149: 4434: 854:, limits the rights of copyright holders to control the further distribution and display of copies of their works 6821: 6675: 6519: 6503: 6389: 6237: 5646: 5425: 5335: 5290: 5245: 5190: 5124: 4797: 4767: 4735: 4598: 4446: 1494: 1000:

The justification of the fair use doctrine turns primarily on whether, and to what extent, the challenged use is

5140: 4851: 2411: 2056: 1999: 6612: 5663: 5375: 5360: 5305: 5300: 5230: 5185: 5175: 5150: 5018: 4996: 4967: 4941: 4885: 4875: 4752: 4623: 4586: 4556: 4509: 4441: 4413: 2277:

Kunvay Copyright & IP Assignment Explained: What Copyright Transfer and Assignment of Rights Really Means.

1793: 1291:

A fine of not more than $ 1 million or imprisonment for not more than 10 years, or both, for repeated offenses.

901: 4846: 4461: 3719: 5006: 4919: 4814: 4497: 4473: 4286: 2761: 2223:

Margoni & Perry (2012). "Ownership in Complex Authorship: A Comparative Study of Joint Works". ssrn: 16.

1698:

Richard H. Jones. The Myth of the Idea/Expression Dichotomy in Copyright Law. 10 Pace Law Review 551 (1990).

6736: 6696: 6626: 5744: 5675: 5538: 5523: 5430: 5405: 5380: 5365: 5355: 5340: 5295: 5280: 5240: 5220: 5195: 5180: 5050: 5040: 5023: 4951: 4936: 4907: 4880: 4870: 4703: 4603: 4566: 4561: 4429: 1469: 773: 128: 49: 4740: 2279:

http://blog.kunvay.com/copyright-ip-assignment-explained-copyright-transfer-assignment-rights-really-means/

6651: 6419: 5533: 5415: 5395: 5310: 5275: 5270: 5250: 5235: 5210: 5205: 5200: 4984: 4972: 4946: 4890: 4858: 4787: 4757: 4723: 4698: 4671: 4661: 4618: 4581: 4571: 4485: 4456: 4451: 4381: 2347: 1295: 1212: 1089: 780: 514: 72: 4924: 4895: 4686: 3051: 1918:"Opinion analysis: Court uses cheerleader uniform case to validate broad copyright in industrial designs" 1789:

Tracy P. Jong. Copyright of Engineering Drawings, Plans and Designs. Rochester, NY: Tracy Jong Law Firm.

6487: 6165: 6013: 5614: 5598: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5345: 5330: 5260: 4762: 4608: 3703: 3546: 2297:

Kevin Smith. Contract preemption: an issue to watch. February 8, 2011. Scholarly Communications @ Duke.

2236: 1385: 821: 628: 525:

The initial owner of the copyright to a work is the author, unless that work is a "work made for hire".

438: 222: 120: 113: 109: 60: 4276: 3636: 1611: 1322:

within three years of the infringing action. Claims filed in the wrong court are dismissed for lack of

1629: 1326:. The government and its agencies are also authorized to settle the infringement claims out of court. 5593: 5117: 5055: 4551: 4127: 1341: 578: 907:

The United States Copyright Office and the DC District Court ruled that copyright does not apply to

829: 372:

The government may restrict access to works it has produced through other mechanisms. For instance,

6845: 6535: 6400: 5826: 4203: 2989: 2984: 2087: 2018: 1718: 1356: 1303: 1027:

A copyright owner may bring a copyright infringement lawsuit in federal court. Federal courts have

871: 843: 415: 389: 4303: 1065:

work of authorship that is (2) fixed in a tangible medium (e.g. a book, musical recording, etc.).

769:

grant by the owner, the practical effect was to render public domain audio virtually nonexistent.

619:

For works published before 1978, copyrights may revert to the author after 56 years. For example,

17: 6882: 6643: 6596: 6567: 5898: 5834: 4097: 4046: 3231: 2362: 1181: 1156: 426: 421: 1534: 6760: 6495: 5794: 5528: 4681: 4133: 3931: 3392: 3386: 3150: 2228: 2224: 1884: 1863: 1842: 1810: 1560: 1449: 1360: 734: 409: 296: 1141:

A successful copyright infringement plaintiff may seek both "injunctive relief" and monetary

634:

For works published since 1978, copyrights may revert to the original author after 35 years.

6379: 6053: 5810: 5502: 3223: 1464: 1111: 976:

Amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole

947: 701: 695: 568: 221:. The distinction between "idea" and "expression" is fundamental to copyright law. From the 157: 68: 957:: Nonprofit educational and noncommercial uses are more likely to be fair use. This does 950:

regarding fair use and each determination is made on an individualized case-by-case basis.

6575: 6511: 6473: 6280: 6181: 6069: 5922: 5802: 4254: 3643: 3538: 2601:"Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States | Copyright Information Center" 2448: 2305: 2299:

https://blogs.library.duke.edu/scholcomm/2011/02/08/contract-preemption-an-issue-to-watch/

2285: 2249: 2210: 2190: 2146: 1903: 1891: 1870: 1849: 1829: 1817: 1797: 1747: 1725: 1706: 1686: 1664: 1615: 1592: 1346: 1105: 200: 161: 105: 1689:, 101 U.S. 99 (1879); see also CDN Inc. v. Kapes, 197 F.3d 1256, 1261–62 (9th Cir. 1999). 6045: 3706: 3306: 1351: 1277: 1034:

over copyright infringement cases. That is, an infringement case may not be brought in

717: 620: 4247: 3211: 2817: 2412:"LibGuides: Copyright and Digitization of Library Materials: The Copyright Act: § 108" 2129:

Bryan M. Carson. The Law of Libraries and Archives. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2007.

