529:
45:
206:, argue that pidgins and creoles arise independently under different circumstances, and that a pidgin need not always precede a creole nor a creole evolve from a pidgin. Pidgins, according to Mufwene, emerged in trade colonies among "users who preserved their native vernaculars for their day-to-day interactions". Creoles, meanwhile, developed in settlement colonies in which speakers of a European language, often
788:
little historical exposure to
Portuguese for many of these populations, no strong direct evidence for this claim, and with Portuguese leaving almost no trace on the lexicon of most of them, with the similarities in grammar explainable by analogous processes of loss of inflection and grammatical forms not common to European and West African languages. For example,
641:), when the substratum cannot be identified, or when the presence or the survival of substratal evidence is inferred from mere typological analogies. On the other hand, the distinction may be meaningful when the contributions of each parent language to the resulting creole can be shown to be very unequal, in a scientifically meaningful way. In the literature on
544:
dramatically. In fact, some have been standardized, and are used in local schools and universities around the world. At the same time, linguists have begun to come to the realization that creole languages are in no way inferior to other languages. They now use the term "creole" or "creole language" for any language suspected to have undergone
809:
rivers as well as in neighboring areas such as the Bullom and
Sherbro coasts. These settlers intermarried with the local population leading to mixed populations, and, as a result of this intermarriage, an English pidgin was created. This pidgin was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on took
787:
in the late nineteenth century and popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Taylor, Whinnom, Thompson, and
Stewart. However, this hypothesis is now not widely accepted, since it relies on all creole-speaking slave populations being based on the same Portuguese-based creole, despite no to very
749:
In addition to the precise mechanism of creole genesis, a more general debate has developed whether creole languages are characterized by different mechanisms than traditional languages (which is McWhorter's 2018 main point) or whether in that regard creole languages develop by the same mechanisms as
792:
points out that relexification postulates too many improbabilities and that it is unlikely that a language "could be disseminated round the entire tropical zone, to peoples of widely differing language background, and still preserve a virtually complete identity in its grammatical structure wherever
1285:
have all these three features but show none of the sociohistoric traits of creole languages. McWhorter (2011, 2018) disagrees: for instance, he points out that
Soninke has "a goodly amount" of inherent (i.e. non-contextual) inflection, that Magoua "retains ample marking of gender, person and number
894:
The
Foreigner Talk (FT) hypothesis argues that a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers attempt to simplify their language in order to address speakers who do not know their language at all. Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and speech directed to a small child,
719:
language group. French and
English are particularly close, since English, through extensive borrowing, is typologically closer to French than to other Germanic languages. Thus the claimed similarities between creoles may be mere consequences of similar parentage, rather than characteristic features
620:
events, when the native speakers of a certain source language (the substrate) are somehow compelled to abandon it for another target language (the superstrate). The outcome of such an event is that erstwhile speakers of the substrate will use some version of the superstrate, at least in more formal
595:
parent of a creole â that is, whether a language should be classified as a "French creole", "Portuguese creole" or "English creole", etc. â often has no definitive answer, and can become the topic of long-lasting controversies, where social prejudices and political considerations may interfere with
485:
Because of the generally low status of the Creole peoples in the eyes of prior
European colonial powers, creole languages have generally been regarded as "degenerate" languages, or at best as rudimentary "dialects" of the politically dominant parent languages. Because of this, the word "creole" was
1257:
McWhorter claims that these three properties characterize any language that was born recently as a pidgin, and states "At this writing, in twenty years I have encountered not a single counterexample" (McWhorter 2018). Nevertheless, the existence of a creole prototype has been disputed by others:
636:
However, there is dispute over the extent to which the terms "substrate" and "superstrate" are applicable to the genesis or the description of creole languages. The language replacement model may not be appropriate in creole formation contexts, where the emerging language is derived from multiple
543:
Because of social, political, and academic changes brought on by decolonization in the second half of the 20th century, creole languages have experienced revivals in the past few decades. They are increasingly being used in print and film, and in many cases, their community prestige has improved
1360:
spell out the idea of creole exceptionalism, claiming that creole languages are an instance of nongenetic language change due to language shift with abnormal transmission. Gradualists question the abnormal transmission of languages in a creole setting and argue that the processes which created
1008:
Theories focusing on the substrate, or non-European, languages attribute similarities amongst creoles to the similarities of
African substrate languages. These features are often assumed to be transferred from the substrate language to the creole or to be preserved invariant from the substrate
1203:
McWhorter argues that the absence of these three features is predictable in languages that were born recently of a pidgin, since learning them would constitute a distinct challenge to the non-native speaker. Over the course of generations, however, such features would be expected to gradually
122:, traders had to learn to communicate with people around the world, and the quickest way to do this was to develop a pidgin; in turn, full creole languages developed from these pidgins. In addition to creoles that have European languages as their base, there are, for example, creoles based on
1515:
ideologies, rejecting the notion that
Creoles can be responsibly defined in terms of specific grammatical characteristics. They discuss the history of linguistics and nineteenth-century work that argues for the consideration of the sociohistorical contexts in which Creole languages emerged.
176:
Some linguists, such as Derek
Bickerton, posit that creoles share more grammatical similarities with each other than with the languages from which they are phylogenetically derived. However, there is no widely accepted theory that would account for those perceived similarities. Moreover, no
973:) learning hypothesis claims that pidgins are primarily the result of the imperfect L2 learning of the dominant lexifier language by the slaves. Research on naturalistic L2 processes has revealed a number of features of "interlanguage systems" that are also seen in pidgins and creoles:
590:
Phylogenetic classification traditionally relies on inheritance of the lexicon, especially of "core" terms, and of the grammar structure. However, in creoles, the core lexicon often has mixed origin, and the grammar is largely original. For these reasons, the issue of which language is
1069:, which usually take years to learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very simple, usually based on strict word order. In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech â syntax, lexicon, and pronunciation â tend to be quite variable, especially with regard to the speaker's background.
301:
were originally qualifiers used throughout the Spanish and Portuguese colonies to distinguish the members of an ethnic group who were born and raised locally from those who immigrated as adults. They were most commonly applied to nationals of the colonial power, e.g. to distinguish
196:. However, political and academic changes in recent decades have improved the status of creoles, both as living languages and as object of linguistic study. Some creoles have even been granted the status of official or semi-official languages of particular political territories.
1065:) suggests that pidgins need three languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being clearly dominant over the others. The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and drawn from the vocabularies of its speakers, in varying proportions. Morphological details like word
105:
The precise number of creole languages is not known, particularly as many are poorly attested or documented. About one hundred creole languages have arisen since 1500. These are predominantly based on European languages such as English and French due to the European
1072:
If a pidgin manages to be learned by the children of a community as a native language, it may become fixed and acquire a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology, syntax, morphology, and syntactic embedding. Pidgins can become full languages in only a single
90:, creoles are often characterized by a tendency to systematize their inherited grammar (e.g., by eliminating irregularities or regularizing the conjugation of otherwise irregular verbs). Like any language, creoles are characterized by a consistent system of
850:, the French Atlantic harbors, and the nascent French colonies. Supporters of this hypothesis suggest that the non-Creole French dialects still spoken in many parts of the Americas share mutual descent from this single koiné. These dialects are found in
1627:
1017:
with lexical material from the superstrate language while retaining the native grammatical categories. The problem with this explanation is that the postulated substrate languages differ amongst themselves and with creoles in meaningful ways.
1318:
Building up on this discussion, McWhorter proposed that "the world's simplest grammars are Creole grammars", claiming that every noncreole language's grammar is at least as complex as any creole language's grammar. Gil has replied that
586:
classification of a particular creole usually is a matter of dispute; especially when the pidgin precursor and its parent tongues (which may have been other creoles or pidgins) have disappeared before they could be documented.
1077:. "Creolization" is this second stage where the pidgin language develops into a fully developed native language. The vocabulary, too, will develop to contain more and more items according to a rationale of lexical enrichment.
336:, etc.) lost the generic meaning and became the proper name of many distinct ethnic groups that developed locally from immigrant communities. Originally, therefore, the term "creole language" meant the speech of any of those
1506:
have argued further that Creole languages are structurally no different from any other language, and that Creole is in fact a sociohistoric concept (and not a linguistic one), encompassing displaced population and slavery.
