Courtship display - Knowledge (XXG)

238:, also known as multi-modal signals. There are two leading hypotheses about the adaptive significance of multi-modal signal processing. The multiple message hypothesis states that each signal that a male exhibits will contribute to a possible mate's perception of the male. The redundant signal hypothesis states that the male exhibits multiple signals that portray the same "message" to the female, with each extra signal acting as a fall-back plan for the male should there be a signaling error. The choosy sex may only evaluate one, or a couple, of traits at a given time when interpreting complex signals from the opposite sex. Alternatively, the choosy sex may attempt to process all of the signals at once to facilitate evaluation of the opposite sex. 218: 558: 144: 475: 289: 540:), resource availability determines when male emperor penguins will be able to return to their breeding grounds to initiate their courtship rituals. The greater the concentration of resources in their feeding ground, the quicker they will be able to restore their body reserves for winter, and the sooner they will be able to return to their breeding grounds. An early return to their breeding grounds comes with an increased likelihood of finding a mate. 85: 3813: 3654: 33: 528:), variation in the light environment plays a huge role in their ability to attract mates. Guppy males alter both their 'courtship mode', whether they perform a full courtship display or try to 'engage' in sneak copulations, and distance from females as light intensity changes. Courtship mode also varies with light spectrum and relates to 280:), females have two ornaments — inflatable abdominal sacs and pinnate tibial scales — that they use as courtship displays in mating swarms. Intermediate variations of such female-specific ornaments are sexually selected for by male dance flies in wild populations. These ornaments may also be a signal of high fecundity in females. 579:

gene or set of genes will be favoured by female choice over time. This would explain why and how such elaborate traits develop within certain species. However, as time goes on and generations pass, the survival advantage associated with one trait may dissipate due to extreme exaggeration to the point that it decreases fitness.

434:), dominant males exhibit agonistic behavior toward female gorillas at very high rates, with the majority of those interactions being courtship-related. Most documented cases of male gorilla aggression toward females is courtship related and is used primarily as a strategy to prevent females from migrating to another male. 163:) of Australia, males of which build and decorate nest-like structures called "bowers". Bowers are decorated with bright and colourful objects (typically blue in colour) to attract and stimulate visiting females. Typically, males who acquire the largest number of decorations tend to have greater success in mating. 586:

proposes that female selection of a mate is dependent on whether or not the male has genes that would increase the quality of the offspring of the female. In some cases, exaggerated male ornamentation may be indicative to a choosing female that a male who is able to place such a large investment in a

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where reproducing comes at an energy cost to males. Such energy costs can include the effort associated in obtaining nuptial gifts for the female or performing long courtship or copulatory behaviors. An added cost from these time and energy investments may come in the form of increased male mortality

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Direct benefits may accrue to the female during male courtship displays. Females can raise their own fitness if they respond to courtship behavior that signals benefits to the female rather than the fitness of the male. For example, choosing to mate with males that produce local signals would require

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In some species, males initiate courtship rituals only after mounting the female. Courtship may even continue after copulation has been completed. In this system, the ability of the female to choose her mate is limited. This process, known as copulatory courtship, is prevalent in many insect species.

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and hovers in front of the female, moving from side to side while rotating his body and tail. The rhythmic movements of the male's wings produce a distinctive buzzing sound. When conducting a dive display, the male typically ascends approximately 20–35 m (66–115 ft) in the air then abruptly

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Sexual ornaments can serve to increase attractiveness and indicate good genes and higher levels of fitness. When exposed to exaggerated male traits, some females may respond by increasing maternal investments. For example, female canaries have been shown to produce larger and denser eggs in response

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Female courtship display is less common in nature as a female would have to invest a lot of energy into both exaggerated traits and in their energetically expensive gametes. However, situations in which males are the sexually selective sex in a species do occur in nature. Male choice in reproduction

