554:. Jordan proposes that cratons formed from a high degree of partial melting of the upper mantle, with 30 to 40 percent of the source rock entering the melt. Such a high degree of melting was possible because of the high mantle temperatures of the Archean. The extraction of so much magma left behind a solid peridotite residue that was enriched in lightweight magnesium and thus lower in chemical density than undepleted mantle. This lower chemical density compensated for the effects of thermal contraction as the craton and its roots cooled, so that the physical density of the cratonic roots matched that of the surrounding hotter, but more chemically dense, mantle. In addition to cooling the craton roots and lowering their chemical density, the extraction of magma also increased the viscosity and melting temperature of the craton roots and prevented mixing with the surrounding undepleted mantle. The resulting mantle roots have remained stable for billions of years. Jordan suggests that depletion occurred primarily in
223:
31:
528:, which originate in the roots of cratons, and which are almost always over 2 billion years and often over 3 billion years in age. Rock of Archean age makes up only 7% of the world's current cratons; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, this suggests that only 5 to 40 percent of the present continental crust formed during the Archean. Cratonization likely was completed during the
653:
and may be
Archean, while the second is found at depths from 180 to 240 km (110 to 150 mi) and may be younger. The second layer may be a less depleted thermal boundary layer that stagnated against the depleted "lid" formed by the first layer. The impact origin model does not require plumes or accretion; this model is, however, not incompatible with either.
489:. These inclusions have densities consistent with craton composition and are composed of mantle material residual from high degrees of partial melt. Peridotite is strongly influenced by the inclusion of moisture. Craton peridotite moisture content is unusually low, which leads to much greater strength. It also contains high percentages of low-weight
652:
The chemistry of xenoliths and seismic tomography both favor the two accretional models over the plume model. However, other geochemical evidence favors mantle plumes. Tomography shows two layers in the craton roots beneath North
America. One is found at depths shallower than 150 km (93 mi)
593:
magma and a solid residue very close in composition to
Archean lithospheric mantle, but continental shields do not contain enough komatiite to match the expected depletion. Either much of the komatiite never reached the surface, or other processes aided craton root formation. There are many competing
584:
However, melt extraction alone cannot explain all the properties of craton roots. Jordan notes in his paper that this mechanism could be effective for constructing craton roots only down to a depth of 200 kilometers (120 mi). The great depths of craton roots required further explanation. The 30
643:
A fourth theory presented in a 2015 publication suggests that the origin of the cratons is similar to crustal plateaus observed on Venus, which may have been created by large asteroid impacts. In this model, large impacts on the Earth's early lithosphere penetrated deep into the mantle and created
458:, and the low-velocity zone seen elsewhere at these depths is weak or absent beneath stable cratons. Craton lithosphere is distinctly different from oceanic lithosphere because cratons have a neutral or positive buoyancy and a low intrinsic density. This low density offsets density increases from
893:
Ratheesh-Kumar, R.T.; Windley, B.F.; Xiao, W.J.; Jia, X-L.; Mohanty, D.P.; Zeba-Nezrin, F.K. (October 2019). "Early growth of the Indian lithosphere: implications from the assembly of the
Dharwar Craton and adjacent granulite blocks, southern India".
602:
Jordan's model suggests that further cratonization was a result of repeated continental collisions. The thickening of the crust associated with these collisions may have been balanced by craton root thickening according to the principle of
493:
instead of higher-weight calcium and iron. Peridotites are important for understanding the deep composition and origin of cratons because peridotite nodules are pieces of mantle rock modified by partial melting.
656:
All these proposed mechanisms rely on buoyant, viscous material separating from a denser residue due to mantle flow, and it is possible that more than one mechanism contributed to craton root formation.
607:. Jordan likens this model to "kneading" of the cratons, allowing low density material to move up and higher density to move down, creating stable cratonic roots as deep as 400 km (250 mi).
1858:
Lundmark, Anders
Mattias; Lamminen, Jarkko (2016). "The provenance and setting of the Mesoproterozoic Dala Sandstone, western Sweden, and paleogeographic implications for southwestern Fennoscandia".
685:
leads to the formation of so-called polygenetic peneplains of mixed origin. Another result of the longevity of cratons is that they may alternate between periods of high and low relative
577:
of xenoliths indicates that the oldest melting events took place in the early to middle
Archean. Significant cratonization continued into the late Archean, accompanied by voluminous
520:. There is much about this process that remains uncertain, with very little consensus in the scientific community. However, the first cratonic landmasses likely formed during the
462:
and prevents the craton from sinking into the deep mantle. Cratonic lithosphere is much older than oceanic lithosphere—up to 4 billion years versus 180 million years.