1309:. Again, McWhorter (2018) disagrees. For instance, he points out that the use of tone in Papiamentu to distinguish participial verb forms from base ones appeared only after extensive contact with native Spanish speakers.
1140:
The last decades have seen the emergence of some new questions about the nature of creoles: in particular, the question of how complex creoles are and the question of whether creoles are indeed "exceptional" languages.
1204:(re-)appear, and therefore "many creoles would harbor departures from the Prototype identifiable as having happened after the creole was born" (McWhorter 2018). As one example, McWhorter (2013) notes that the creole
1446:, on the other hand, would be less prototypical, given the presence of inflection to mark plural, past, gerund, and participle forms. Objections to the McWhorter-Parkvall hypotheses point out that these typological
218:
version of the original language. These servants and slaves would come to use the creole as an everyday vernacular, rather than merely in situations in which contact with a speaker of the superstrate was necessary.
1026:
coined the term "cafeteria principle" to refer to the practice of arbitrarily attributing features of creoles to the influence of substrate African languages or assorted substandard dialects of European languages.
1094:
models stress the intervention of specific general processes during the transmission of language from generation to generation and from speaker to speaker. The process invoked varies: a general tendency towards
286:. The specific sense of the term was coined in the 16th and 17th century, during the great expansion in European maritime power and trade that led to the establishment of European colonies in other continents.
805:
for the origin of English-based creoles of the West Indies, the domestic origin hypothesis argues that, towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking traders began to settle in the Gambia and
4791:
961:
points out that FT is often based on the imitation of the incorrect speech of the non-natives, that is the pidgin. Therefore, one may be mistaken in assuming that the former gave rise to the latter.
633:), the influence of the substrate on the official speech is often limited to pronunciation and a modest number of loanwords. The substrate might even disappear altogether without leaving any trace.
668:
It is generally acknowledged that creoles have a simpler grammar and more internal variability than older, more established languages. However, these notions are occasionally challenged. (See also
141:
of a creole language is largely supplied by the parent languages, particularly that of the most dominant group in the social context of the creole's construction. However, there are often clear
98:
by children as their native language. These three features distinguish a creole language from a pidgin. Creolistics, or creology, is the study of creole languages and, as such, is a subfield of
637:
languages without any one of them being imposed as a replacement for any other. The substratumâsuperstratum distinction becomes awkward when multiple superstrata must be assumed (such as in
1199:
a lack of semantically opaque word formation, that is, a lack of words like "understand" or "make up", the meaning of which is not analyzable in terms of the meanings of their components.
1132:
linguistic capacities to transform the pidgin input into a full-fledged language. The alleged common features of all creoles would then stem from those innate abilities being universal.
4579:
Singler, John Victor (1996), "Theories of creole genesis, sociohistorical considerations, and the evaluation of evidence: The case of Haitian Creole and the Relexification Hypothesis",
3944:
Singler, John Victor (1996), "Theories of creole genesis, sociohistorical considerations, and the evaluation of evidence: The case of Haitian Creole and the Relexification Hypothesis",
653:
Since creole languages rarely attain official status, the speakers of a fully formed creole may eventually feel compelled to conform their speech to one of the parent languages. This
348:
As a consequence of colonial European trade patterns, most of the known European-based creole languages arose in coastal areas in the equatorial belt around the world, including the
3465:
Hamilton, A. Cris; Coslett, H. Branch (2008), "Role of inflectional regularity and semantic transparency in reading morphologically complex words: Evidence from acquired dyslexia",
1022:
argues that the number and diversity of African languages and the paucity of a historical record on creole genesis makes determining lexical correspondences a matter of chance.
1163:
a lack of contextual inflection, that is, a lack of inflection that marks only agreement in case or gender (as opposed to inherent inflection that marks tense, mood or number);
4382:
Eckkrammer, Eva (1994), "How to Pave the Way for the Emancipation of a Creole Language. Papiamentu, or What Can a Literature Do for its Language", in Hoogbergen, Wim (ed.),
1419:. In McWhorter's definition, creoleness is a matter of degree, in that prototypical creoles exhibit all of the three traits he proposes to diagnose creoleness: little or no
2216:
Chambers, Douglas B. (2008-12-01). "Slave trade merchants of Spanish New Orleans, 1763â1803: Clarifying the colonial slave trade to Louisiana in Atlantic perspective".
199:
Linguists now recognize that creole formation is a universal phenomenon, not limited to the European colonial period, and an important aspect of language evolution.
3576:
Hinnenkamp, V. (1984), "Eye-witnessing pidginization: Structural and Sociolinguistic Aspects of German and Turkish Foreigner Talk", in Sebba, M.; Todd, L. (eds.),
3567:
Hancock, Ian F. (1985), "The domestic hypothesis, diffusion and componentiality: An account of Anglophone creole origins", in Pieter Muysken; Norval Smith (eds.),
4074:
3618:
4777:
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Imperfect L2 learning is compatible with other approaches, notably the European dialect origin hypothesis and the universalist models of language transmission.
3421:
Ferguson, C.A. (1971), "Absence of Copula and the Notion of Simplicity: A Study of Normal Speech, Baby Talk, Foreigner Talk and Pidgins", in Hymes, D. (ed.),
3898:
Singler, John Victor (1983), "The influence of African languages on pidgins and creoles", in Kaye, Jonathan; Koopman, H.; Sportiche, D.; et al. (eds.),
1544:, and that current lexicography of Soninke is too elementary for it to be stated with authority that it does not have non-transparent derivation. Meanwhile,
679:
comparisons of creole languages have led to divergent conclusions. Similarities are usually higher among creoles derived from related languages, such as the
621:
contexts. The substrate may survive as a second language for informal conversation. As demonstrated by the fate of many replaced European languages (such as
929:
While the simplification of input was supposed to account for creoles' simple grammar, commentators have raised a number of criticisms of this explanation:
1120:, proposed in the 1980s, remains the main universalist theory. Bickerton claims that creoles are inventions of the children growing up on newly founded
149:
shifts. On the other hand, the grammar that has evolved often has new or unique features that differ substantially from those of the parent languages.
2175:
192:
of their parent languages. Because of that prejudice, many of the creoles that arose in the European colonies, having been stigmatized, have become
497:"tree model" for the evolution of languages, and its postulated regularity of sound changes (these critics including the earliest advocates of the
3889:
Seuren, Pieter A.M.; Wekker, Herman C. (1986), "Semantic transparency as a factor in creole genesis", in Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (eds.),
1396:
or merely evidence indicative of a set of recognizable phenomena seen in association with little inherent unity and no underlying single cause.
180:
Many of the creoles known today arose in the last 500 years, as a result of the worldwide expansion of European maritime power and trade in the
691:
in turn are more similar to each other (and to varieties of French) than to other European-based creoles. It was observed, in particular, that
4723:
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3011:
1997:
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Another factor that may have contributed to the relative neglect of creole languages in linguistics is that they do not fit the 19th-century
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3751:
Meijer, Guus; Muysken, Pieter (1977), "On the beginnings of pidgin and creole studies: Schuchardt and Hesseling", in Valdman, Albert (ed.),
953:
Pidgins are more often used amongst speakers of different substrate languages than between such speakers and those of the lexifier language.
1327:, the language McWhorter uses as a showcase for his theory. The same objections were raised by Wittmann in his 1999 debate with McWhorter.
707:. Moreover, the European languages which gave rise to the creole languages of European colonies all belong to the same subgroup of Western
4461:
Les langues des autres dans la créolisation : théorie et exemplification par le créole d'empreinte wolof à l'ßle Santiago du Cap Vert
1532:, there is ample non-transparent derivation, and that there is no reason to suppose that this would be absent in close relatives such as
4784:
4520:
Mufwene, Salikoko (2000), "Creolization is a social, not a structural, process", in Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid; Schneider, Edgar (eds.),
552:
6288:
4177:, Revue quĂ©bĂ©coise de linguistique thĂ©orique et appliquĂ©e 13, Trois-RiviĂšres: Presses universitaires de Trois-RiviĂšres, pp. 225â43
1061:, rudimentary second languages improvised for use between speakers of two or more non-intelligible native languages. Keith Whinnom (in
926:, in analyzing German Foreigner Talk, claims that it is too inconsistent and unpredictable to provide any model for language learning.