242:

For example, a paper describing a political theory is copyrightable. The paper is the

6899: 6384: 5455: 4310: 3430: 1427: 1381: 1085: 834: 749: 541: 395: 3759: 3753: 3620: 2538: 2046:"Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices, § 313.6(C)(2) ("Government Edicts")" 3887: 3870: 3836: 3659: 3484: 3356: 2792:"ABS ENTERTAINMENT, INC. V. CBS CORP., No. 16-55917 (9th Cir. 2018) :: Justia" 1585: 1411: 1180:

A copyright holder can also seek monetary damages. Injunctions and damages are not

814: 640: 255: 132: 3293: 1699: 968:: Using a more creative or imaginative work (such as a novel, movie, or song) is 40:

protection for "original works of authorship". With the stated purpose to promote

4281: 3684: 3580: 3562: 3261: 2961: 2949: 2934: 2918: 2903: 2888: 2873: 2865: 2850: 2648: 2633: 2583: 2568: 2553: 2490: 2460: 2441: 2392: 2329: 2321: 2266: 2171: 2117: 1982: 1967: 1952: 1896: 1822: 1760: 1522: 1204: 1115:

would be subtracted before comparing it to the allegedly infringing work because

943: 851: 805: 532:. If a work is made "for hire" within the meaning of the Copyright Act, then the 434: 274: 230: 3180: 1431: 1054: 986:

Effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work

882:, audio, electronic, Web-Braille, or other necessary formats. For instance, the 800:

624: 123:

to "Either 75 years or the life of the author plus 50 years" and the Sonny Bono

4248:

Intellectual Property: Law & the Information Society. Cases & Materials

273:

are treated differently, and may be copyrightable material. The Copyright Act,

246:

of the author's ideas about the political theory. The theory itself is just an

3506: 1922: 887: 765: 748:

All copyrightable works published in the United States before 1929 are in the

326: 5109: 4299:

Cornell University: Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States

2600: 2504: 665:

Late 19th-century newspaper advertisement for copyright registration services

4076:"Fayetteville's Blackbeard shipwreck filmmaker fires back in new court case" 3969:"A North Carolina Filmmaker Continues to Challenge State Sovereign Immunity" 2703: 1474: 1049: 784: 101: 56: 4341: 3671:

Lowry's Reports, Inc. v. Legg Mason Inc., 271 F. Supp. 2d 737 (D. Md. 2003)

2343:"Paul McCartney Reaches Settlement with Sony/ATV in Beatles Rights Dispute" 2203: 2183: 2139: 1740: 407:

Three key Supreme Court cases established this government edicts doctrine:

5704:

WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act

4321: 4182: 5551:

3806:"IP and Sovereign Immunity: Why You Can't Always Sue for IP Infringement" 1455:

1415: 933: 441:. The Copyright Office upholds this doctrine within its own regulations: 37: 5546:

2671:. Council on Library and Information Resources and Library of Congress. 2367:

Songwriter Universe | Songwriting News, Articles & Song Contest

1460:

513:

A violation of any of the exclusive rights of the copyright holder is a

3235: 1630:"No Copyright Law: The Real Reason for Germany's Industrial Expansion?" 1142: 879: 874:

clause, limited only to works of architecture, exists in 17 USC 120(a).

45: 3426:

Sid & Marty Krofft Television Productions Inc. v. McDonald's Corp.

2014:"SCOTUS Agrees To Address Edicts Doctrine For First Time In 130 Years" 1007:

The Copyright Office provides a searchable list of fair use case law.

4291: 1299: 1281: 3637:

3227: 2762:"CBS Beats Lawsuit Over Pre-1972 Songs With Bold Copyright Argument" 3121:"AI-generated art cannot be copyrighted, rules a US Federal Judge" 3094:"Photographer Wins Monkey Selfie Copyright Case, Court Slams PETA" 2491:"17 U.S. Code § 411 - Registration and civil infringement actions" 1790: 1285: 923:, this landscape is ineligible for copyright in the United States. 914: 828: 711: 674:

collection of existing works or otherwise check for infringement.

660: 394:

Federal, state, and local statutes and court decisions are in the

4183:"Copyright Timeline: A History of Copyright in the United States" 1109:

alleged infringement, the elements of that musical borrowed from

890:

also relies on Section 121 in providing access to disabled users.

884:

National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped

720:(assuming authors create their works at age 35 and die at age 70) 509:

transmit sound recordings by means of digital audio transmission.

4326: 2081:

Byer, David J.; Wittow, Mark H.; Lee, Eric W. (April 28, 2020).

760: 6423: 5459: 5113: 4345: 1052:, bears the burden of establishing these three elements of the 517:, unless fair use (or a similar affirmative defense) applies. 41: 1608: 108:, which influenced the first U.S. federal copyright law, the 4332: 2818:"What Does Copyright Protect? (FAQ) - U.S. Copyright Office" 1821:, No. 15-866, 580 U.S. ___ (2017), slip op. at 1-2 (quoting 3898: 3896: 1895:, No. 15-866, 580 U.S. ___ (2017), slip op. at 10 (quoting 1584:

Stanford Fair Use and Copyright Center. U.S. Constitution.

3459:

see Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.

3429:, 562 F.2d 1157 (9th Cir. 1977) (holding that a series of 3446:

Castle Rock Entertainment, Inc. v. Carol Publishing Group

2012:

Frankel, William H.; McElligott, Andrew (June 26, 2019).