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As explained by the Fisherian runaway model, sexually dimorphic males with exaggerated ornamentation may have been sexually selected for in species with female choice. Fitness of these males would increase, resulting in the proliferation of males with such ornamentation over time. This means that a

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Mating is preceded by a courtship/pairing period in many animal mating systems. It is during this period that sexually mature animals select their partners for reproduction. This courtship period, which involves displays to attract a mate by a member of a species, is usually short, lasting anywhere

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on male peacock spiders, the reproductive success of an individual relies heavily on a male spider's ability to combine visual and vibratory displays during courtship. The combination of these displays in courtship offers support both to the redundant signal and multiple messages hypotheses for the

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Indirect benefits are benefits that may not directly affect the parents' fitness but instead increase the fitness of the offspring. Since the offspring of a female will inherit half of the genetic information from the male counterpart, those traits she saw as attractive will be passed on, producing

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In contrast, species that engage in prolonged or elaborate displays expend considerable amounts of energy and run the risk of developing fatigue. To prepare and prevent such a risk, some animals may gain weight before a courtship period, only to lose the weight afterward. An example of this can be

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Although rare, agonistic behavior between males and females during courtship displays is seen in nature. Intraspecific agonistic behavior that results in the death of a combatant is rare because of the associated risk of death or injury. However, agonistic behavior that turns dangerous does occur.

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During the peak of their breeding season, which lasts up to three months during spring, leks are frequently visited by groups of up to seventy females. In response to such a large presence of females, males engage in a strutting display up to six to ten times per minute for approximately three to

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comes into play. This is competition between sperm to fertilize an egg, which is very competitive as only a single sperm will achieve union. In some insects, the male injects a cocktail of chemicals in seminal fluid together with sperm. The chemicals kill off older sperm from any previous mates,

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also engage in co-operative displays in which small groups of males (typically brothers) work together to attract females and deter other competitive males. In many cases, only one male within the group will mate, typically the dominant male. To explain this behaviour, Hamilton's theory of kin

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trait somewhat counterintuitive to survival would carry good genes. For example, the costs associated with bright and complex plumage can be high. Only males with good genes are able to support a large investment into the development of such traits, which, in turn displays their high fitness.

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amphibians, such as the green tree frog, may use visual cues as well as auditory signals to increase their chances of impressing a mate. When the calls of the tree frogs were held equal, it was determined that females tended to overlook an auditory-only stimulus in favor of males who combined

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systems. For example, males will seek to obtain a certain spot or position to perform their courtship display. The best spots are regions of high contention as many males want them for themselves. Because of this direct conflict, agonistic encounters between males are fairly common.

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will cackle at one another as a vocal form of mutual display that serves to strengthen a bond between the two. In some cases, males may pair up to perform mutual, cooperative displays in order to increase courtship success and attract females. This phenomenon can be seen with

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auditory/visual multi-modal signals. It was seen that female green tree frogs preferred when males coupled the visual display with the auditory communication, concluding that male green tree frogs that are visually accessible can increase their probability of mating success.

209:), females use a temporary ornament, a striped pattern, to both attract males and intimidate rival females. In this case, the female of a species developed a sexually selected signal which serves a dual function of being both attractive to mates and deterring rivals. 379:

up-regulates the female's egg-laying rate, and reduces her desire to re-mate with another male. The cocktail also shortens the female's lifespan, also reducing her likelihood of mating with other males. Also, some females can get rid of the previous male's sperm.

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Tibbetts, Elizabeth A.; Forrest, Taylor; Vernier, Cassondra; Jinn, Judy; Madagame, Andrew (2015-11-01). "Socially selected ornaments and fitness: Signals of fighting ability in paper wasps are positively associated with survival, reproductive success, and rank".

