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considered as developments are made. The goal with the development of new implants is "to avoid the hydrolytic, oxidative and enzymatic degradation due to the harsh environment of the human body or at least to slow it down to a minimum which enables the interface to work over a long time period, before it finally has to be exchanged." With extended operational lifetimes, fewer operations would need to be performed for maintenance, allowing for The amount of polymers that are now able to be used for neural implants has increased, allowing for a greater diversity of devices. As technology improves, researchers are able to more densely place electrodes into arrays, permitting high selectivity. Other areas of investigation are the battery packs that power these devices. Effort has been made to try and reduce the overall size and bulkiness of these packs to make them less obtrusive for the patient. Reducing the amount of power each implant requires is also of interest, as this will reduce the amount of heat the implant makes, therefore reducing the risk of damage to the surrounding tissues.
91:. The visual field is much easier to process in different locations other than the visual cortex. In addition, each areas of the cortex is specialized to deal with different aspects of vision, so simple direct stimulation will not provide complete images to patients. Lastly, surgical operations dealing with brain implants are extremely high-risk for patients, so the research needs to be further improved. However, cortical visual prostheses are important to people who have a completely damaged retina, optic nerve or lateral geniculate body, as they are one of the only ways they would be able to have their vision restored, so further developments will need to be sought out.
75:. Early work to restore vision through cortical stimulation began in 1970 with the work of Brindley and Dobelle. With their initial experimentation, some patients were able to recognize small images at fairly close distances. Their initial implant was based on the surface of the visual cortex and it did not provide as clear of images that it could, with an added downside of damage to surrounding tissues. More recent models, such as the "Utah" Electrode Array use deeper cortical stimulation that would hypothetically provide higher resolution images with less power needed, thus causing less damage. One of the major benefits to this method of artificial vision over any other
63:. There are two ways that cortical implants can interface with the brain, either intracortically (direct) or epicortically (indirect). Intracortical implants have electrodes that penetrate into the brain, while epicortical implants have electrodes that stimulate along the surface. Epicortical implants mainly record field potentials around them and are generally more flexible compared to their intracortical counterparts. Since the intracortical implants go deeper into the brain, they require a stiffer electrode. However, due to micromotion in the brain, some flexibility is necessary in order to prevent injury to the brain tissue.
162:
204:(BCI) is a type of implant that allows for a direct connection between a patient's brain and some form of external hardware. Since the mid-1990s, the amount of research done on BCI's in both animal and human models has grown exponentially. Most brain-computer interfaces are used for some form of neural signal extraction, while some attempt to return sensation through an implanted signal. As an example of signal extraction, a BCI may take a signal from a
98:. The middle temporal (MT) region, crucial for perceiving motion, is a key target for electrical stimulation to create smooth motion artificially. Precise electrode implantation in MT poses a challenge due to its location, which is surrounded by sulci. Ongoing research explores multi-area stimulation between MT and primary visual cortex (V1), aiming to understand its impact on generating
317:, or how the body will respond to a foreign object. If the body rejects the implant, then the implant will be more of a detriment to the patient instead of a benefit. In addition to biocompatibility, once the implant is in place, the body may have an adverse reaction to it over an extended period of time, rendering the implant useless. Implanting a
122:, introduced by Dr. William House and his team, that have been successful in restoring hearing to deaf patients. The cochlear implant targets the cochlear or auditory nerve, and individuals who have issues with this nerve can never benefit from it. As an alternative, the auditory brainstem prosthesis can be used.
212:. Paralyzed patients get a great amount of utility from these devices because they allow for a return of control to the patient. Current research for brain-computer interfaces is focused on determining which regions of the brain can be manipulated by an individual. A majority of research focuses on the
352:
can be different when compared. This leads to difficulties because it causes each procedure to be unique, thus taking longer to perform. In addition, the nature of a microelectrode array intended effect is limited due to the stated variance's presented in association with individual cortex uniqueness
284:
Moreover, BCIs offer potential improvements in muscle control in SMA patients, those who suffer from neurodegeneration in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, resulting in progressive muscle weakness. Some studies with SMA patients have explored integrating BCIs into control systems to enable remote
82:
However, there are some issues that come with direct stimulation of the visual cortex. As with all implants, the impact of their presence over extended periods of time must be monitored. If an implant needs to be removed or re-positioned after a few years, complications can occur. The visual cortex
336:
represents a difficulty faced by cortical implants, and in particular, implants dealing with cognition. Researchers have found difficulty in determining how the brain codes distinct memories. For example, the way the brain codes the memory of a chair is vastly different from the way it codes for a
325:
around the electrodes can prevent some signals from reaching the neurons the implant is meant to. Most microelectrode arrays require neuronal cell bodies to be within 50 ÎĽm of the electrodes to provide the best function, and studies have shown that chronically implanted animals have significantly
220:
would be a suitable location for implantations. This region is a "neuronal network that coordinates mental processes in the service of explicit intentions or tasks," driving the device by intent, rather than imagined motion An example of returning sensation through an implanted signal would be
137:
are still under ongoing research. The bone conduction prosthesis stimulates the cochlea by triggering skull vibrations. The middle ear prosthesis, either partially or completely implanted, triggers direct vibration of the ossicular chain (ossicles or ear bones). Despite the complications these
365:
As more research is performed on, further developments will be made that will increase the viability and usability of cortical implants. Decreasing the size of the implants would help with keeping procedures less complicated and reducing the bulk. The longevity of these devices is also being
102:(visual illusion) and motion perception. This multi-area approach, targeting different regions in the visual system, holds promise for improving the clarity and performance of visual implants, offering a potential avenue for more effective vision restoration.