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more than twice the typical 100 km (60 mi) thickness of mature oceanic or non-cratonic, continental lithosphere. At that depth, craton roots extend into the
1381:
544:
The origin of the roots of cratons is still debated. However, the present understanding of cratonization began with the publication in 1978 of a paper by
565:
This model of melt extraction from the upper mantle has held up well with subsequent observations. The properties of mantle xenoliths confirm that the
754:
880:
The Large-wavelength
Deformations of the Lithosphere: Materials for a history of the evolution of though from the earliest times toi plate tectonics
1836:
974:"Lithospheric structure, composition, and thermal regime of the East European Craton: implications for the subsidence of the Russian platform"
1416:
681:. While the process of etchplanation is associated to humid climate and pediplanation with arid and semi-arid climate, shifting climate over
1014:
Cordani, U.G.; Teixeira, W.; D'Agrella-Filho, M.S.; Trindade, R.I. (June 2009). "The position of the
Amazonian Craton in supercontinents".
783:
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1051:"Crustal structure beneath southern Africa and its implications for the formation and evolution of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons"
1900:
1651:
1361:
1279:
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Hand, M.; Reid, A.; Jagodzinski, L. (1 December 2007). "Tectonic
Framework and Evolution of the Gawler Craton, Southern Australia".
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122:
82:
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Kusky, T. M.; Windley, B. F.; Zhai, M.-G. (2007). "Tectonic evolution of the North China Block: from orogen to craton to orogen".
1100:
Hoffman, P F (May 1988). "United Plates of
America, The Birth of a Craton: Early Proterozoic Assembly and Growth of Laurentia".
1966:
230:
1444:"Formation of cratonic mantle keels by arc accretion: Evidence from S receiver functions: FORMATION OF CRATONIC MANTLE KEELS"
835:
214:. They have a thick crust and deep lithospheric roots that extend as much as several hundred kilometres into Earth's mantle.
619:
of molten material from the deep mantle. This would have built up a thick layer of depleted mantle underneath the cratons.
1995:
1674:
Ernst, Richard E.; Buchan, Kenneth L.; Campbell, Ian H. (February 2005). "Frontiers in large igneous province research".
1049:
Nguuri, T. K.; Gore, J.; James, D. E.; Webb, S. J.; Wright, C.; Zengeni, T. G.; Gwavava, O.; Snoke, J. A. (1 July 2001).
2028:
729:
574:
343:
from regions that are more geologically active and unstable. Cratons are composed of two layers: a continental
1936:
Hamilton, Warren B. (August 1998). "Archean magmatism and deformation were not products of plate tectonics".
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459:
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1782:
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Yuan, Huaiyu; Romanowicz, Barbara (August 2010). "Lithospheric layering in the North American craton".
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202:; the exceptions occur where geologically recent rifting events have separated cratons and created
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351:
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1483:
Jordan, Thomas H. (August 1978). "Composition and development of the continental tectosphere".
689:. High relative sea level leads to increased oceanicity, while the opposite leads to increased
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peridotites represent the crystalline residues after extraction of melts of compositions like
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of craton root xenoliths is extremely dry, which would give the roots a very high viscosity.
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enormous lava ponds. The paper suggests these lava ponds cooled to form the craton's root.
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Sr. Lecturer, Geography, School of Humanities, Central Queensland University, Australia.
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Many cratons have had subdued topographies since Precambrian times. For example, the
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Department of Geophysics, Colorado School of Mines, Journal of Conference Abstracts
1758:
1512:
632:
616:
559:
1780:; Finkl Jr., Charles W. (1980). "Cratonic erosion unconformities and peneplains".
1274:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 373, 602–603.
206:
along their edges. Cratons are characteristically composed of ancient crystalline
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1999:
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of cratons has been labelled the "cratonic regime". It involves processes of
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shows that cratons are underlain by anomalously cold mantle corresponding to
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830:(Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute.
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of subducting oceanic lithosphere became lodged beneath a proto-craton,
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525:
521:
385:
262:
17:
815:(5th ed.). Sydney: Macquarie Dictionary Publishers Pty Ltd. 2009.
1504:
1382:"Geochemical/petrologic constraints on the origin of cratonic mantle"
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177:
39:
1408:
950:
1803:
1632:"Archean mantle plumes: Evidence from greenstone belt geochemistry"
1601:
1599:
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1334:
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882:. Geological Society of America memoir. Vol. 196. p. 331.
615:
A second model suggests that the surface crust was thickened by a
578:
470:
221:
29:
1998:. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Archived from
1380:
Lee, C. (2006). Benn, K.; Mareschal, J.C.; Condie, K.C. (eds.).
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195:
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of continents, cratons are generally found in the interiors of
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151:
349:, in which the basement rock crops out at the surface, and a
172:
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145:
65:
1983:. Symposium A08, Early Evolution of the Continental Crust.