2524: 460:. Emperor penguins engage in an extended courtship period that can last up to two months, the longest of any Arctic seabird. Their courtship period accounts for 16% of the total time they spend breeding, whereas in their closest relatives, the king penguin 485:

Courtship displays typically involve some sort of metabolic cost to the animal performing it. The energy expended to perform courtship behaviour can vary among species. Some animals engage in displays that expend little energy, as seen in the salamander

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Many species of animals engage in some type of courtship display to attract a mate, such as dancing, the creation of sounds, and physical displays. However, many species are not limited to only one of these behaviors. The males of a species across many

420:, it is not uncommon for males to employ this claw in battle for a mate. Even though this claw developed as a weapon, it is also closely linked with the crabs' courtship display: it is waved in a certain pattern to attract females for mating. 416:), males have been sexually selected to have one enlarged claw, which can take up anywhere from a third to a half of their total body mass, and one regular claw. Although the enlarged claw is believed to have developed for use in combat for 590:

An alternative is the sensory exploitation hypothesis, which supposes that sexual preferences are the result of preexisting sensory biases, such as that for supernormal stimuli. These could drive the evolution of courtship displays.

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risk. On average, male guppies seek out and spend more time in the environment in which their color pattern is the most visible. Males, in the light environment that made them most visible, copulated with the most females.

135:) perform two types of courtship displays involving a combination of visual and vocal display—a stationary shuttle display and dive display. When engaging in the stationary shuttle display, the male displays a flared 241:

The process of multi-modal signaling is believed to help facilitate the courtship process in many species. One such species in which multi-modal signaling is seen to improve mating success is the green tree frog

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Often, males and females will perform synchronized or responsive courtship displays in a mutual fashion. With many socially monogamous species such as birds, their duet facilitates pre-copulatory reassurance of

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male courtship display is seen through the male's intricate wing scissoring patterns and rapid sidestepping. These stimulations, along with many other factors, result in subsequent copulation or rejection.

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Under laboratory settings, courtship behaviours in this species, although complex and involving the release of pheromones, represent as little as approximately one per cent of its daily calorie intake.

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mating displays is influenced by the color of the bracket fungus that it mates and courts upon; these flies choose brackets that are lighter, making their displays more visible to the opposite sex.

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species, males direct agonistic behavior toward females prior to courtship behaviors. Such behavior can include aggressive vocalizations, displays, and physical aggression. In the western gorilla

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This has many consequences. Courtship displays allow the mate performing the selection to have a means on which to base the copulatory decision. If a female chooses more than one male, then

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turns and descends in a dive-like fashion. As the male flies over the female, he rotates his body and spreads his tail feathers, which flutter and collide to produce a short, buzzing sound.

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Young, Jessica R.; Hupp, Jerry W.; Bradbury, Jack W.; Braun, Clait E. (1994). "Phenotypic divergence of secondary sexual traits among sage grouse, Centrocercus urophasianus, populations".

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Multi-modal signaling is not limited to males. Females in certain species have more than one trait or characteristic that they use in a courtship display to attract mates. In dance flies (

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in appearance and signaling behavior. During courtship, male peacock spiders compete using both visual displays and vibratory signals for intersexual communication. Because of the intense

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less energy for a female as she searches for a mate. Males may compete by imposing lower mating costs on the female or even providing material or offspring contributions to the female.

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After mating has taken place, males perform various actions to prevent females from mating again. What action is performed depends on the animal. In some species, the male produces a

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Riede, Tobias; Forstmeier, Wolfgang; Kempenaers, Bart; Goller, Franz (2015). "The functional morphology of male courtship displays in the Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos)".

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four hours per day. This frequent and repetitive behaviour can result in energy expenditures of up to 2524 kJ/day compared to the inactive males that typically expend 1218 kJ/day.

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In most species, the male sex initiates courtship displays in precopulatory sexual selection. Performing a display allows the male to present his traits or abilities to a female.

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Houck, Lynne D.; Arnold, Stevan J.; Thisted, Ronald A. (1985). "A Statistical Study of Mate Choice: Sexual Selection in a Plethodontid Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus)".

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Gamble, S. (2003). "Environmental variation and the maintenance of polymorphism: the effect of ambient light spectrum on mating behaviour and sexual selection in guppies".