6289:

Elektra Records Co. v. Gem Electronic Distributors, Inc.

3307:

Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.

3052:"Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices, § 313.2" 3020:"US government: Monkey selfies ineligible for copyright" 291:

Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.

6721:

Greenbelt Cooperative Publishing Ass'n, Inc. v. Bresler

4257:(First Edition, 2014) James Boyle and Jennifer Jenkin. 3775:"U.S. Constitution Annotated: State Sovereign Immunity" 1272:

Criminal penalties for copyright infringement include:

886:(NLS) administers a program under Section 121, and the 6753:

Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc.

6078:

Computer Associates International, Inc. v. Altai, Inc.

5739:

Unlocking Consumer Choice and Wireless Competition Act

5699:

Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act

4322:

4244:, Prof. Robert Gorman (Federal Judicial Center, 2006). 2962:"Chapter 1 - Circular 92 | U.S. Copyright Office" 2699:"The Music Modernization Act has been signed into law" 2461:"Chapter 1 - Circular 92 | U.S. Copyright Office" 772:

This situation changed with the 2018 enactment of the

591:

Three types of transfers exist for copyrighted works.

6102:

Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v. Russian Kurier, Inc.

6030:

Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.

5867:

Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.

4266:

Pierre N. Leval (103 Harvard Law Review 1105 (1990)).

3534:

Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com

2363:"How To Recapture Your Song Copyright After 35 Years" 1284:

for not more than five years, or both, for the first

384:

Federal and state laws are not protected by copyright

86:, and other administrative aspects of copyright law. 6745:

Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc.

6110:

Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp.

4204:"H.R.576 - Copyright Clause Restoration Act of 2023" 4129:

The Public Domain: Enclosing the Commons of the Mind

3495: 3493: 1335:

Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

6856: 6795: 6686: 6623: 6586: 6472: 6272: 5989: 5784: 5775: 5754: 5731: 5714: 5639: 5623: 5607: 5566: 5559: 5073: 4960: 4837: 4830: 4639: 4539: 4422: 2055:. December 22, 2014. pp. 37–38. Archived from 1874:, No. 15-866, 580 U.S. ___ (2017), slip op. at 2-3. 1658:Electronic Freedom Foundation. Teaching copyright. 1445:

Bilateral copyright agreements of the United States

6094:Dr. Seuss Enters., L.P. v. Penguin Books USA, Inc. 1761:"U.S. Copyright Office - Copyright Law: Chapter 1" 1580: 1578: 1576: 1480:United States copyright law in the performing arts 52:before January 1, 1929, are in the public domain. 6465:First Amendment to the United States Constitution 4333:Jeanne C. Fromer & Christopher Jon Sprigman, 4311:"How Can I Tell Whether a Copyright Was Renewed?" 1853:, No. 15-866, 580 U.S. ___ (2017), slip op. at 1. 837:is ineligible for copyright in the United States. 783:ruled in a lawsuit between ABS Entertainment and 6174:Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley, Ltd. 4287:United States Copyright Office list of circulars 1885:Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. Varsity Brands, Inc. 1864:Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. Varsity Brands, Inc. 1843:Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. Varsity Brands, Inc. 1811:Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. Varsity Brands, Inc. 1586:http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/ 1236:Damages in copyright cases can be very high. In 332:Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. Varsity Brands, Inc. 6777:Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton 6038:Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp. 5939:American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc. 1800:/CopyrightEDPD.htm. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 1700:http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/plr/vol10/iss3/1 1306:entities are exempt from criminal prosecution. 792:Copyright limitations, exceptions, and defenses 443: 400: 364:Copyright status of work by the U.S. government 342: 315: 309: 235: 156:The goal of copyright law, as set forth in the 142: 6297:Broderbund Software Inc. v. Unison World, Inc. 6134:Veeck v. Southern Building Code Congress Int'l 5851:White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co. 3779:Cornell University Legal Information Institute 3361:Peter Pan Fabrics, Inc. v. Martin Weiner Corp. 2505:"U.S. Copyright Office – Information Circular" 2442:https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/107 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 700:The use of copyright notices is optional. The 623:reclaimed the U.S. publishing rights to early 6435: 5514:Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices 5471: 5125: 4357: 1719:Peter Pan Fabrics, Inc. v. Martin Weiner Corp 1430:. In 2022, legislation introduced by Senator 96:History of copyright law of the United States 82:handles copyright registration, recording of 8: 6660:Minneapolis Star Tribune Co. v. Commissioner 3612: 3610: 3608: 3606: 2660:Jaszi, Peter; Lewis, Nick (September 2009). 116:, the initial term was changed to 28 years. 6867:Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co. 6214:Penguin Group (USA) Inc. v. American Buddha 5859:Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States 5631:Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 4327:Text of every version of U.S. Copyright Act 1259:Criminal Copyright Law in the United States 425:(1888). The doctrine was codified into the 380:, which is restricted for commercial uses. 269:Mere facts are not copyrightable. However, 104:law traces its lineage back to the British 6838:Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC II 6442: 6428: 6420: 6230:Viacom International Inc. v. YouTube, Inc. 6086:American Geophysical Union v. Texaco, Inc. 5781: 5563: 5478: 5464: 5456: 5132: 5118: 5110: 4834: 4364: 4350: 4342: 4282:Copyright Office—Searchable Fair Use Index 4166:"Copyright Clause Restoration Act of 2022" 3572: 3570: 2410:Publishing, Scholarly Communications and. 1514: 1512: 1510: 6830:Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC I 6560:Landmark Communications, Inc. v. Virginia 6198:Cartoon Network, LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc. 3904:"Allen v. Cooper Petition for Certiorari" 5931:Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2204:http://works.bepress.com/bryan_carson/55 2184:http://works.bepress.com/bryan_carson/55 2140:http://works.bepress.com/bryan_carson/57 1741:http://works.bepress.com/bryan_carson/28 1238:Lowry's Reports, Inc. v. Legg Mason Inc. 521:Authorship, ownership, and work for hire 189:Pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works 5819:Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony 5688:Fairness in Music Licensing Act of 1998 4306:to determine copyright status of a work 3373:see Nichols v. Universal Pictures Corp. 2611:from the original on September 11, 2017 2517:from the original on September 26, 2012 1506: 893:Online Service Provider "Safe Harbor": 6875:Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises 6353:Equals Three, LLC v. Jukin Media, Inc. 6126:A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc. 6022:Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates 6006:Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co. 5915:Costco Wholesale Corp. v. Omega, S. A. 5722:Family Entertainment and Copyright Act 4146:from the original on February 14, 2015 4047:"Plaintiffs' second amended complaint" 3151:"Measuring Fair Use: The Four Factors" 3032:from the original on February 17, 2015 2798:from the original on September 8, 2019 2471:from the original on December 13, 2019 2245: 2234: 1771:from the original on December 25, 2017 1661:"Copyright Frequently Asked Questions" 1565:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 1558: 1126:Roth Greeting Cards v. United Card Co. 325:In 2017, the US Supreme Court granted 59:law was last generally revised by the 6321:RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc. 3847:from the original on October 18, 2020 3804:Feller, Mitchell (February 1, 2018). 