784:"Definition of craton in British and Commonwealth English"
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had been eroded into a subdued terrain already during the
111:
71:
38:
Period when the two continents were joined as part of the
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that lead to the formation of flattish surfaces known as
182:"strength") is an old and stable part of the continental
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1996:"The Dynamic Earth @ National Museum of Natural History"
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1536:
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1356:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 297–302.
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to 40 percent partial melting of mantle rock at 4 to 10
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1234:
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1213:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 349.
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Miller, Meghan S.; Eaton, David W. (September 2010).
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83:
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186:, which consists of Earth's two topmost layers, the
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516:The process by which cratons were formed is called
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569:is much lower beneath continents than oceans. The
27:Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere
1708:
1605:
376:, referring to stable continental platforms, and
339:is used to distinguish the stable portion of the
1772:
1770:
1768:
1636:Mantle Plumes: Their Identification Through Time
1389:American Geophysical Union Geophysical Monograph
1182:(13). Society for Science & the Public: 24.
931:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
755:"Definition of craton in North American English"
1272:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
34:Cratons of South America and Africa during the
1630:Tomlinson, Kirsty Y.; Condie, Kent C. (2001).
1209:Kearey, P.; Klepeis, K.A.; Vine, F.J. (2009).
446:Cratons have thick lithospheric roots. Mantle
194:. Having often survived cycles of merging and
1102:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
594:hypotheses of how cratons have been formed.
366:was first proposed by the Austrian geologist
355:which overlays the shield in some areas with
8:
1270:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
434:(also called the Laurentia Craton), and the
393:
371:
1617:
635:the craton with chemically depleted rock.
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826:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "craton".
532:. Subsequent growth of continents was by
862:
850:
746:
627:A third model suggests that successive
1967:"How did the Archean Earth Lose Heat?"
1569:
1542:
1525:
477:have been delivered to the surface as
1588:
1257:
1240:
524:eon. This is indicated by the age of
7:
1839:from the original on January 6, 2018
598:Repeated continental collision model
1557:
1308:Hansen, Vicki L. (24 August 2015).
1172:"Continental Hearts – Science News"
1170:Petit, Charles (18 December 2010).
1122:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.002551
981:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1310:"Impact origin of Archean cratons"
972:Artemieva, Irina M (August 2003).
210:, which may be covered by younger
25:
1922:(Sixth ed.), W. H. Freeman,
1902:Geological Evolution of Australia
1825:Lindberg, Johan (April 4, 2016).
1391:. Geophysical Monograph Series.
469:) carried up from the mantle by
132:
92:
52:
1882:10.1016/j.precamres.2016.01.003
1709:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
1606:Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009
908:10.1016/j.precamres.2019.105491
1:
1958:10.1016/S0301-9268(98)00042-4
1001:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00327-3
392:shortened the former term to
1965:Hamilton, Warren B. (1999).
1696:10.1016/j.lithos.2004.09.004
1448:Geophysical Research Letters
1157:10.2113/gsecongeo.102.8.1377
1055:Geophysical Research Letters
410:Examples of cratons are the
178:
730:List of shields and cratons
623:Subducting ocean slab model
2045:
173:
1644:10.1130/0-8137-2352-3.341
1827:"berggrund och ytformer"
1036:10.1016/j.gr.2008.12.005
704:was flattish already by
536:at continental margins.
1618:Miller & Eaton 2010
1188:10.1002/scin.5591781325
993:2003E&PSL.213..431A
648:Evidence for each model
1832:Uppslagsverket Finland
1783:The Journal of Geology
460:geothermal contraction
426:in South America, the
394:
372:
332:
281:Large igneous province
43:
1899:Dayton, Gene (2006).
1778:Fairbridge, Rhodes W.
575:Rhenium–osmium dating
432:North American Craton
430:in South Africa, the
225:
33:
1938:Precambrian Research
1861:Precambrian Research
1461:10.1029/2010GL044366
1354:Earth System History
1068:10.1029/2000GL012587
896:Precambrian Research
813:Macquarie Dictionary
714:Late Mesoproterozoic
438:in South Australia.
420:East European Craton
1977:(1). Archived from
1950:1998PreR...91..143H
1920:Understanding Earth
1918:(4 February 2010),
1912:Grotzinger, John P.
1874:2016PreR..275..197L
1796:1980JG.....88...69F
1743:10.1038/nature09332
1735:2010Natur.466.1063Y
1729:(7310): 1063–1068.
1688:2005Litho..79..271E
1497:1978Natur.274..544J
1401:2006GMS...164...89L
1326:2015Lsphe...7..563H
1149:2007EcGeo.102.1377H
1114:1988AREPS..16..543H
1028:2009GondR..15..396C
943:2007GSLSP.280....1K
828:Glossary of geology
788:Oxford Dictionaries
759:Oxford Dictionaries
639:Impact origin model
567:geothermal gradient
558:and secondarily as
2029:Historical geology
1350:Stanley, Steven M.