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Garcia-Fernandez, V.; Draganoiu, T.I.; Ung, D.; Lacroix, A.; Malacarne, G.; Leboucher, G. (2013). "Female canaries invest more in response to an exaggerated male trait".

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Isenmann, P. (1971). "Contribution a' l'e´thologie et a' l'e´cologie du manchot empereur (Aptenodytes forsteri Gray) a' la colonie de Pointe Ge´ologie (Terre Ade´lie)".

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In some species, physical traits that are sexually selected for in male courtship displays may also be used in agonistic behavior between two males for a mate. In

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Laird, Krispen L.; Clements, Paul; Hunter, Kimberly L.; Taylor, Ryan C. (2016). "Multimodal signaling improves mating success in the green tree frog (

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In addition, some animals attempt to attract females through the construction and decoration of unique structures. This technique can be seen in the

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In other species, males may exhibit courtship displays that serve as both visual and auditory stimulation. For example, the male Anna's hummingbird (

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Madden, Joah R. (2003). "Male spotted bowerbirds preferentially choose, arrange and proffer objects that are good predictors of mating success".

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Males: their interest is to mate with a large number of completely faithful females, thus spreading their genes widely throughout a population.

390:, the male provides a huge quantity of sperm, enough to last the female's entire life. In some birds and mammals, the male may participate in 1490: 3249: 772: 862:"Courtship and male-male agonistic behaviour of Cosmophasis umbratica Simon, an ornate jumping spider (Araneae: Salticidae) from Singapore" 174:, in this context, is driven by females; direct or indirect benefits to the female often determine which males reproduce and which do not. 2139:

Zubakin, V. A.; Volodin, I. A.; Klenova, A. V.; Zubakina, E. V.; Volodina, E. V.; Lapshina, E. N. (2010). "Behavior of crested auklets (

488: 519:, resource and light availability, have an effect on the timing and effectiveness of courtship displays in certain species of animals. 3551: 3360: 2689: 2570: 2541: 1100:

Clark, Christopher J. (2012). "The role of power versus energy in courtship: what is the 'energetic cost' of a courtship display?".

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Bennett, Albert F.; Houck, Lynne D. (1983-10-01). "The Energetic Cost of Courtship and Aggression in a Plethodontid Salamander".

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from 15 minutes to a few days. However, certain animals may undergo an extended courtship period, lasting as long as two months.

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Females: their interest is to mate with a large number of fit males, thus producing a large quantity of fit and varied offspring.

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Saeki, Yoriko; Kruse, Kipp C.; Switzer, Paul V. (September 2005). "Physiological costs of mate guarding in the Japanese beetle (

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is the phenomenon in which the interests of males and females in reproduction are not the same: they are often quite different:

1315:"Direct benefits and the evolution of female mating preferences: conceptual problems, potential solutions, and a field cricket" 3010: 3777: 1856: 557: 3135:

Endler, J. A. (2016). "Predation, light intensity and courtship behaviour in Poecilia reticulata (Pisces: Poeciliidae)".

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Vehrencamp, Sandra L.; Bradbury, Jack W.; Gibson, Robert M. (1989). "The energetic cost of display in male sage grouse".

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fit offspring. In this case, males may compete during courtship by displaying desirable traits to pass on to offspring.

143: 3350: 1808:"A global analysis of aerial displays in passerines revealed an effect of habitat, mating system and migratory traits" 545: 3419: 437:

In many cases, male courtship displays will cause forms of contest competition to develop. This is often seen within

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selection suggests that subordinate males receive indirect benefits by helping related males copulate successfully.

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can arise if males are the sex in a species that are in short supply, for example, if there is a female bias in the

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Kahn, A. T. (2014). "Female preferences for timing in a fiddler crab with synchronous courtship waving displays".

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Schilthuizen, Menno. 2001. Frogs, flies and dandelions: the making of species. Oxford University Press p. 92

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Simmons, L.W. (July 1990). "Nuptial feeding in tettigoniids male costs and the rates of fecundity increase".