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3880:
3443:
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critically assesses the proposal that creole languages exist as a homogeneous structural type with shared and/ or peculiar origins.
950:
Speakers of a creole's lexifier language often fail to understand, without learning the language, the grammar of a pidgin or creole.
2652:
Based on 19th-century intuitions, approaches underlying the imperfect L2 learning hypothesis have been followed up in the works of
188:. Like most non-official and minority languages, creoles have generally been regarded in popular opinion as degenerate variants or
161:, developed by adults for use as a second language, becomes the native and primary language of their children â a process known as
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5682:
5054:
1943:
728:
There are a variety of theories on the origin of creole languages, all of which attempt to explain the similarities among them.
5700:
3985:
Thompson, R.W. (1961), "A note on some possible affinities between the creole dialects of the Old World and those of the New",
1757:
4023:
Vennemann, Theo (2003), "Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps", in Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.),
3731:(2013), "Why noncompositional derivation isn't boring: A second try on the 'other' part of the Creole prototype hypothesis.",
3055:
Bickerton, Derek (1977). "Pidginization and creolization: Language acquisition and language universals". In A. Valdman (ed.).
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are potential creoles but that they are not considered as such by linguists because of a historical bias against such a view.
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distinctions on verbs as well as conjugational classes" and therefore that these languages should not be considered creoles.
4152:"Grammaire comparée des variétés coloniales du français populaire de Paris du 17e siÚcle et origines du français québécois"
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have adduced evidence as to creole languages which respond unexpectedly to one of McWhorter's three features (for example,
1166:
a lack of functional tone marking, that is, a lack of tone that serves to distinguish lexical items (e.g. Mandarin Chinese
6210:
5989:
5285:
4842:
1743:
1738:
1718:
1696:
831:
819:
764:
688:
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1556:, which qualifies as inflection, and it also retains non-transparent derivation. Michel DeGraff's argument has been that
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6058:
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for a discussion of the controversy surrounding the retaining of substrate grammatical features through relexification.
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4979:
3779:(2000), "Creolization is a social, not a structural, process", in Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid; Schneider, Edgar (eds.),
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McWhorter, John H. (1999), "The Afrogenesis Hypothesis of Plantation Creole Origin", in Huber, M; Parkvall, M (eds.),
1827:
987:
768:
613:
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According to their external history, four types of creoles have been distinguished: plantation creoles, fort creoles,
502:
5930:
3842:
Schneider, Edgar W. (1990), "The cline of creoleness in English-oriented Creoles and semi-creoles of the Caribbean",
3501:
Geeslin, Kimberly L. (2002), "Semantic transparency as a predictor of copula choice in second-language acquisition",
1368:
as a concept, DeGraff and others question the idea that creoles are exceptional in any meaningful way. Additionally,
316:(those born in the Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Spain). However, in Brazil the term was also used to distinguish between
6320:
6220:
6053:
6007:
4328:
3626:
Lefebvre, Claire (2002), "The emergence of productive morphology in creole languages: the case of Haitian Creole",
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1293:) have claimed the existence of creoles that serve as counterexamples to McWhorter's hypothesis â the existence of
1117:
944:
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are often used when two languages interact. However, the meaning of these terms is reasonably well-defined only in
4769:
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3221:
1896:"Typologizing grammatical complexities, or Why creoles may be paradigmatically simple but syntagmatically average"
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Français d'Amérique: variation, créolisation, normalisation (Actes du colloque, Université d'Avignon, 8-11 Oct.)
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as a typological class; they argue that creoles are structurally no different from any other language, and that
1149:
Some features that distinguish creole languages from noncreoles have been proposed (by Bickerton, for example).
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5027:
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The lack of progress made in defining creoles in terms of their morphology and syntax has led scholars such as
704:
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214:, absorbing certain words and features from the slaves' non-European native languages, resulting in a heavily
4293:
Bastard Tongues: A Trailblazing Linguist Finds Clues to Our Common Humanity in the World's Lowliest Languages
3454:"Des créolismes dans la distribution des déterminants et des complémenteurs en français québécois basilectal"
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it took root, despite considerable changes in its phonology and virtually complete changes in its lexicon".
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whose language would be far from the standard in the first place, interacted extensively with non-European
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5322:
5147:
4413:
Good, Jeff (2004), "Tone and accent in Saramaccan: Charting a deep split in the phonology of a language",
4014:
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs (1977), "The Development of Pidgin and Creole Studies", in Valdman, Theo (ed.),
3380:
Dillard, J.L. (1970), "Principles in the history of American English: Paradox, virginity, and cafeteria",
3308:
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There are a great many grammatical similarities amongst pidgins and creoles despite having very different
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This could explain why creole languages have much in common, while avoiding a monogenetic model. However,
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to be sociohistoric in nature and relative to their colonial origin. Within this theoretical framework, a
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518:
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which are not considered creoles. Wittmann and DeGraff come to the conclusion that efforts to conceive a
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and the plantation system of the European colonies have been emphasized as factors by linguists such as
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5595:
3393:
Feist, Sigmund (1932), "The Origin of the Germanic Languages and the Europeanization of North Europe",
4551:
Singler, John Victor (1988), "The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis",
3916:
Singler, John Victor (1988), "The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis",
78:
that develops from the process of different languages simplifying and mixing into a new form (often a
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is a sociohistoric concept â not a linguistic one â encompassing displaced populations and slavery.
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Bailey, Charles J; Maroldt, Karl (1977), "The French lineage of English", in Meisel, JĂŒrgen (ed.),
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Recent investigations about substrates and superstrates, in creoles and other languages, includes
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Parkvall, Mikael (2001), "Creolistics and the quest for Creoleness: A reply to Claire Lefebvre",
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Because of the sociohistoric similarities amongst many (but by no means all) of the creoles, the
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DeCamp, David (1977), "The Development of Pidgin and Creole Studies", in Valdman, Albert (ed.),
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into separate chapters outside this scheme whether or not relexification come into the picture.
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of creoleness". No consensus exists among creolists as to whether the nature of creoleness is
44:
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2443:. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology â Department of Linguistics. August 2013.
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1270:
1103:
1086:
843:
630:
622:
466:
4224:"Contraintes sur la relexification: les limites imposées dans un cadre théorique minimaliste"
6548:
6241:
6087:
5985:
5936:
5907:
5857:
5808:
5747:
5378:
5368:
5337:
5300:
5253:
5248:
5206:
4938:
4588:
4560:
4480:
4422:
4363:
4116:
4002:
3953:
3925:
3851:
3831:
3788:
3776:
3760:
3740:
3717:
3656:
3510:
3474:
3402:
3346:
3337:
DeGraff, Michel (2005), "Do creole languages constitute an exceptional typological class?",
3318:
3273:
3187:
3144:
3106:
2999:
2307:
2225:
1920:
Calvet, Louis-Jean. (2006). Toward an Ecology of World Languages. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
1804:
1795:
1776:
1710:
1659:
1635:
1631:
1537:
1525:
1455:
1384:
Creolistics investigates the relative creoleness of languages suspected to be creoles, what
1373:
1335:
1274:
1125:
871:
692:
510:
203:
193:
181:
127:
107:
75:
49:
4529:
Muysken, Pieter; Law, Paul (2001), "Creole studies: A theoretical linguist's field guide",
3800:
Muysken, Pieter; Law, Paul (2001), "Creole studies: A theoretical linguist's field guide",
980:
loss of determiners or use of demonstrative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs as determiners;
940:
Grammatical simplification can be explained by other processes, i.e. the innate grammar of
528:
6618:
6543:
6433:
6413:
6382:
6372:
6367:
6356:
6336:
6303:
6171:
6063:
5949:
5902:
5866:
5852:
5775:
5585:
5480:
5433:
5281:
5257:
5216:
5174:
5162:
5152:
5142:
5137:
5076:
5049:
5044:
5032:
5004:
4999:
4974:
4727:
4715:
4702:
4287:
3768:
3212:
3175:
3163:
3064:
1766:
1714:
1705:
1679:
1613:
1475:
1320:
1282:
1114:
970:
941:
879:
839:
823:
784:
662:
642:
626:
579:
506:
454:
38:
4393:
Imagining the Creole City: The Rise of Literary Culture in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans
3102:
551:
There is controversy about the extent to which creolization influenced the evolution of
513:). This controversy of the late 19th century profoundly shaped modern approaches to the
6645:
6613:
6568:
6563:
6533:
6518:
6482:
6397:
6331:
6190:
6155:
6017:
5940:
5926:
5916:
5911:
5898:
5630:
5470:
5455:
5404:
5358:
5327:
4865:
4808:
4749:
4599:
4468:
4127:
3998:
3728:
3705:
3684:
3644:
3432:
3110:
2686:
2599:
1895:
1808:
1799:
1780:
1762:
1649:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1459:
1439:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1343:
1339:
1278:
1262:
1152:
1124:. Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, without enough structure to function as
1010:
772:
654:
617:
556:
532:
474:
337:
305:
131:
87:
4679:
4426:
3069:
1951:
1361:
today's creole languages are no different from universal patterns of language change.