706:Middle Proterozoic
611:Molten plume model
589:pressure produces
416:North China Craton
333:
227:Geologic provinces
190:and the uppermost
44:
1916:Jordan, Thomas H.
1491:(5671): 544–548.
1418:978-0-87590-429-0
1260:, pp. 25–26.
1061:(13): 2501–2504.
1016:Gondwana Research
735:Cratonic sequence
718:rapakivi granites
702:Western Australia
691:inland conditions
341:continental crust
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1981:on 2006-05-14.
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1929:978-1429219518
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1835:(in Swedish).
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876:Şengör, A.M.C.
867:
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698:Yilgarn Craton
665:The long-term
662:
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1591:, p. 26.
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1243:, p. 25.
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710:Baltic Shield
707:
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675:etchplanation
672:
671:pediplanation
668:
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582:
581:magmatism.
580:
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563:
561:
560:flood basalts
557:
553:
552:
547:
539:
537:
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527:
523:
519:
518:cratonization
511:
509:
507:
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501:
497:
492:
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485:pipes called
484:
480:
476:
472:
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461:
457:
456:asthenosphere
453:
449:
441:
439:
437:
436:Gawler Craton
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
405:
403:
401:
398:, from which
396:
391:
387:
383:
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368:Leopold Kober
365:
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358:
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338:
324:
321: >65
315:
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297:
296:Oceanic crust
294:
291:
282:
273:
264:
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246:
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237:
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224:
217:
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209:
208:basement rock
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1979:the original
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1830:
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1392:
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1176:Science News
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870:
863:Jackson 1997
858:
853:, "shield ".
851:Jackson 1997
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792:the original
787:
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767:. Retrieved
763:the original
758:
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664:
655:
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633:underplating
626:
617:rising plume
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363:
361:
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344:
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334:
312: 20–65
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1868:: 197–208.
1659:21 November
1570:Jordan 1978
1543:Jordan 1978
1526:Jordan 1978
1454:(18): n/a.
1424:20 November
1314:Lithosphere
1078:10919/24271
937:(1): 1–34.
540:Root origin
530:Proterozoic
496:Harzburgite
487:kimberlites
483:subvolcanic
473:containing
452:lithosphere
390:Hans Stille
370:in 1921 as
303: 0–20
218:Terminology
184:lithosphere
2018:Categories
2006:2011-01-09
1589:Petit 2010
1258:Petit 2010
1241:Petit 2010
902:: 105491.
837:0922152349
798:2015-03-28
769:2015-03-28
741:References
720:intruded.
687:sea levels
679:peneplains
479:inclusions
475:peridotite
448:tomography
414:in India,
1812:129231129
1470:129901730
1196:0036-8423
959:129902429
916:210295037
716:when the
591:komatiite
534:accretion
512:Formation
504:komatiite
491:magnesium
467:xenoliths
442:Structure
402:derives.
362:The word
335:The term
1837:Archived
1751:20740006
1558:Lee 2006
1352:(1999).
1087:15687067
878:(2003).
724:See also
605:isostacy
526:diamonds
406:Examples
388:. Later
382:mountain
373:Kratogen
352:platform
254:Platform
36:Triassic
2024:Cratons
1946:Bibcode
1870:Bibcode
1792:Bibcode
1759:4380594
1731:Bibcode
1684:Bibcode
1513:4286280
1493:Bibcode
1397:Bibcode
1322:Bibcode
1145:Bibcode
1110:Bibcode
1024:Bibcode
989:Bibcode
939:Bibcode
667:erosion
661:Erosion
571:olivine
522:Archean
196:rifting
167:; from
18:Cratons
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1723:Nature
1676:Lithos
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1485:Nature
1468:
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551:Nature
500:basalt
471:magmas
422:, the
418:, the
400:craton
395:Kraton
378:orogen
364:craton
346:shield
337:craton
326:
319:
310:
301:
286:
279:
277:
270:
268:
263:Orogen
261:
259:
252:
250:
245:Shield
243:
241:
192:mantle
179:kratos
174:κράτος
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40:Pangea
1808:S2CID
1755:S2CID
1509:S2CID
1466:S2CID
1385:(PDF)
1083:S2CID
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955:S2CID
912:S2CID
629:slabs
579:mafic
290:crust
272:Basin
188:crust
169:Greek
130:, or
85:KRAYT
1924:ISBN
1845:2018
1747:PMID
1661:2021
1648:ISBN
1426:2021
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1358:ISBN
1276:ISBN
1215:ISBN
1192:ISSN
832:ISBN
673:and
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231:USGS
164:-tən
162:KRAY
125:KRAT
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1800:doi
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1456:doi
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1073:hdl
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