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Schilthuizen, Menno. 2001. Frogs, flies and dandelions: the making of species. Oxford University Press p92

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Borgia, Gerald (1985). "Bower quality, number of decorations and mating success of male satin bowerbirds (

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There are multiple hypotheses about how courtship displays may have evolved in animals, including the

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dance" and unique occipital and breast feathers that serve to stimulate the female visual system. In

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In some species, males will perform ritualized movements to attract females. The male six-plumed

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Lukianchuk, K. C.; Doucet, S. M. (2014). "Cooperative courtship display in Long-tailed Manakins

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Krakauer, Alan H. (2005-03-03). "Kin selection and cooperative courtship in wild turkeys".

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Agonistic behavior in courtship displays is not limited to male-male interactions. In many

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Kokko, Hanna; Monaghan, Pat (March 2001). "Predicting the direction of sexual selection".

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and strengthens post-copulatory dedication to the development of offspring (e.g.,

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438: 3034: 3026: 2871: 2443: 2389: 2254: 1420: 1063: 1016: 466:, the courtship period takes up just three per cent of their breeding cycle. 1614: 1597: 1397:"Experimental assessment of mating opportunities in three shorebird species" 912: 610: 529: 304: 234:

create complex multi-component signals that have an effect on more than one

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Communication to start a relationship with someone or to get sexual contact

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acts on the display. These behaviors often include ritualized movement ("

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in which an animal, usually a male, attempts to attract a mate; the mate

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lek males perform a courtship "strutting" display for visiting females.

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rates, putting further strain on males attempting to reproduce.

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Sperm competition and its evolutionary consequences in insects

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Various environmental factors, such as temperature,