977:
invariant verb forms derived from the infinitive or the least marked finite verb form;
555:(AAVE). In the American education system, as well as in the past, the use of the word
6668:
6503:
6362:
6314:
6308:
6257:
6205:
6195:
6184:
5821:
5211:
4964:
4885:
4855:
3453:
3330:
3156:
2319:
2245:
1664:
1014:
874:
in other parts of the Americas. Approaches under this hypothesis are compatible with
700:
494:
470:
412:
333:
115:
4434:
4375:
3494:
3360:
3285:
6583:
6578:
6444:
6392:
5640:
5507:
5485:
5101:
5022:
4913:
4899:
1601:
1393:
1205:
1110:
835:
806:
609:
545:
462:
448:
237:
162:
83:
4642:
4199:
2804:
457:
languages are based on European languages with elements from African and possibly
328:(born in Africa). Over time, the term and its derivatives (Creole, Kréol, Kreyol,
82:), and then that form expanding and elaborating into a full-fledged language with
62:, literally translated is "Lift your foot. Small people are playing here" in 2010.
4603:
4291:
3689:
The Missing Spanish Creoles: recovering the birth of plantation contact languages
1911:
Millar, Robert M. (2015). Trask's historical linguistics. Routledge. pp. 305-306.
6387:
5580:
5531:
5512:
5438:
5390:
4850:
4689:
4168:"La forme phonologique comparée du parler magoua de la région de Trois-RiviÚres"
3534:
GivĂłn, Talmy (1979), "Prolegomena to any sane creology", in Hancock, Ian (ed.),
1512:
1121:
810:
it to the West Indies and formed one component of the emerging English creoles.
712:
699:
and English whereas they are generally postnominal in French creoles and in the
645:, "superstrate" usually means European and "substrate" non-European or African.
522:
432:
416:
385:
259:
250:
99:
4623:
4082:
Whinnom, Keith (1965), "The origin of the European-based creoles and pidgins",
905:
suggest that four different processes are involved in creating Foreigner Talk:
6593:
6528:
6408:
6377:
5832:
5780:
4989:
4235:
13, Trois-RiviĂšres: Presses universitaires de Trois-RiviĂšres, pp. 245â280
4217:. The Linguist List. Eastern Michigan University & Wayne State University.
3478:
3148:
2311:
2229:
1591:
1541:
1495:
1467:
1447:
1443:
1442:, exhibiting all three traits, as "the most creole of creoles". A creole like
1420:
1324:
1306:
1074:
1066:
875:
827:
638:
444:
397:
119:
86:, all within a fairly brief period. While the concept is similar to that of a
53:
4471:(1998), "Identifying the creole prototype: Vindicating a typological class",
4312:"On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics"
4223:
4193:, Avignon: UniversitĂ© d'Avignon, Centre d'Ă©tudes canadiennes, pp. 229â48
4183:
4131:
3647:(1998), "Identifying the creole prototype: Vindicating a typological class",
3222:"On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics"
3021:
2237:
582:
creoles, and creolized pidgins. By the very nature of a creole language, the
6438:
6226:
6118:
6077:
6068:
5920:
5827:
5241:
4708:
4611:
Actes du Colloque de la Société Internationale de Linguistique Fonctionnelle
4592:
4161:, Trois-RiviĂšres: Presses universitaires de Trois-RiviĂšres, pp. 281â334
4120:
3957:
3835:
3744:
1871:
1654:
1463:
1435:
1209:
1107:
896:
863:
732:
outline a fourfold classification of explanations regarding creole genesis:
583:
487:
440:
436:
424:
408:
393:
381:
373:
369:
4151:
4107:
Winford, D (1997), "Creole Formation in the Context of Contact Languages",
3855:
3721:
3486:
3191:
1434:. In McWhorter's view, less prototypical creoles depart somewhat from this
855:
329:
17:
4695:
4367:
3514:
3322:
3277:
2990:
Ansaldo, U.; Matthews, S. (2007), "Deconstructing creole: The rationale",
486:
generally used by linguists in opposition to "language", rather than as a
6623:
6428:
6351:
6293:
6246:
6113:
5754:
5262:
5221:
4753:
3003:
1096:
934:
767:
and creoles hypothesizes that all Atlantic creoles derived from a single
561:
to refer to AAVE mirrors the historical negative connotation of the word
548:, terms that now imply no geographic restrictions nor ethnic prejudices.
389:
349:
215:
146:
4347:
4184:"Les créolismes syntaxiques du français magoua parlé aux Trois-RiviÚres"
4167:
3351:
3166:(1988), "Creole languages and the bioprogram", in Newmeyer, F.J. (ed.),
3118:
6459:
6177:
6129:
5231:
4892:
4684:
4211:
Wittmann, Henri (2001). "CreoList debate, parts I-VI, appendixes 1-9".
4100:
Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf
3637:Ăconomie des Changements PhonĂ©tiques: traitĂ© de phonologie diachronique
1609:
859:
536:
407:
Many of those creoles are now extinct, but others still survive in the
401:
246:
189:
142:
138:
91:
4572:
4492:
3937:
3668:
3414:
2441:"Creole and pidgin language structure in cross-linguistic perspective"
1224:
in Sranan) and whose meaning is not analyzable; for instance the pair
1212:
relationship with Dutch, has borrowed some Dutch verbs containing the
957:
Another problem with the FT explanation is its potential circularity.
6588:
6215:
5973:
5892:
4838:
4804:
3677:
Spreading the Word: The Issue of Diffusion among the Atlantic Creoles
3460:, UniversitĂ© d'Avignon: Centre d'Ă©tudes canadiennes, pp. 217â228
1582:
1129:
1058:
851:
469:
and possibly other Asian languages. There are, however, creoles like
420:
353:
166:
158:
123:
79:
31:
1030:
For a representative debate on this issue, see the contributions to
465:
Creole languages are based on European languages with elements from
4564:
4484:
4271:
Syntactic Developments in Sranan: Creolization as a gradual process
3929:
3660:
3605:
La TeorĂa del substrato y los dialectos hispano-romances y gascones
3406:
3368:
2619:; cf. the article on Quebec French and the History of Quebec French
771:, via a West African Pidgin Portuguese of the seventeenth century,
683:, than among broader groups that include also creoles based on non-
6603:
6573:
6498:
6277:
5875:
5236:
5081:
4920:
4759:
3971:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 34â53
3864:
The Pidginization Process: A Model for Second Language Acquisition
1748:
1524:
On the other hand, McWhorter points out that in languages such as
847:
527:
377:
361:
211:
43:
30:"ISO 639:crp" redirects here. But that language code incorporates
3967:(1962), "Creole languages in the Caribbean", in F.A. Rice (ed.),
365:
57:
6480:
5971:
4824:
4773:
3708:(2011), "Tying up loose ends: the creole prototype after all",
3178:(1991), "On the Supposed 'Gradualness' of Creole Development",
3125:
Bickerton, Derek (1984), "The language bioprogram hypothesis",
4400:
Gil, David (2001), "Creoles, Complexity and Riau Indonesian",
3521:
Gil, David (2001), "Creoles, Complexity and Riau Indonesian",
357:
177:
grammatical feature has been shown to be specific to creoles.