58:
to expand their usefulness are nearly endless. Some early work in cortical implants involved stimulation of the visual cortex, using implants made from silicone rubber. Since then, implants have developed into more complex devices using new polymers, such as
125:
There have also been some studies that have used microelectrode arrays to take readings from the auditory cortex of animals. One study has been performed on rats to develop an implant that enabled simultaneous readings from both the auditory cortex and the
130:. The readings from this new microelectrode array were similar in clarity to other readily available devices that did not provide the same simultaneous readings. With studies like this, advancements can be made that could lead to new auditory prostheses.
266:(fMRI) and BCIs.". The main idea was to form a connection between certain intentional mental activities or thoughts and emotional responses or stimuli. Despite limitations, this novel approach seems to hold potential for the neurorehabilitation of AD.
35:. By directly interfacing with different regions of the cortex, the cortical implant can provide stimulation to an immediate area and provide different benefits, depending on its design and placement. A typical cortical implant is an implantable
353:
i.e. differences. Present day microelectrode arrays are also constrained due their physical size, and achievable data processing/capability rates; which continue to be governed in relation to the characteristics dictated in accordance with
154:. Implants in the prefrontal cortex help restore attention, decision-making and movement selection by duplicating the minicolumnar organization of neural firings. A hippocampal prosthetic aims to help with restoration of a patient's full
277:(EEG) or fMRI, has been explored to regulate brain activity. BCIs with EEG feedback primarily aim to specifically detect intentional movements, with the goal of reducing neurological tremors when combined with technologies like
169:
By mimicking the natural coding of the brain with electrical stimulation, researchers look to replace compromised hippocampal regions and restore function. Treatment for several conditions that impact cognition such as
240:, with no control over any of his limbs. He succeeded in operating a computer mouse with only thoughts. Further developments have been made that allow for more complex interfacing, such as controlling a robotic arm.
1094:
Potter, K. A.; Buck, A. C.; Self, W. K.; Capadona, J. R. (2012). "Stab injury and device implantation within the brain results in inversely multiphasic neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative responses".
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Due to the uniqueness of every patient's cortex, it is difficult to standardize procedures involving direct implantation. There are many common physical features between brains, but an individual
269:
BCIs also play a role in enhancing motor function by translating neuronal firing into motor commands in PD, which is characterized by motor impairments. Research using local field potentials from
262:
In AD, a progressive fatal neurodegenerative disorder, BCIs face challenges due to cognitive decline. Some innovative studies used a technique called "classical conditioning with
986:
Vansteensel, M. J.; Hermes, D.; Aarnoutse, E. J.; Bleichner, M. G.; Schalk, G.; van Rijen, P. C.; Ramsey, N. F. (2010). "Brain-Computer
Interfacing Based on Cognitive Control".
297:
Perhaps one of the biggest advantages that cortical implants have over other neuroprostheses is being directly interfaced with the cortex. Bypassing damaged tissues in the
1036:
Tayebi, Hossein; Azadnajafabad, Sina; Maroufi, Seyed Farzad; Pour-Rashidi, Ahmad; Khorasanizadeh, MirHojjat; Faramarzi, Sina; Slavin, Konstantin V. (2023-05-31).
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capabilities. Researchers are trying to determine the neural basis for memory by finding out how the brain encodes different memories in the hippocampus.
943:
Berger, T. W.; Ahuja, A.; Courellis, S. H.; Deadwyler, S. A.; Erinjippurath, G.; Gerhardt, G. A.; Wills, J. (2005). "Restoring lost cognitive function".