3699: 3661: 3567: 3522: 3442: 2837: 2835: 151:makes and uses a bower to attract potential mates. 3250:"The Evolutionary Biology of Colonizing Species" 1806:Mikula, P.; Toszogyova, A.; Albrecht, T (2022). 1485:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 141–164. 1095: 1093: 1091: 1598:"An intimidating ornament in a female pipefish" 984: 982: 980: 271:evolution of multi-modal signaling in species. 1745:"Multi-modal courtship in the peacock spider, 1641:"Sound source perception in anuran amphibians" 3545: 3420: 8: 2581:Crudgington, H. & Siva-Jothy, M.T. 200. 2092:"Evolution of displays within the pair bond" 1855:Hebets, Eileen A.; Papaj, Daniel R. (2004). 2684:. Harvard University Press. pp. 3–22. 1273:, species recognition and sexual selection" 3552: 3538: 3530: 3427: 3413: 3405: 454:One such exception is the emperor penguin 3746:Coloration evidence for natural selection 3290: 3222: 3111: 2527:. 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(2013). 1697:), but may not help small males". 1331:10.1016/B978-0-12-380896-7.00006-X 1242:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1991.tb01133.x 561:Male and female Pigeon Guillemot, 25: 1319:Advances in the Study of Behavior 3812: 3811: 3652: 3587:Aristotelian/Distraction display 3192:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00449.x 2381:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02522.x 2065:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02522.x 1583:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2005.01106.x 1464:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00212.x 498:seen in the greater sage-grouse 398:Agonistic behavior and courtship 315:). For example, male and female 2368:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2052:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 1645:Current Opinion in Neurobiology 1313:Wagner, William E. Jr. (2011). 575:and the good genes hypothesis. 2313:Journal of Theoretical Biology 1937:Candolin, U. (November 2003). 1142:): an experimental analysis". 1: 3778:Frequency-dependent selection 3149:10.1016/S0003-3472(87)80010-6 2950:10.1016/s0003-3472(89)80120-4 2659:10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.09.028 2624:10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.09.012 2585:. Nature vol 407 pp. 855–856. 2487:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.01.007 1413:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.12.030 1156:10.1016/s0003-3472(85)80140-8 1114:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.04.012 213:Multi-modal signal processing 2333:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4 1774:10.1371/journal.pone.0025390 662:10.1371/journal.pone.0025390 394:with other candidate males. 386:after insemination. In some 129:) and calliope hummingbird ( 1639:Bee, Mark A. (April 2012). 869:Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 546:Hirtodrosophila mycetophaga 3880: 3395:birdsofparadiseproject.org 2757:Chelsea House Publications 2523:Parker, Geoffrey A. 1970. 1657:10.1016/j.conb.2011.12.014 1280:Journal of Insect Behavior 786:(1): 27–34. Archived from 567:, mutual courtship display 298:, mutual courtship display 221:Bosc's fringe-toed lizard 3806: 3650: 2799:10.1007/s00300-013-1285-9 2726:10.1007/s10329-015-0496-9 2204:10.1007/s10336-014-1059-3 2165:10.1134/S1062359010080066 1958:10.1017/S1464793103006158 1873:10.1007/s00265-004-0865-7 1719:10.1007/s00265-016-2160-9 1265:"Copulatory courtship in 1199:10.1007/s00265-003-0582-7 1140:Ptilonorhynchus violaceus 771:Beauchamp, A. J. (2014). 553:Evolutionary significance 502:Centrocercus urophasianus 463:(Aptenodytes patagonicus) 446:Extended courtship period 223:Acanthodactylus boskianus 161:Ptilonorhynchus violaceus 3707:Anti-predator adaptation 1481:. In Bateson, P. (ed.). 489:Desmognathus ochrophaeus 3316:The American Naturalist 1749:(O.P.