4764:
4732:
4675:
Association of Portuguese and Spanish Lexically-based Creoles
4669:
3578:
Papers from the York Creole Conference, September 24â27, 1983
2298:
Williams, Robert L. (2016-07-25). "The Ebonics Controversy".
822:
are the foremost candidates to being the outcome of "normal"
4653:"Lexical diffusion and the glottogenetics of creole French."
3438:, Trois-RiviĂšres: Presses universitaires de Trois-RiviĂšres,
1828:"Multilingualism and language contact | Languages In Danger"
1155:
has proposed the following list of features as defining the
4674:
3458:
Français d'Amérique: variation, créolisation, normalisation
705:
exported to what is now Quebec in the 17th and 18th century
4744:
4009:(first ed.), Berkeley: University of California Press
2598:
There are some similarities in this line of thinking with
310:(people born in the colonies from Spanish ancestors) from
102:. Someone who engages in this study is called a creolist.
27:
Stable natural languages that have developed from a pidgin
4354:
DeGraff, Michel (2003), "Against Creole Exceptionalism",
4233:, Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée
4214:
Lexical diffusion and the glottogenetics of creole French
1470:
in any scientifically meaningful way have failed so far.
322:(blacks born in Brazil from African slave ancestors) and
4384:
Born Out of Resistance. On Caribbean Cultural Creativity
4251:
Arends, Jacques; Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (1995),
3059:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 49â69.
3037:
Arends, Jacques; Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (1995),
4705:
at the Online Dictionary of Language Terminology (ODLT)
4036:(fourth ed.), Blackwell Publishing, pp. 57â86
4018:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 70â98
4007:
Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics
3755:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 21â45
3028:
Ansaldo, Umberto; Matthews, Stephen; Lim, Lisa (2007),
993:
fixed single word order with no inversion in questions;
983:
placement of a negative particle in preverbal position;
711:
and have highly convergent grammars; to the point that
4750:
Groupe d'études et de recherches en espace créolophone
4733:
Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures (APiCS)
4631:
Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists
2983:
Pidginization and Creolization as Language Acquisition
4760:
Associação Brasileira de Estudos Crioulos e Similares
4643:"Prototype as a typological yardstick to creoleness."
4624:"Le français de Paris dans le français des Amériques"
4604:"Les réactions en chaßne en morphologie diachronique"
4544:
Out of Africa: African influences in Atlantic Creoles
4061:
Spanish Contact Vernaculars in the Philippine Islands
3815:
Out of Africa: African influences in Atlantic Creoles
2523:
DeGraff, Michael (2001). "On the origin of creoles".
1577:
groups creole genesis theories into four categories:
1106:
driven by universal process, or a general process of
477:
that are derived solely from non-European languages.
4659:, Eastern Michigan University|Wayne State University
4445:, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
4200:"Prototype as a typological yardstick to creoleness"
3589:, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
3170:, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
2805:"Prototype as a Typological Yardstick to Creoleness"
169:-creole life cycle was studied by American linguist
6138:
5984:
5841:
5807:
5768:
5727:
5665:
5658:
5623:
5565:
5558:
5545:
5403:
5346:
5293:
5280:
5199:
5130:
5015:
4957:
4950:
4937:
4864:
4837:
4395:, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press
2512:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 3.
1159:, that is, any language born recently of a pidgin:
3431:
3068:
2665:
2453:
2332:
1574:
1568:
1240:
1225:
1219:
902:
729:
271:('to breed' or 'to raise'), all coming from Latin
114:that arose at that time. With the improvements in
4273:, Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit ti Nijmegen,
4032:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2002), "Pidgins and Creoles",
3902:, vol. 2, Dordrecht: Foris, pp. 65â77,
4745:Groupe Européen de Recherches en Langues Créoles
3562:, New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company
3430:Fournier, Robert; Wittmann, Henri, eds. (1995),
3369:"Creole Exceptionalism and Accidents of History"
2616:
2273:
2271:
1992:. New York: Oxford Linguistics. pp. 68â69.
1560:retains non-transparent derivation from French.
1450:of creoleness can be found in languages such as
779:" of Western Africa that were the source of the
323:
317:
296:
262:
4157:, in Fournier, Robert; Wittmann, Henri (eds.),
3765:Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties
2833:
2673:
2122:
2120:
2097:
2095:
1944:"Creole â Language Information & Resources"
1357:
4452:The Genesis of the Creole Languages of Surinam
1630:. Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Linguistics.
1508:
1182:
1167:
4785:
4655:CreoList debate, parts I-VI, appendixes 1â9.
3891:Substrata Versus Universals in Creole Genesis
3569:Substrata Versus Universals in Creole Genesis
3373:Sargasso: Creolistics and Caribbean Languages
3089:Bickerton, Derek (1983), "Creole Languages",
2496:
2262:
1013:: the substrate language replaces the native
311:
303:
290:
253:
94:, possess large stable vocabularies, and are
8:
4522:Degrees of Restructuring in Creole Languages
3781:Degrees of restructuring in creole languages
2661:
2343:
2341:
1990:The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole Languages
1009:language in the creole through a process of
240:
4721:Society for Pidgin & Creole Linguistics
4524:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 65â84
4043:Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems
3980:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
3783:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 65â84
3596:Pidginization and Creolization of Languages
3423:Pidginization and Creolization of Languages
2083:
2081:
1588:Theories focusing on the non-European input
1213:
783:. This theory was originally formulated by
661:characterized by large-scale variation and
272:
6477:
5981:
5968:
5662:
5562:
5555:
5290:
4954:
4947:
4834:
4821:
4792:
4778:
4770:
4222:Wittmann, Henri; Fournier, Robert (1996),
4073:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3691:, Berkeley: University of California Press
3617:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2770:
2101:
1848:"The study of pidgin and creole languages"
1479:
1290:
958:
923:
883:
4027:, Heidelberg: C. Winter, pp. 319â332
3900:Current Approaches to African Linguistics
3679:, London: University of Westminster Press
3560:External History of the Romance Languages
3367:DeGraff, Michel; Walicek, Don E. (2005).
3350:
3339:Revue Française de Linguistique Appliquée
3312:
3215:: Indiana University Press, pp. 3â20
3138:
2944:
2932:
2896:
2884:
2845:
2792:
2781:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2739:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2698:
2640:
2586:
2400:
2396:
2347:
2257:
2255:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2051:
2035:
2012:
1865:"Language varieties: Pidgins and creoles"
1385:
1046:
1019:
996:reduced or absent nominal plural marking.
789:
759:Monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles
750:any other languages (e.g. DeGraff 2001).
2964:
2960:
2956:
2908:
2856:
2657:
2653:
2629:
2612:
2564:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2428:
2404:
2277:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2112:
2062:
1540:has what all linguists would analyze as
1536:itself. Moreover, he also observes that
1503:
1407:is at the heart of the controversy with
1196:) or to encode grammatical features; and
1035:
4454:, Amsterdam: Universiteit van Amsterdam
3795:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
3571:, Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 71â102
3425:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
3294:"Against Creole Exceptionalism (redux)"
2920:
2873:
2869:
2821:
2669:
2575:
2553:
2549:
2416:
2412:
2380:
2369:
2358:
2126:
2073:
2047:
1819:
1499:
1438:. Along these lines, McWhorter defines
1369:
1208:, which has existed for centuries in a
1053:Gradualist and developmental hypotheses
1031:
1023:
1004:Theories focusing on non-European input
802:
742:Gradualist and developmental hypotheses
739:Theories focusing on non-European input
4581:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
4513:Langues en Contact â Pidgins â Creoles
4109:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
4066:
3946:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
3893:, Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 57â70
3873:Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles
3824:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
3733:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
3610:
3180:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
3048:Langues en Contact â Pidgins â Creoles
2538:
2146:
1520:"Creole", a genuine linguistic concept
842:, more specifically on a 17th-century
37:For the computer markup language, see
3969:Study of the Role of Second Languages
2485:
2392:
2162:
1975:, ed. Anne E. Baker, Kees Hengeveld,
1636:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.68
1062:
157:A creole is believed to arise when a
7:
5895:Kundoku (Chinese and Japanese-based)
4646:The Creolist Archives Papers On-Line
4253:Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction
4204:The Creolist Archives Papers On-Line
3039:Pidgins and creoles: An introduction
2408:
2203:
2024:
1057:One class of creoles might start as
59:Lévé pié aw / Ni ti moun ka joué la!