3320:see Ty, Inc. v. GMA Accessories, Inc. 3068:from the original on November 6, 2015 2828:from the original on February 7, 2012 2742:from the original on October 31, 2018 2711:from the original on October 11, 2018 2595: 2593: 2591: 1640:from the original on January 27, 2012 1320:United States Court of Federal Claims 909:artificial intelligence-generated art 7: 6668:Arkansas Writers' Project v. Ragland 6337:Arista Records LLC v. Lime Group LLC 6313:Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp. 6190:Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc. 5963:Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc. 3449:, 150 F.3d 132, 140 (2nd Cir. 1998). 3385:Lehman, Bruce A. (October 1, 1995). 3363:, 274 F.2d 487, 489 (2nd Cir. 1960). 3100:from the original on August 11, 2018 2399:from the original on April 11, 2020. 454:Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc. 6544:New York Times Co. v. United States 6345:Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc. 6246:Authors Guild, Inc. v. Google, Inc. 6118:Nunez v. Caribbean Int'l News Corp. 5979:Andy Warhol Foundation v. Goldsmith 5907:MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. 5589:International Copyright Act of 1891 3967:McKlveen, Gina (October 28, 2022). 3920:from the original on March 6, 2019. 3730:from the original on March 27, 2015 3405:from the original on April 13, 2019 3242:from the original on April 22, 2015 3161:from the original on March 15, 2017 2988:. November 29, 2014. Archived from 2794:. Justia US Law. October 31, 2018. 2730:Stolz, Mitch (September 19, 2018). 2422:from the original on April 12, 2020 2373:from the original on March 19, 2021 1930:from the original on April 17, 2017 1547:from the original on April 27, 2020 833:As an animal-made photograph, this 473:the work in copies or phonorecords; 6305:Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Frena 6150:In re Aimster Copyright Litigation 6062:Vault Corp. v. Quaid Software Ltd. 5971:Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc. 5883:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. 5653:Copyright Remedy Clarification Act 5487:Copyright law of the United States 4335:Copyright Law: Cases and Materials 4292:Copyright Law of the United States 4236:Copyright Law of the United States 4074:Barnes, Greg (February 14, 2023). 3939:Supreme Court of the United States 3911:Supreme Court of the United States 3835:Peters, Marybeth (July 27, 2000). 3816:from the original on March 6, 2019 3785:from the original on March 6, 2019 3514:from the original on March 5, 2019 3018:Axelrad, Jacob (August 22, 2014). 2678:from the original on March 4, 2018 2026:from the original on July 28, 2020 1906:)(some internal citations omitted) 1628:SPIEGEL ONLINE (August 18, 2010). 1376:Public domain in the United States 279:selection and arrangement of facts 186:Pantomimes and choreographic works 65:Title 17 of the United States Code 34:copyright law of the United States 25: 18:Copyright Law of the United States 6206:Ahanchian v. Xenon Pictures, Inc. 5998:Berlin v. E.C. Publications, Inc. 5099:Category:Copyright law by country 3948:from the original on June 5, 2020 3500:Litman, Jessica (March 4, 2019). 3391:. DIANE Publishing. p. 104. 3092:Zhang, Michael (April 24, 2018). 3061:. December 22, 2014. p. 22. 2772:from the original on June 2, 2016 1406:Orphan works in the United States 1023:Copyright infringement litigation 6806:Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC 5955:Fourth Estate v. Wall-Street.com 5947:Star Athletica v. Varsity Brands 5693:Digital Millennium Copyright Act 4530: 4397:International copyright treaties 3773:Congressional Research Service. 3272:from the original on May 1, 2015 3191:from the original on May 1, 2015 3008:, 902 F.Supp.2d 445 (SDNY 2012). 2697:Deahl, Dani (October 11, 2018). 2095:from the original on May 1, 2020 1266:Digital Millennium Copyright Act 900:US copyright law does not allow 6785:Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co. 6395:Home Recording Rights Coalition 1995:State of Georgia v. Harrison Co 1916:Mann, Ronald (March 22, 2017). 1791:http://www.rochesterpatents.com 1729:., 274 F.2d 487 (2d Cir. 1960). 648:Limitations on exclusive rights 358:Works by the federal government 281:, not to the facts themselves. 6713:Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts 6705:New York Times Co. v. Sullivan 6636:Grosjean v. American Press Co. 6605:Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn 6552:Nebraska Press Ass'n v. Stuart 5508:United States Copyright Office 4277:United States Copyright Office 3781:. Government Printing Office. 3322:132 F.3d 1167 (7th Cir. 1997). 3181:"More Information on Fair Use" 3119:Davis, Wes (August 19, 2023). 3059:United States Copyright Office 2736:Electronic Frontier Foundation 2053:United States Copyright Office 1605:United States Copyright Office 1280:of not more than $ 500,000 or 966:Nature of the copyrighted work 262:Compilations of facts and the 168:Works subject to copyright law 80:United States Copyright Office 71:. Under the Copyright Clause, 1: 6254:Lenz v. Universal Music Corp. 6222:Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc. 6158:NXIVM Corp. v. Ross Institute 5659:Copyright Renewal Act of 1992 4387:Copyright case law by country 4317:. University of Pennsylvania. 