-Cambridge, 1874)" 1292:10.1023/a:1007710218609 1008:10.1093/czoolo/57.2.187 913:10.1073/pnas.1323611111 584:"good genes" hypothesis 573:Fisherian runaway model 3450:Advertising in biology 3349:Ryan, Michael (2018). 3273:Fisher, R. A. (1915). 3104:10.1098/rspb.2016.0861 3062:10.1006/anbe.1994.1183 3027:10.1093/beheco/2.2.165 2680:Muller, M. N. (2009). 2192:Journal of Ornithology 2108:10.1098/rspb.2012.3020 2015:10.1098/rspb.2015.2222 1908:10.1006/anbe.1999.1242 1824:10.1098/rspb.2022.0370 1056:10.1098/rspb.2009.0508 829:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0067 568: 482: 457:(Aptenodytes forsteri) 299: 277:Rhamphomyia longicauda 226: 195:. This could arise in 152: 95: 45: 3798:Underwater camouflage 3577:Aggressive/Wicklerian 3436:Signalling in biology 3385:featherlightphoto.com 2595:Perez, D. M. (2015). 2552:Eberhard, W.G. 1996. 1625:10.1093/beheco/arn114 1615:10.1093/beheco/arn114 1477:Parker, G.A. (1983). 1263:Hoikkala, A. (2000). 947:Drosophila subobscura 560: 543:The effectiveness of 536:In emperor penguins ( 511:Environmental factors 477: 291: 220: 193:operational sex ratio 146: 115:Drosophila subobscura 88:Male peacock spider, 87: 35: 3773:Evolutionary ecology 3758:Deception in animals 3752:Dazzled and Deceived 3712:Animal communication 3086:Cole, G. L. (2016). 2188:Chiroxiphia linearis 538:Aptenodytes forsteri 340:Meleagris gallopavo) 330:Chiroxiphia linearis 326:long-tailed manakins 262:) are exceptionally 3619:Emsleyan/Mertensian 3499:Distraction display 3455:Agonistic behaviour 3184:2003EcolL...6..463G 3092:Biological Sciences 2856:1983Ecol...64..979B 2791:2013PoBio..36..573A 2705:Breuer, T. (2016). 2616:2015AnBeh.110...99P 2325:1964JThBi...7....1H 2286:Scientific American 2247:10.1038/nature03325 2239:2005Natur.434...69K 2157:2010BioBu..37..823Z 1765:2011PLoSO...625390G 1711:2016BEcoS..70.1517L 1575:2005Ethol.111..863S 1520:1990BEcoS..27...43S 1456:2001EcolL...4..159K 1191:2003BEcoS..53..263M 1050:(1670): 3047–3052. 951:Journal of Genetics 904:2014PNAS..111.4363W 750:10.1642/auk-14-63.1 708:10.1642/AUK-14-25.1 653:2011PLoSO...625390G 525:Poecilia reticulata 479:Greater sage-grouse 418:territorial defense 392:agonistic behaviors 321:Aethia cristatella, 309:great crested grebe 295:Numenius americanus 94:, courtship display 44:, courting a female 42:Antilope cervicapra 3763:Deimatic behaviour 3504:Handicap principle 3494:Deimatic behaviour 3205:Bried, J. (1999). 3015:Behavioral Ecology 2822:L'Oiseau et la RFO 2141:Aethia cristatella 2102:(1757): 20123020. 2009:(1820): 20152222. 1946:Biological Reviews 1818:(1973): 20220370. 1602:Behavioral Ecology 1528:10.1007/BF00183312 1267:Drosophila birchii 963:10.1007/bf02982781 616:Courtship disorder 569: 483: 313:Podiceps cristatus 300: 264:sexually dimorphic 227: 153: 96: 46: 18:Courtship behavior 3844:Signalling theory 3831: 3830: 3825: 3824: 3793:Signalling theory 3768:Mimicry#Evolution 3741:Community ecology 3736:Animal coloration 3582:Ant/Myrmecomorphy 3487:Courtship display 2426:10.1111/evo.12793 2420:(11): 2917–2926. 1559:Popillia japonica 1492:978-0-521-27207-0 1366:10.1111/evo.12926 898:(12): 4363–4368. 601:Display (zoology) 376:sperm competition 256:Peacock spiders ( 206:Syngnathus typhle 132:Stellula calliope 74:agonistic ability 54:display behaviors 50:courtship display 16:(Redirected from 3871: 3859:Animal sexuality 3817:Category mimicry 3815: 3814: 3656: 3554: 3547: 3540: 3531: 3429: 3422: 3415: 3406: 3367: 3366: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3294: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3261: 3260: 3246: 3237: 3236: 3226: 3202: 3196: 3195: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3143:(5): 1376–1385. 3137:Animal Behaviour 3132: 3126: 3125: 3115: 3083: 3074: 3073: 3056:(6): 1353–1362. 