5783:(with Dutch and Spanish influences)
4450:Hunter Smith, Norval Selby (1987),
4034:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics
2087:
1511:discuss creolistics in relation to
1471:
1266:
754:Theories focusing on European input
736:Theories focusing on European input
553:African-American Vernacular English
6650:Languages between parentheses are
3111:10.1038/scientificamerican0783-116
2666:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995)
1575:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995)
1569:Ansaldo, Matthews & Lim (2007)
1128:; and the children used their own
903:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995)
814:European dialect origin hypothesis
730:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995)
25:
4765:Society for Caribbean Linguistics
4503:, Oxford: Oxford University Press
3793:The Ecology of Language Evolution
3700:, Oxford: Oxford University Press
3382:Florida Foreign Language Reporter
3168:Linguistics: The Cambridge survey
3127:The Behavioral and Brain Sciences
2454:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995
2333:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995
1786:Portuguese-based creole languages
1474:comes to the same conclusion for
1400:"Creole", a sociohistoric concept
657:process typically brings about a
6049:Liberian Interior Pidgin English
5683:Indo-Portuguese Creole of Bombay
5055:Leeward Caribbean Creole English
4329:"Relexification: A reevaluation"
3239:"Relexification: A reevaluation"
3050:, TĂŒbingen: Narr, pp. 21â53
2981:Anderson, Roger W., ed. (1983),
535:in use at car rental counter in
5789:(English and Portuguese based)
5701:Daman and Diu Portuguese Creole
5091:(English and Portuguese based)
4132:"Le joual, c'est-tu un créole?"
4045:, New York: Mouton Publishers,
4025:Languages in Prehistoric Europe
3603:Jungemann, Fréderic H. (1955),
3259:"Against Creole Exceptionalism"
2992:Typological Studies in Language
1758:Japanese-based creole languages
1626:Muysken, Pieter (9 June 2016).
884:imperfect language transmission
411:, the north and east coasts of
267:, all descending from the verb
6654:of the language on their left.
6289:Kyakhta RussianâChinese Pidgin
6003:American Indian Pidgin English
4189:, in Brasseur, Patrice (ed.),
2617:Fournier & Wittmann (1995)
1791:Spanish-based creole languages
1734:English-based creole languages
1724:Chinese-based creole languages
697:English-based creole languages
1:
6211:Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin
5182:San AndrĂ©sâProvidencia Creole
4427:10.1016/S0024-3841(03)00062-7
4229:, in Fournier, Robert (ed.),
4173:, in Fournier, Robert (ed.),
4016:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics
3771:: University of Georgia Press
3753:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics
3456:, in Patrice Brasseur (ed.),
3209:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics
2834:Ansaldo & Matthews (2007)
2674:Hamilton & Coslett (2008)
2611:Wittmann (1983, 1995, 2001),
2176:"Pidgin and Creole Languages"
1744:German-based creole languages
1739:French-based creole languages
1697:Arabic-based creole languages
1552:, retains some indication of
1411:and Mikael Parkvall opposing
1358:Thomason & Kaufman (1988)
1269:argue that languages such as
765:monogenetic theory of pidgins
689:French-based creole languages
6299:Labrador Inuit Pidgin French
5719:Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole
4670:International Magazine Kreol
4386:, Utrecht: Isor-Publications
4098:(1956), John Carroll (ed.),
3978:Languages in the West Indies
3598:, Cambridge University Press
3580:, York Papers in Linguistics
3550:, Ithaca: Cornell University
1772:Malay-based creole languages
1729:Dutch-based creole languages
1509:DeGraff & Walicek (2005)
1183:
1168:
895:it is also sometimes called
890:Foreigner talk and baby talk
659:post-creole speech continuum
509:, the forerunners of modern
439:), Island Countries such as
6326:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
6124:West African Pidgin English
6084:Port Jackson Pidgin English
5689:Cannanore Portuguese Creole
4980:West African Pidgin English
4709:Louisiana Creole Dictionary
4499:McWhorter, John H. (2005),
3866:, Rowley, MA: Newbury House
3696:McWhorter, John H. (2005),
3548:Pidgin and Creole Languages
3057:Pidgin and creole languages
2985:, Rowley, MA: Newbury House
2602:domestic origin hypothesis.
2497:Bailey & Maroldt (1977)
2300:Journal of Black Psychology
2263:Meijer & Muysken (1977)
1528:, essentially a dialect of
1323:has a simpler grammar than
769:Mediterranean Lingua Franca
614:second language acquisition
481:Social and political status
6696:
6321:Maritime Polynesian Pidgin
6221:Cameroonian Pidgin English
6054:Micronesian Pidgin English
6008:Cameroonian Pidgin English
4041:Weinreich, Uriel (1979) ,
3862:Schumann, John H. (1978),
3536:Readings in Creole Studies
2662:Seuren & Wekker (1986)
1933:. Oxford University Press.
1691:Creoles by parent language
1364:Given these objections to
1118:language bioprogram theory
1084:
1034:; for a more recent view,
986:use of adverbs to express
945:language bioprogram theory
797:Domestic origin hypothesis
715:joined them into a single
36:
29:
6636:
6489:
6476:
6094:Queensland Kanaka English
5998:Aboriginal Pidgin English
5980:
5967:
5676:Bengali Portuguese Creole
5347:Indian and Pacific Oceans
4833:
4820:
4648:, Stockholms Universitet.
4542:Parkvall, Mikael (2000),
4159:Le Français des Amériques
3813:Parkvall, Mikael (2000),
3635:Martinet, André (1964) ,
3479:10.1080/13554790802368679
3452:Fournier, Robert (1998),
3434:Le Français des Amériques
3149:10.1017/S0140525X00044149
2312:10.1177/00957984970233002
2230:10.1080/14788810802445024
1929:McWhorter, J. H. (2005).
1608:The authors also confine
1581:Theories focusing on the
1346:to question the value of
717:Standard Average European
695:are mostly prenominal in
600:Substrate and superstrate
429:Australian Kriol language
186:European colonial empires
184:, which led to extensive
6494:Arabic-Javanese of Klego
6455:Yokohama Pidgin Japanese
6273:Kiautschou Pidgin German
6268:Inuktitut-English Pidgin
6146:AlgonquianâBasque pidgin
6099:Samoan Plantation Pidgin
5714:Korlai Portuguese Creole
5695:Cochin Portuguese Creole
5446:Eastern Indonesian Malay
5028:Grenadian Creole English
4813:list of creole languages
4651:Wittmann, Henri (2001).
4641:Wittmann, Henri (1999).
4622:Wittmann, Henri (1998),
4327:DeGraff, Michel (2002),
4310:DeGraff, Michel (2001),
4269:Arends, Jacques (1989),
4255:, Amsterdam: Benjamins,
4206:, Stockholms Universitet
4198:Wittmann, Henri (1999),
4182:Wittmann, Henri (1998),
4166:Wittmann, Henri (1996),
4150:Wittmann, Henri (1995),
3976:Taylor, Douglas (1977),
3292:DeGraff, Michel (2004),
3257:DeGraff, Michel (2003),
3237:DeGraff, Michel (2002),
3220:DeGraff, Michel (2001),
2771:Muysken & Law (2001)
2508:McWhorter, John (2018).
2102:Muysken & Law (2001)
1685:Nicaraguan Sign Language
1670:List of creole languages
1480:Muysken & Law (2001)
1291:Muysken & Law (2001)
1289:Others (see overview in
915:Telegraphic condensation
775:in the so-called "slave
202:Other scholars, such as
88:mixed or hybrid language
6680:Linguistics terminology
6519:Cypriot Maronite-Arabic
6450:West Greenlandic Pidgin
6404:Roquetas Pidgin Spanish
6166:BasqueâIcelandic pidgin
6069:Papua New Guinea Pidgin
6034:Japanese Pidgin English
6029:Japanese Bamboo English
6024:Hawaiian Pidgin English
5736:Bidau Creole Portuguese
5311:Grenadian Creole French
5306:Dominican Creole French
5187:Turks and Caicos Creole
4995:Ghanaian Pidgin English
4593:10.1075/jpcl.11.2.02sin
4336:Linguistic Anthropology
4121:10.1075/jpcl.12.1.06win
4059:Whinnom, Keith (1956),
3987:Creole Language Studies
3958:10.1075/jpcl.11.2.02sin
3836:10.1075/jpcl.16.1.07par
3745:10.1075/jpcl.28.1.08mcw
3246:Linguistic Anthropology
3198:Bloomfield, L. (1933),
2180:Humanities.uchicago.edu
1484:inflectional morphology
1295:inflectional morphology
1241:
1226:
1220:
1081:Universalist approaches
745:Universalist approaches
685:Indo-European languages
596:scientific discussion.