4242:Copyright Law, Second Edition 3375:, 45 F.2d 119 (2nd Cir. 1930) 3155:Stanford University Libraries 3025:The Christian Science Monitor 2308:. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 2288:. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 2193:. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 2149:. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 2002:, 114 (N.D. Ga 1982). 1750:. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 1709:. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 1677:. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 1618:. Retrieved December 2, 2015. 1595:. Retrieved December 3, 2015. 1119:exists in the public domain. 754:Copyright Renewal Act of 1992 739:Copyright Renewal Act of 1992 737:has been automatic since the 631:, beginning in October 2018. 6528:Lamont v. Postmaster General 6361:Hachette v. Internet Archive 6329:Mannion v. Coors Brewing Co. 5682:Copyright Term Extension Act 5670:Uruguay Round Agreements Act 4392:Copyright lengths by country 4238:(US Copyright Office, 2011). 3971:. Institute of Art & Law 3212:"Toward a Fair Use Standard" 1490:Uruguay Round Agreements Act 1043:Ownership of valid copyright 125:Copyright Term Extension Act 27:US intellectual property law 6906:United States copyright law 6822:FCC v. WNCN Listeners Guild 6769:Hustler Magazine v. Falwell 6729:Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. 6454:Freedom of the Press Clause 5843:Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus 3642:September 25, 2010, at the 3005:Authors Guild v. HathiTrust 2980:"Facts: Web-Braille (2003)" 2416:guides.library.illinois.edu 1485:United States trademark law 1324:subject-matter jurisdiction 1032:subject-matter jurisdiction 6927: 6814:FCC v. Pacifica Foundation 6142:Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp. 5141:Copyright law of the World 4261:Toward a Fair Use Standard 3720:"9-71.000 - Copyright Law" 2393:"17 U.S.C. 108 (a) et seq" 2209:December 10, 2015, at the 2189:December 10, 2015, at the 2145:December 10, 2015, at the 1746:December 10, 2015, at the 1705:December 10, 2015, at the 1591:December 11, 2015, at the 1403: 1373: 1340:As a result of the ruling 1256: 931: 888:HathiTrust Digital Library 693: 387: 361: 264:sweat of the brow doctrine 150:United States Constitution 93: 6676:Cohen v. Cowles Media Co. 6520:Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc. 6504:Lovell v. City of Griffin 6461: 6375: 6238:Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc 5647:Visual Artists Rights Act 5493: 5147: 5094: 4528: 4382:Copyright acts by country 4377: 3991:"Reconsideration Granted" 3843:. U.S. Copyright Office. 2447:December 2, 2020, at the 2304:December 3, 2015, at the 2284:December 8, 2015, at the 1609:http://www.copyright.gov/ 1495:Visual Artists Rights Act 729:Works created before 1978 219:idea–expression dichotomy 213:Idea–expression dichotomy 6911:Copyright law by country 6613:Florida Star v. B. J. F. 6408:You Wouldn't Steal a Car 5664:Audio Home Recording Act 4414:Rule of the shorter term 4372:Copyright law by country 4304:Digital copyright slider 3932:"18-877 Allen v. Cooper" 3310:499 U.S. 340, 361 (1991) 1614:January 5, 2008, at the 1090:substantial similarities 902:works created by animals 6737:Time, Inc. v. Firestone 6697:Beauharnais v. Illinois 5745:Music Modernization Act 5676:No Electronic Theft Act 5539:Section 108 Study Group 4329:for 1909 to the present 4253:March 13, 2016, at the 3549:___ (March 4, 2019) 1902:April 30, 2016, at the 1828:April 30, 2016, at the 1724:April 13, 2019, at the 1470:No Electronic Theft Act 1313:Government infringement 1058:case for infringement. 1039:infringement disputes. 774:Music Modernization Act 6652:Houchins v. KQED, Inc. 6390:Don't Copy That Floppy 6145:(9th Cir. 2002 / 2003) 5891:Quality King v. L'anza 5534:Register of Copyrights 3210:Leval, Pierre (1990). 2766:The Hollywood Reporter 2369:. September 17, 2014. 2348:The Hollywood Reporter 2244:Cite journal requires 2000:548 F.Supp 110 1890:April 9, 2017, at the 1869:April 9, 2017, at the 1848:April 9, 2017, at the 1816:April 9, 2017, at the 1796:March 1, 2021, at the 1300:education institutions 924: 838: 721: 666: 657:Registration procedure 587:Transfers and licenses 515:copyright infringement 448: 405: 347: 319: 314: 240: 154: 6858:Copyrighted materials 6488:Patterson v. Colorado 6166:BMG Music v. Gonzalez 6014:Eltra Corp. v. Ringer 5615:Copyright Act of 1976 5599:Copyright Act of 1909 5584:Copyright Act of 1870 5579:Copyright Act of 1831 5574:Copyright Act of 1790 4315:The Online Books Page 4126:Boyle, James (2008). 3726:. February 19, 2015. 2992:on November 29, 2014. 2605:copyright.cornell.edu 1386:intellectual property 1298:libraries, archives, 918: 832: 822:Eltra Corp. v. Ringer 715: 708:Duration of copyright 664: 629:Sony Music Publishing 601:Non-exclusive license 439:Copyright Act of 1976 362:Further information: 271:compilations of facts 223:Copyright Act of 1976 121:Copyright Act of 1976 110:Copyright Act of 1790 61:Copyright Act of 1976 5594:Printing Act of 1895 4803:United Arab Emirates 4132:. CSPD. p. 38. 4026:Nautilus Productions 3998:Nautilus Productions 2062:on December 23, 2014 1897:17 U.S.C. § 101 1823:17 U.S.C. § 101 1342:Nautilus Productions 1243: 781:Judge Percy Anderson 547:Work prepared by an 480:based upon the work; 374:classified materials 139:Purpose of copyright 6846:Bartnicki v. Vopper 6536:Sheppard v. Maxwell 6401:Nimmer on Copyright 6284:(C.C.D. Mass. 1841) 5827:Banks v. Manchester 4019:"4th Circuit Recon" 3913:. January 4, 2019. 