3050:Animal Behaviour 3045: 3039: 3038: 3006: 3000: 2999: 2971: 2962: 2961: 2938:Animal Behaviour 2933: 2927: 2926: 2890: 2884: 2883: 2839: 2830: 2829: 2817: 2811: 2810: 2774: 2761: 2760: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2711: 2702: 2696: 2695: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2647:Animal Behaviour 2642: 2636: 2635: 2604:Animal Behaviour 2601: 2592: 2586: 2579: 2573: 2563: 2557: 2550: 2544: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2515: 2508: 2499: 2498: 2475:Animal Behaviour 2470: 2464: 2463: 2437: 2408: 2402: 2401: 2383: 2374:(7): 1233–1242. 2359: 2353: 2352: 2308: 2302: 2301: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2222: 2216: 2215: 2183: 2177: 2176: 2145:Biology Bulletin 2136: 2130: 2129: 2119: 2084: 2078: 2077: 2067: 2058:(7): 1233–1242. 2043: 2037: 2036: 2026: 1994: 1988: 1987: 1969: 1943: 1934: 1928: 1927: 1896:Animal Behaviour 1891: 1885: 1884: 1852: 1846: 1845: 1835: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1786: 1776: 1740: 1731: 1730: 1705:(9): 1517–1525. 1690: 1679: 1678: 1668: 1636: 1630: 1629: 1627: 1617: 1593: 1587: 1586: 1554: 1548: 1547: 1503: 1497: 1496: 1474: 1468: 1467: 1439: 1433: 1432: 1401:Animal Behaviour 1392: 1386: 1385: 1360:(5): 1129–1135. 1349: 1343: 1342: 1310: 1304: 1303: 1277: 1260: 1254: 1253: 1225: 1219: 1218: 1174: 1168: 1167: 1144:Animal Behaviour 1135: 1126: 1125: 1102:Animal Behaviour 1097: 1086: 1085: 1075: 1035: 1029: 1028: 1010: 986: 975: 974: 942: 936: 935: 925: 915: 883: 877: 876: 866: 857: 851: 850: 840: 808: 802: 801: 799: 798: 792: 777: 768: 762: 761: 735: 726: 720: 719: 691: 685: 684: 674: 664: 632: 347:Sexual ornaments 268:sexual selection 236:sensory modality 100:bird-of-paradise 62:sexual selection 58:exercises choice 21: 3879: 3878: 3874: 3873: 3872: 3870: 3869: 3868: 3834: 3833: 3832: 3827: 3826: 3821: 3802: 3695: 3657: 3648: 3563: 3558: 3518: 3438: 3433: 3400:bbc.co.uk guide 3376: 3371: 3370: 3363: 3348: 3347: 3343: 3313: 3312: 3308: 3279:Eugenics Review 3272: 3271: 3267: 3258: 3256: 3248: 3247: 3240: 3224:10.2307/4089382 3204: 3203: 3199: 3172:Ecology Letters 3169: 3168: 3164: 3134: 3133: 3129: 3085: 3084: 3077: 3047: 3046: 3042: 3008: 3007: 3003: 2988:10.2307/4079460 2973: 2972: 2965: 2935: 2934: 2930: 2907:10.2307/2408370 2892: 2891: 2887: 2864:10.2307/1937804 2841: 2840: 2833: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2776: 2775: 2764: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2709: 2704: 2703: 2699: 2692: 2679: 2678: 2674: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2599: 2594: 2593: 2589: 2580: 2576: 2564: 2560: 2551: 2547: 2535: 2531: 2522: 2518: 2512:Sexual conflict 2509: 2502: 2472: 2471: 2467: 2410: 2409: 2405: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2310: 2309: 2305: 2283: 2282: 2278: 2233:(7029): 69–72. 2224: 2223: 2219: 2185: 2184: 2180: 2138: 2137: 2133: 2088:Servedio, M. R. 2086: 2085: 2081: 2045: 2044: 2040: 1996: 1995: 1991: 1941: 1936: 1935: 1931: 1893: 1892: 1888: 1854: 1853: 1849: 1805: 1804: 1800: 1742: 1741: 1734: 1692: 1691: 1682: 1638: 1637: 1633: 1595: 1594: 1590: 1556: 1555: 1551: 1505: 1504: 1500: 1493: 1476: 1475: 1471: 1444:Ecology Letters 1441: 1440: 1436: 1394: 1393: 1389: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1312: 1311: 1307: 1275: 1262: 1261: 1257: 1230:Biology Reviews 1227: 1226: 1222: 1176: 1175: 1171: 1137: 1136: 1129: 1099: 1098: 1089: 1037: 1036: 1032: 995:Current Zoology 988: 987: 978: 944: 943: 939: 885: 884: 880: 864: 859: 858: 854: 817:Biology Letters 810: 809: 805: 796: 794: 790: 775: 770: 769: 765: 733: 728: 727: 723: 693: 692: 688: 634: 633: 629: 624: 597: 564:Cepphus columba 555: 513: 472: 470:Energetic costs 448: 431:Gorilla gorilla 400: 361:Sexual conflict 358: 356:Sexual conflict 349: 317:crested auklets 286: 215: 188: 157:satin bowerbird 149:satin bowerbird 105:Parotia lawesii 82: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3877: 3875: 3867: 3866: 3861: 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