574:Historic classification
344:Geographic distribution
58:
6554:LĂngua Geral AmazĂŽnica
6013:Chinese Pidgin English
5333:KaripĂșna French Creole
5323:French Guianese Creole
5148:Jamaican Maroon Creole
4546:, London: Battlebridge
4231:MĂ©langes linguistiques
4175:MĂ©langes linguistiques
4102:, Cambridge: MIT Press
3856:10.1075/eww.11.1.07sch
3817:, London: Battlebridge
3722:10.1075/dia.28.1.04mcw
3628:Yearbook of Morphology
3202:, New York: Henry Holt
3192:10.1075/jpcl.6.1.03bic
3041:, Amsterdam: Benjamins
3032:, Amsterdam: Benjamins
1214:
687:(like Nubi or Sango).
540:
519:historical linguistics
364:, and along Southeast
324:
318:
313:españoles peninsulares
312:
304:
297:
291:
273:
263:
254:
241:
63:
6599:Para-Romani languages
6559:LĂngua Geral Paulista
6514:Cauque Mayan language
6424:TĂąy Bá»i Pidgin French
6419:Taimyr Pidgin Russian
6342:Namibian Black German
6104:Solomon Islands Pijin
6074:Papuan Pidgin English
6039:Korean Bamboo English
5889:Yilan Creole Japanese
5522:Malaccan Creole Malay
5158:Bocas del Toro Creole
5122:Virgin Islands Creole
4637:, Amsterdam: Elsevier
4459:Lang, JĂŒrgen (2009),
4391:Fertel, Rien (2014),
4368:10.1353/lan.2003.0114
3594:Hymes, D. H. (1971),
3515:10.1515/ling.2002.019
3323:10.1353/lan.2004.0178
3278:10.1353/lan.2003.0114
3075:, Karoma Publishers,
3030:Deconstructing Creole
1988:Siegel, Jeff (2008).
1085:Further information:
965:Imperfect L2 learning
531:
47:
6347:Ndyuka-TiriyĂł Pidgin
6284:Kwoma-Manambu Pidgin
6151:Arafundi-Enga Pidgin
6126:(multiple varieties)
6059:Nauru Pidgin English
5880:Andaman Creole Hindi
5615:Guinea-Bissau Creole
5496:North Moluccan Malay
5268:Torres Strait Creole
5170:Miskito Coast Creole
5038:Afro-Seminole Creole
3871:Sebba, Mark (1997),
3004:10.1075/tsl.73.02ans
1753:Andaman Creole Hindi
1719:Bishnupriya Manipuri
1564:Additional resources
1488:Berbice Creole Dutch
1299:Berbice Dutch Creole
1043:Atlantic slave trade
781:Atlantic slave trade
618:language replacement
459:Amerindian languages
112:Atlantic slave trade
6675:Pidgins and creoles
6253:Français Tirailleur
6237:Eskimo Trade Jargon
6114:Thai Pidgin English
5592:Barlavento Creoles
5573:Cape Verdean Creole
5316:Saint Lucian Creole
4443:Pidgins and Creoles
4441:Holm, John (1989),
4402:Linguistic Typology
4316:Linguistic Typology
3965:Stewart, William A.
3587:Pidgins and Creoles
3585:Holm, John (1988),
3523:Linguistic Typology
3352:10.3917/rfla.101.24
3226:Linguistic Typology
3103:1983SciAm.249a.116B
3091:Scientific American
2947:, pp. 35, 369.
2685:See the article on
2525:Linguistic Typology
2174:Mufwene, Salikoko.
681:languages of Europe
670:language complexity
208:indentured servants
34:as well as creoles.
6263:International Sign
6044:Kru Pidgin English
5646:Principense Creole
5606:SĂŁo Vicente Creole
5601:SĂŁo Nicolau Creole
5596:Santo AntĂŁo Creole
5577:Sotavento Creoles
5384:Seychellois Creole
5354:Bourbonnais Creole
5112:Trinidadian Creole
5070:Saint Kitts Creole
4985:Cameroonian Pidgin
4928:Skepi Dutch Creole
4726:2020-10-11 at the
4714:2019-09-29 at the
4701:2019-09-24 at the
4680:Language Varieties
4531:Glot International
4469:McWhorter, John H.
3844:English World-Wide
3802:Glot International
3729:McWhorter, John H.
3706:McWhorter, John H.
3685:McWhorter, John H.
3645:McWhorter, John H.
2963:as interpreted by
2628:See, for example,
2288:Holm (1988, 1989)
1675:Macaronic language
1628:"Creole Languages"
1554:grammatical gender
1548:, as described by
1301:, for example, or
969:The imperfect L2 (
886:in koiné genesis.
541:
515:comparative method
360:along the west of
306:españoles criollos
281:to produce, create
64:
6662:
6661:
6646:extinct languages
6632:
6631:
6509:Cappadocian Greek
6472:
6471:
6468:
6467:
6232:Duvle-Wano Pidgin
6201:Broken Oghibbeway
6161:Barikanchi Pidgin
6109:Solombala-English
5963:
5962:
5959:
5958:
5803:
5802:
5764:
5763:
5654:
5653:
5636:Annobonese Creole
5399:
5398:
5364:Chagossian Creole
5276:
5275:
5227:Melanesian Pidgin
5195:
5194:
5131:Western Caribbean
5117:Vincentian Creole
5107:Tobagonian Creole
5065:Montserrat Creole
5060:Anguillian Creole
5016:Eastern Caribbean
4696:Creole definition
4657:The Linguist List
4303:978-0-8090-2816-0
4052:978-90-279-2689-0
4003:Kaufman, Terrence
3789:Mufwene, Salikoko
3777:Mufwene, Salikoko
3761:Mufwene, Salikoko
3071:Roots of Language
3013:978-90-272-2985-4
2824:, Wittmann (2001)
2510:The Creole Debate
1999:978-0-19-921666-6
1374:Romance languages
1372:argues that some
1332:Robert Chaudenson
1265:(1999) and David
1126:natural languages
1104:language learning
1087:Universal grammar
959:Bloomfield (1933)
924:Hinnenkamp (1984)
846:French extant in
824:linguistic change
701:variety of French
693:definite articles
665:in the language.