2985:Library of Congress 2669:Library of Congress 2088:National Law Review 2019:National Law Review 1667:on December 4, 2015 1344:, the plaintiff in 1304:public broadcasting 872:freedom of panorama 844:first-sale doctrine 678:Deposit requirement 538:commissioning party 416:Banks v. Manchester 390:Edict of government 208:Architectural works 84:copyright transfers 6883:Eldred v. Ashcroft 6644:Branzburg v. Hayes 6597:Time, Inc. v. Hill 6451:U.S. Supreme Court 5899:Eldred v. Ashcroft 5835:Callaghan v. Myers 5034:Russian Federation 4577:Dominican Republic 3941:. March 23, 2020. 3696:Fogerty v. Fantasy 3216:Harvard Law Review 3131:on August 21, 2023 1331:sovereign immunity 1264:registration. The 1253:Criminal penalties 1182:mutually exclusive 1157:United States Code 1155:However, Title 17 925: 904:to be copyrighted. 839: 722: 716:Expansion of U.S. 667: 427:United States Code 422:Callaghan v. Myers 192:Audio-visual works 131:cartoon character 6893: 6892: 6761:McDonald v. Smith 6496:Near v. Minnesota 6417: 6416: 6371: 6370: 6324:(W.D. Wash. 2000) 5795:Wheaton v. Peters 5771: 5770: 5529:Copyright Catalog 5453: 5452: 5107: 5106: 5069: 5068: 4139:978-0-300-13740-8 3398:978-0-7881-2415-0 3157:. April 4, 2013. 2966:www.copyright.gov 2465:www.copyright.gov 1450:Copyright Catalog 1361:Bill of Attainder 1192:Statutory damages 948:bright-line rules 735:Copyright renewal 690:Copyright notices 598:Exclusive license 410:Wheaton v. Peters 378:presidential seal 297:sweat of the brow 16:(Redirected from 6918: 6474:Prior restraints 6444: 6437: 6430: 6421: 6380:Berne Convention 6356:(C.D. Cal. 2015) 6308:(M.D. Fla. 1993) 6300:(N.D. Cal. 1986) 6262:Naruto v. Slater 6054:Whelan v. Jaslow 5811:Trade-Mark Cases 5782: 5564: 5503:Copyright Clause 5480: 5473: 5466: 5457: 5134: 5127: 5120: 5111: 5015: 4993: 4981: 4928: 4916: 4904: 4867: 4855: 4835: 4823: 4811: 4749: 4732: 4695: 4627: 4590: 4534: 4533: 4518: 4506: 4494: 4482: 4470: 4438: 4366: 4359: 4352: 4343: 4318: 4219: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4162: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4123: 4117: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4107:. 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Texas 6476: 6468: 6457: 6448: 6418: 6413: 6367: 6364:(S.D.N.Y. 2023) 6348:(S.D.N.Y. 2013) 6340:(S.D.N.Y. 2010) 6332:(S.D.N.Y. 2005) 6316:(S.D.N.Y. 1999) 6292:(E.D.N.Y. 1973) 6281:Folsom v. Marsh 6268: 6265:(9th Cir. 2018) 6257:(9th Cir. 2015) 6241:(9th Cir. 2013) 6225:(9th Cir. 2012) 6209:(9th Cir. 2010) 6201:(2nd Cir. 2008) 6193:(9th Cir. 2006) 6185:(2nd Cir. 2006) 6182:Blanch v. Koons 6177:(2nd Cir. 2006) 6169:(7th Cir. 2005) 6153:(7th Cir. 2003) 6137:(5th Cir. 2002) 6129:(9th Cir. 2001) 6121:(1st Cir. 2000) 6113:(9th Cir. 2000) 6097:(9th Cir. 1997) 6089:(2nd Cir. 1995) 6073:(2nd Cir. 1992) 6070:Rogers v. Koons 6065:(5th Cir. 1988) 6049:(9th Cir. 1986) 6033:(7th Cir. 1983) 6025:(9th Cir. 1978) 6017:(4th Cir. 1978) 6009:(9th Cir. 1970) 5985: 5923:Golan v. Holder 5803:Baker v. Selden 5777: 5767: 5750: 5727: 5710: 5635: 5619: 5603: 5555: 5489: 5484: 5454: 5449: 5143: 5138: 5108: 5103: 5090: 5065: 5009: 4987: 4975: 4961:Other countries 4956: 4922: 4910: 4898: 4861: 4849: 4826: 4817: 4805: 4743: 4726: 4689: 4635: 4621: 4584: 4535: 4531: 4526: 4512: 4500: 4488: 4476: 4464: 4432: 4418: 4373: 4370: 4309: 4273: 4255:Wayback Machine 4232: 4227: 4225:Further reading 4222: 4212: 4210: 4202: 4201: 4197: 4187: 4185: 4181: 4180: 4176: 4168: 4164: 4163: 4159: 4149: 4147: 4140: 4125: 4124: 4120: 4110: 4108: 4100: 4096: 4095: 4091: 4081: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4068: 4058: 4056: 4049: 4045: 4044: 4040: 4030: 4028: 4021: 4017: 4016: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3993: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3974: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3961: 3951: 3949: 3945: 3934: 3930: 3929: 3925: 3917: 3906: 3902: 3901: 3894: 3882: 3881: 3877: 3865: 3864: 3860: 3850: 3848: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3819: 3817: 3803: 3802: 3798: 3788: 3786: 3772: 3771: 3767: 3758: 3748: 3747: 3743: 3733: 3731: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3694: 3690: 3679: 3675: 3670: 3666: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3644:Wayback Machine 3630: 3626: 3615: 3604: 3599: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3575: 3568: 3557: 3553: 3531: 3527: 3517: 3515: 3499: 3498: 3491: 3479: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3457: 3453: 3442: 3438: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3399: 3384: 3383: 3379: 3371: 3367: 3354: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3330: 3326: 3318: 3314: 3303: 3299: 3289: 3285: 3275: 3273: 3260: 3259: 3255: 3245: 3243: 3228:10.2307/1341457 3209: 3208: 3204: 3194: 3192: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3164: 3162: 3149: 3148: 3144: 3134: 3132: 3118: 3117: 3113: 3103: 3101: 3091: 3090: 3086: 3071: 3069: 3065: 3054: 3050: 3049: 3045: 3035: 3033: 3017: 3016: 3012: 3001: 2997: 2978: 2977: 2973: 2960: 2959: 2955: 2944: 2940: 2929: 2925: 2913: 2909: 2898: 2894: 2883: 2879: 2860: 2856: 2845: 2841: 2831: 2829: 2816: 2815: 2811: 2801: 2799: 2790: 2789: 2785: 2775: 2773: 2760: 2759: 2755: 2745: 2743: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2714: 2712: 2696: 2695: 2691: 2681: 2679: 2675: 2664: 2659: 2658: 2654: 2643: 2639: 2628: 2624: 2614: 2612: 2599: 2598: 2589: 2578: 2574: 2563: 2559: 2548: 2544: 2534: 2530: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2507: 2503: 2502: 2498: 