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prostheses may cause, their purpose is to enhance the transmission of sound vibrations into the inner ear and, consequently, improve hearing abilities.
839:"Facilitation and restoration of cognitive function in primate prefrontal cortex by a neuroprosthesis that utilizes minicolumn-specific neural firing"
42:
The goal of a cortical implant and neuroprosthetic in general is "to replace neural circuitry in the brain that no longer functions appropriately."
133:
To address the challenges faced by conventional auditory prostheses, many unconventional auditory prostheses, such as bone conduction implants and
243:
The applications of BCIs have been emerging over the years, particularly in addressing the challenges posed by neurodegenerative diseases such as
79:
is that it bypasses many neurons of the visual pathway that could be damaged, potentially restoring vision to a greater number of blind patients.
263:
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allows for a wider range of treatable patients. These implants can also act as a replacement for damage tissues in the cortex. The idea of
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developing a tactile response for a prosthetic limb. Amputees have no touch response in artificial limbs, but through an implant in their
236:. This BCI is currently undergoing a second round of clinical trials as of May 2009. An earlier trial featured a patient with a severe
278:
313:
Having any sort of implant that is directly connected to the cortex presents some issues. A major issue with cortical implants is
50:
Cortical implants have a wide variety of potential uses, ranging from restoring vision to blind patients or helping patients with
165:
A patient thinks about moving a mouse pointer. The brain-computer interface takes that thought and translates it on the screen.
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devices such as TVs and telephones. Other studies have focused on enabling SMA individuals to manipulate a robotic arm using
216:
region of the brain, using imagined motor actions to drive the devices, while some studies have sought to determine if the
750:"Simultaneous recording of rat auditory cortex and thalamus via a titanium-based, microfabricated, microelectrode device"
195:
110:
While there has been little development in developing an effective auditory prosthesis that directly interfaces with the
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634:
Eshraghi, Adrien A.; Nazarian, Ronen; Telischi, Fred F.; Rajguru, Suhrud M.; Truy, Eric; Gupta, Chhavi (November 2012).
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is much more complex and difficult to deal with than the other areas where artificial vision are possible, such as the
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Fernandes, R. A. B.; Diniz, B.; Ribeiro, R.; Humayun, M. (2012). "Artificial vision through neuronal stimulation".
119:
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Konrad, P.; Shanks, T. (2010). "Implantable brain computer interface: Challenges to neurotechnology translation".
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896:"A Nonlinear Model for Hippocampal Cognitive Prosthesis: Memory Facilitation by Hippocampal Ensemble Stimulation"
894:
Hampson, R. E.; Song, D.; Chan, R. H. M.; Sweatt, A. J.; Riley, M. R.; Gerhardt, G. A.; Deadwyler, S. A. (2012).
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341:, more progress can be made in developing a hippocampal prosthetic that can more effectively enhance memory.
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Hampson, R. E.; Gerhardt, G. A.; Marmarelis, V.; Song, D.; Opris, I.; Santos, L.; Deadwyler, S. A. (2012).
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Some cortical implants have been designed to improve cognitive function. These implants are placed in the
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Berger, T. W.; Hampson, R. E.; Song, D.; Goonawardena, A.; Marmarelis, V. Z.; Deadwyler, S. A. (2011).
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273:(DBS) electrodes has shown improvements in motor functions. Neurofeedback through BCIs, based on
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Certain types of cortical implants can partially restore vision by directly stimulating the
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Meikle, SJ.; Wong, YT. (2022). "Neurophysiological considerations for visual implants".
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39:, which is a small device through which a neural signal can be received or transmitted.
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Advancements in visual implants focus on stimulating specific areas of the
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reduced cell density within this range. Implants have been shown to cause
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has also been linked to dysfunction in the CA3 region of the hippocampus.
1038:"Applications of brain-computer interfaces in neurodegenerative diseases"
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Deep, Nicholas L.; Choudhury, Baishakhi; Roland, J. Thomas (April 2019).
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allows for the implant to act as an alternate pathway for signals.
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IEEE Transactions on Neural
Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering
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160:
32:
384:"A cortical neural prosthesis for restoring and enhancing memory"
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54:. With the complexity of the brain, the possibilities for these
636:"The cochlear implant: Historical aspects and future prospects"
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can benefit from the development of a hippocampal prosthetic.
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A current example of a brain-computer interface would be the
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can cause damage to the surrounding tissue. Development of
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could potentially give them an artificial sense of touch.
697:
452:Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics
945:IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine
748:McCarthy, P. T.; Rao, M. P.; Otto, K. J. (2011).
446:Hassler, C.; Boretius, T.; Stieglitz, T. (2011).
813:, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing,
693:"Auditory Brainstem Implantation: An Overview"
208:patient's brain and use it to move a robotic
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337:lamp. With a full understanding of the
27:that is in direct connection with the
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805:Cumpston, Evan; Chen, Philip (2023),
330:at the site of implantation as well.
264:functional magnetic resonance imaging
7:
114:, there are some devices, such as a
14:
279:functional electrical stimulation
448:"Polymers for Neural Implants"
1:
1097:Journal of Neural Engineering
843:Journal of Neural Engineering
807:"Implantable Hearing Devices"
754:Journal of Neural Engineering
388:Journal of Neural Engineering
245:amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
1117:10.1088/1741-2560/9/4/046020
863:10.1088/1741-2560/9/5/056012
774:10.1088/1741-2560/8/4/046007
585:Brain Structure and Function
554:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.01.063
408:10.1088/1741-2560/8/4/046017
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1054:10.1007/s10143-023-02038-9
912:10.1109/tnsre.2012.2189163
597:10.1007/s00429-021-02417-2
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120:auditory brainstem implant
16:Subset of neuroprosthetics
957:10.1109/memb.2005.1511498
504:10.1016/j.nbd.2009.12.007
218:cognitive control network
190:Brain-computer interfaces
287:surface electromyography
232:, a device developed by
202:Brain-computer interface
196:Brain–computer interface
492:Neurobiology of Disease
257:spinal muscular atrophy
709:10.1055/s-0039-1679891
275:electroencephalography
271:deep brain stimulation
166:
350:sulcus (neuroanatomy)
164:
1042:Neurosurgical Review
542:Neuroscience Letters
319:microelectrode array
223:somatosensory cortex
37:microelectrode array
1152:Implants (medicine)
1109:2012JNEng...9d6020P
988:Annals of Neurology
855:2012JNEng...9e6012H
766:2011JNEng...8d6007M
464:2011JPoSB..49...18H
400:2011JNEng...8d6017B
361:Future developments
253:Alzheimer's disease
249:Parkinson's disease
176:Alzheimer's disease
135:middle ear implants
473:10.1002/polb.22169
238:spinal cord injury
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142:Cognitive implants
1000:10.1002/ana.21985
646:(11): 1967–1980.
640:Anatomical Record
328:neurodegeneration
148:prefrontal cortex
106:Auditory implants
77:visual prosthetic
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25:neuroprosthetics
21:cortical implant
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355:Moore's Law
339:neural code
323:scar tissue
180:head trauma
152:hippocampus
89:optic nerve
1146:Categories
1048:(1): 131.
824:2024-01-06
811:StatPearls
370:References
303:biomimicry
293:Advantages
255:(AD), and
210:prosthetic
206:paraplegic
100:phosphenes
1078:258972284
1062:1437-2320
717:2193-6331
660:1932-8486
621:244076484
605:1863-2661
230:BrainGate
118:, and an
61:polyimide
1133:28824747
1125:22832283
1070:37256332
1016:16937026
1008:20517943
973:21757473
965:16248115
930:22438334
881:22976769
819:35201706
792:21628772
735:30931229
678:23044644
613:34773502
570:25306195
562:22342306
520:39225419
512:20035870
426:21677369
289:(sEMG).
184:Epilepsy
128:thalamus
52:dementia
46:Overview
1105:Bibcode
921:3397311
872:3505670
851:Bibcode
783:3158991
762:Bibcode
726:6438789
669:4921065
460:Bibcode
417:3141091
396:Bibcode
281:(FES).
259:(SMA).
247:(ALS),
150:or the
31:of the
1131:
1123:
1076:
1068:
1060:
1014:
1006:
971:
963:
928:
918:
879:
869:
817:
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780:
733:
723:
715:
676:
666:
658:
619:
611:
603:
568:
560:
518:
510:
424:
414:
251:(PD),
172:stroke
85:retina
1129:S2CID
1074:S2CID
1012:S2CID
969:S2CID
656:eISSN
617:S2CID
601:eISSN
566:S2CID
516:S2CID
346:gyrus
33:brain
1121:PMID
1066:PMID
1058:ISSN
1004:PMID
961:PMID
926:PMID
877:PMID
815:PMID
788:PMID
731:PMID
713:ISSN
674:PMID
609:PMID
558:PMID
508:PMID
422:PMID
178:and
1113:doi
1050:doi
996:doi
953:doi
916:PMC
908:doi
867:PMC
859:doi
778:PMC
770:doi
721:PMC
705:doi
664:PMC
648:doi
644:295
593:doi
589:227
550:doi
546:519
500:doi
468:doi
412:PMC
404:doi
348:or
87:or
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