2489: 2488: 2484: 2474: 2472: 2459: 2458: 2454: 2449:Wayback Machine 2439: 2435: 2425: 2423: 2409: 2408: 2404: 2391: 2390: 2386: 2376: 2374: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2341: 2340: 2336: 2316: 2312: 2306:Wayback Machine 2296: 2292: 2286:Wayback Machine 2276: 2272: 2261: 2257: 2243: 2233: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2211:Wayback Machine 2201: 2197: 2191:Wayback Machine 2181: 2177: 2166: 2153: 2147:Wayback Machine 2137: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2112: 2108: 2098: 2096: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2065: 2063: 2059: 2048: 2044: 2043: 2039: 2029: 2027: 2011: 2010: 2006: 1993: 1992: 1988: 1977: 1973: 1962: 1958: 1947: 1943: 1933: 1931: 1915: 1914: 1910: 1904:Wayback Machine 1892:Wayback Machine 1882: 1878: 1871:Wayback Machine 1861: 1857: 1850:Wayback Machine 1840: 1836: 1830:Wayback Machine 1818:Wayback Machine 1808: 1804: 1798:Wayback Machine 1788: 1784: 1774: 1772: 1759: 1758: 1754: 1748:Wayback Machine 1738: 1734: 1726:Wayback Machine 1717: 1713: 1707:Wayback Machine 1697: 1693: 1687:Baker v. 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Cooper 1315: 1261: 1255: 1246: 1244:Attorney's fees 1178: 1169: 1139: 1106:West Side Story 1082: 1045: 1025: 1013: 936: 930: 809: 794: 731: 710: 698: 692: 680: 659: 650: 635: 589: 574:unitary whole." 523: 463: 392: 386: 366: 360: 305: 303:Useful articles 267: 215: 170: 162:US Constitution 153: 148: 141: 106:Statute of Anne 98: 92: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6924: 6922: 6914: 6913: 6908: 6898: 6897: 6891: 6890: 6888: 6887: 6879: 6871: 6862: 6860: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6850: 6842: 6834: 6826: 6818: 6810: 6801: 6799: 6793: 6792: 6790: 6789: 6781: 6773: 6765: 6757: 6749: 6741: 6733: 6725: 6717: 6709: 6701: 6692: 6690: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6680: 6672: 6664: 6656: 6648: 6640: 6631: 6629: 6621: 6620: 6618: 6617: 6609: 6601: 6592: 6590: 6584: 6583: 6581: 6580: 6572: 6564: 6556: 6548: 6540: 6532: 6524: 6516: 6508: 6500: 6492: 6483: 6481: 6470: 6469: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6449: 6447: 6446: 6439: 6432: 6424: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6411: 6404: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6376: 6373: 6372: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6365: 6357: 6349: 6341: 6333: 6325: 6317: 6309: 6301: 6293: 6285: 6276: 6274: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6266: 6258: 6250: 6249:(2d Cir. 2015) 6242: 6234: 6233:(2d Cir. 2012) 6226: 6218: 6217:(2d Cir. 2011) 6210: 6202: 6194: 6186: 6178: 6170: 6162: 6161:(2d Cir. 2004) 6154: 6146: 6138: 6130: 6122: 6114: 6106: 6105:(2d Cir. 1998) 6098: 6090: 6082: 6081:(2d Cir. 1992) 6074: 6066: 6058: 6057:(3d Cir. 1986) 6050: 6046:Fisher v. Dees 6042: 6041:(3d Cir. 1983) 6034: 6026: 6018: 6010: 6002: 6001:(2d Cir. 1964) 5993: 5991: 5990:Appeals courts 5987: 5986: 5984: 5983: 5975: 5967: 5959: 5951: 5943: 5935: 5927: 5919: 5911: 5903: 5895: 5887: 5879: 5875:Feist v. 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May 3, 2022. 4157: 4138: 4118: 4089: 4066: 4038: 4010: 3982: 3959: 3923: 3892: 3875: 3858: 3827: 3810:IPWatchdog.com 3796: 3765: 3754:§ 1498(b) 3741: 3711: 3688: 3681:17 U.S.C. 3673: 3664: 3647: 3624: 3617:17 U.S.C. 3602: 3593: 3584: 3577:17 U.S.C. 3566: 3559:17 U.S.C. 3551: 3525: 3489: 3472: 3463: 3451: 3436: 3416: 3397: 3377: 3365: 3348: 3336: 3324: 3312: 3297: 3283: 3262:"Search Cases" 3253: 3202: 3187:. April 2015. 3172: 3142: 3111: 3084: 3043: 3010: 2995: 2971: 2953: 2946:17 U.S.C. 2938: 2931:17 U.S.C. 2923: 2915:17 U.S.C. 2907: 2900:17 U.S.C. 2892: 2885:17 U.S.C. 2877: 2870:17 U.S.C. 2862:17 U.S.C. 2854: 2847:17 U.S.C. 2839: 2809: 2783: 2753: 2722: 2689: 2652: 2645:17 U.S.C. 2637: 2630:17 U.S.C. 2622: 2587: 2580:17 U.S.C. 2572: 2565:17 U.S.C. 2557: 2550:17 U.S.C. 2542: 2528: 2496: 2482: 2452: 2440:17 U.S.C. 107 2433: 2402: 2384: 2354: 2334: 2326:17 U.S.C. 2318:17 U.S.C. 2310: 2290: 2270: 2263:17 U.S.C. 2255: 2246:|journal= 2215: 2195: 2175: 2168:17 U.S.C. 2151: 2131: 2122: 2114:17 U.S.C. 2106: 2073: 2037: 2004: 1986: 1979:18 U.S.C. 1971: 1964:17 U.S.C. 1956: 1949:17 U.S.C. 1941: 1908: 1876: 1855: 1834: 1802: 1782: 1752: 1732: 1711: 1691: 1679: 1651: 1634:SPIEGEL ONLINE 1620: 1597: 1572: 1526: 1519:17 U.S.C. 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1423: 1420: 1404:Main article: 1401: 1398: 1374:Main article: 1371: 1368: 1352:Terrence Boyle 1314: 1311: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1257:Main article: 1254: 1251: 1245: 1242: 1234: 1233: 1230: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1201:17 U.S.C. 1177: 1174: 1168: 1165: 1138: 1137:Civil remedies 1135: 1081: 1078: 1044: 1041: 1024: 1021: 1012: 1009: 1002:transformative 990: 989: 983: 973: 963: 940:17 U.S.C. 932:Main article: 929: 926: 913: 912: 905: 898: 891: 875: 868: 864: 860: 848:17 U.S.C. 827: 826: 802:17 U.S.C. 793: 790: 730: 727: 718:copyright term 709: 706: 694:Main article: 691: 688: 679: 676: 658: 655: 649: 646: 621:Paul McCartney 603: 602: 599: 596: 588: 585: 584: 583: 575: 560: 559: 558: 557: 553: 530:Works for hire 522: 519: 511: 510: 503: 495: 488: 481: 474: 462: 459: 431:17 U.S.C. 388:Main article: 385: 382: 359: 356: 351:Star Athletica 338:Star Athletica 304: 301: 266: 260: 227:17 U.S.C. 214: 211: 210: 209: 206: 203: 198: 193: 190: 187: 184: 181: 178: 169: 166: 146: 140: 137: 114:40 years later 100:United States 94:Main article: 91: 88: 63:, codified in 55:United 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