232:The English term
16:(Redirected from
6687:
6478:
6280:(Swahili pidgin)
6242:Ewondo Populaire
6088:Australian Kriol
5982:
5969:
5748:Mardijker Creole
5663:
5563:
5556:
5537:Sri Lankan Malay
5379:Rodriguan Creole
5369:Mauritian Creole
5338:Louisiana Creole
5301:Antillean Creole
5291:
5249:Ngatikese Creole
5207:Australian Kriol
4955:
4948:
4835:
4822:
4794:
4787:
4780:
4771:
4638:
4628:
4618:
4608:
4595:
4575:
4547:
4538:
4525:
4516:
4515:, TĂŒbingen: Narr
4504:
4495:
4464:
4463:, TĂŒbingen: Narr
4455:
4446:
4437:
4409:
4396:
4387:
4378:
4350:
4333:
4323:
4306:
4288:Bickerton, Derek
4283:
4265:
4237:
4228:
4218:
4207:
4194:
4188:
4178:
4172:
4162:
4156:
4146:
4136:
4123:
4103:
4091:
4078:
4072:
4064:
4055:
4037:
4028:
4019:
4010:
3994:
3981:
3972:
3960:
3940:
3912:
3894:
3885:
3867:
3858:
3838:
3818:
3809:
3796:
3784:
3772:
3756:
3747:
3724:
3701:
3692:
3680:
3671:
3640:
3639:, Berne: Francke
3631:
3622:
3616:
3608:
3599:
3590:
3581:
3572:
3563:
3551:
3539:
3530:
3517:
3497:
3461:
3448:
3437:
3426:
3417:
3389:
3376:
3363:
3354:
3333:
3316:
3298:
3288:
3263:
3253:
3243:
3233:
3216:
3203:
3194:
3176:Bickerton, Derek
3171:
3164:Bickerton, Derek
3159:
3142:
3121:
3085:
3074:
3065:Bickerton, Derek
3060:
3051:
3042:
3033:
3024:
2986:
2968:
2954:
2948:
2945:McWhorter (2005)
2942:
2936:
2933:McWhorter (2005)
2930:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2897:McWhorter (2000)
2894:
2888:
2885:McWhorter (1998)
2882:
2876:
2866:
2860:
2854:
2848:
2846:McWhorter (1998)
2842:
2836:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2801:
2795:
2793:McWhorter (2005)
2790:
2784:
2782:McWhorter (1998)
2779:
2773:
2768:
2762:
2760:McWhorter (2018)
2756:McWhorter (2005)
2752:McWhorter (1998)
2748:
2742:
2740:Bickerton (1983)
2736:
2730:
2728:Bickerton (1991)
2724:Bickerton (1988)
2720:Bickerton (1984)
2716:Bickerton (1983)
2712:Bickerton (1981)
2708:
2702:
2696:
2690:
2683:
2677:
2650:
2644:
2638:
2632:
2626:
2620:
2609:
2603:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2573:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2547:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2505:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2483:
2477:
2463:
2457:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2437:
2431:
2426:
2420:
2401:Jungemann (1955)
2397:Weinreich (1979)
2389:
2383:
2378:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2356:
2350:
2348:Weinreich (1979)
2345:
2336:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2295:
2289:
2286:
2280:
2275:
2266:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2218:Atlantic Studies
2213:
2207:
2201:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2182:. Archived from
2171:
2165:
2160:
2149:
2144:
2129:
2124:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2099:
2090:
2085:
2076:
2071:
2065:
2060:
2054:
2052:Wardhaugh (2002)
2050::138); cited in
2045:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2022:
2016:
2010:
2004:
2003:
1985:
1979:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1954:on June 20, 2017
1950:. Archived from
1940:
1934:
1927:
1921:
1918:
1912:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1882:
1876:
1870:. Archived from
1869:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1834:
1824:
1660:Language contact
1639:
1386:Schneider (1990)
1336:Salikoko Mufwene
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1186:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1157:creole prototype
1145:Creole prototype
1047:McWhorter (1999)
1020:Bickerton (1981)
868:Saint-Barthélemy
836:phylogenetically
790:Bickerton (1977)
720:of all creoles.
675:Phylogenetic or
643:Atlantic Creoles
511:sociolinguistics
503:Johannes Schmidt
327:
325:negros africanos
321:
315:
309:
300:
294:
285:
282:
279:
276:
266:
257:
244:
204:Salikoko Mufwene
182:Age of Discovery
108:Age of Discovery
76:natural language
61:
52:traffic sign in
50:Antillean Creole
21:
6695:
6694:
6690:
6689:
6688:
6686:
6685:
6684:
6665:
6664:
6663:
6658:
6657:
6628:
6485:
6483:Mixed languages
6464:
6434:Te Parau Tinito
6414:Settler Swahili
6383:Pidgin Ngarluma
6373:Pidgin Hawaiian
6368:Pidgin Delaware
6357:Nigerian Pidgin
6337:Mobilian Jargon
6304:Loucheux Jargon
6172:Bimbashi Arabic
6139:Other languages
6134:
6076:(distinct from
6064:Nigerian Pidgin
5976:
5955:
5842:Other languages
5837:
5799:
5776:Macanese Patois
5760:
5723:
5667:Indo-Portuguese
5650:
5619:
5586:Santiago Creole
5541:
5481:Larantuka Malay
5395:
5342:
5272:
5217:Hawaiian Pidgin
5191:
5175:Rama Cay Creole
5163:Limonese Creole
5153:Jamaican Patois
5143:Belizean Creole
5138:Bahamian Creole
5126:
5045:Guyanese Creole
5011:
5005:Nigerian Pidgin
5000:Liberian Kreyol
4933:
4860:
4829:
4816:
4809:mixed languages
4798:
4741:
4728:Wayback Machine
4716:Wayback Machine
4703:Wayback Machine
4685:Creole language
4666:
4626:
4621:
4606:
4600:Wittmann, Henri
4598:
4578:
4550:
4541:
4528:
4519:
4507:
4501:Defining Creole
4498:
4467:
4458:
4449:
4440:
4412:
4399:
4390:
4381:
4353:
4331:
4326:
4309:
4304:
4286:
4281:
4268:
4263:
4250:
4247:
4245:Further reading
4242:
4226:
4221:
4210:
4197:
4186:
4181:
4170:
4165:
4154:
4149:
4139:La Linguistique
4134:
4128:Wittmann, Henri
4126:
4106:
4096:Whorf, Benjamin
4094:
4081:
4065:
4058:
4053:
4040:
4031:
4022:
4013:
3999:Thomason, Sarah
3997:
3984:
3975:
3963:
3943:
3915:
3910:
3897:
3888:
3883:
3870:
3861:
3841:
3821:
3812:
3799:
3787:
3775:
3759:
3750:
3727:
3704:
3698:Defining Creole
3695:
3683:
3674:
3643:
3634:
3625:
3609:
3602:
3593:
3584:
3575:
3566:
3556:Hall, Robert A.
3554:
3544:Hall, Robert A.
3542:
3538:, pp. 3â35
3533:
3520:
3500:
3464:
3451:
3446:
3429:
3420:
3392:
3379:
3366:
3336:
3314:10.1.1.693.2511
3296:
3291:
3261:
3256:
3241:
3236:
3219:
3206:
3197:
3174:
3162:
3140:10.1.1.908.5328
3124:
3088:
3083:
3063:
3054:
3045:
3036:
3027:
3014:
2989:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2965:Parkvall (2000)
2961:Wittmann (1998)
2957:Wittmann (1996)
2955:
2951:
2943:
2939:
2931:
2927:
2919:
2915:
2909:Wittmann (1999)
2907:
2903:
2895:
2891:
2883:
2879:
2867:
2863:
2857:Parkvall (2001)
2855:
2851:
2843:
2839:
2832:
2828:
2820:
2816:
2803:
2802:
2798:
2791:
2787:
2780:
2776:
2769:
2765:
2749:
2745:
2737:
2733:
2709:
2705:
2699:Wardhaugh (2002
2697:
2693:
2684:
2680:
2658:Anderson (1983)
2654:Schumann (1978)
2651:
2647:
2641:Wardhaugh (2002
2639:
2635:
2630:Ferguson (1971)
2627:
2623:
2613:Fournier (1998)
2610:
2606:
2597:
2593:
2587:Bickerton (1977
2585:
2581:
2574:
2570:
2565:Thompson (1961)
2563:
2559:
2548:
2544:
2536:
2532:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2495:
2491:
2484:
2480:
2474:Wittmann (1998)
2470:Wittmann (1995)
2466:Fournier (1998)
2464:
2460:
2452:
2448:
2439:
2438:
2434:
2429:Parkvall (2000)
2427:
2423:
2405:Martinet (1964)
2390:
2386:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2364:
2357:
2353:
2346:
2339:
2331:
2327:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2287:
2283:
2278:Traugott (1977)
2276:
2269:
2260:
2253:
2215:
2214:
2210:
2202:
2198:
2189:
2187:
2173:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2152:
2145:
2132:
2125:
2118:
2113:Lefebvre (2002)
2111:
2107:
2100:
2093:
2086:
2079:
2072:
2068:
2063:Wittmann (1999)
2061:
2057:
2046:
2042:
2036:Bickerton (1983
2034:
2030:
2023:
2019:
2013:Wardhaugh (2002
2011:
2007:
2000:
1987:
1986:
1982:
1971:
1967:
1957:
1955:
1948:www.alsintl.com
1942:
1941:
1937:
1931:Defining creole
1928:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1906:
1898:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1880:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1850:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1693:
1680:Nation language
1646:
1625:
1622:
1620:Further reading
1614:mixed languages
1566:
1522:
1504:Wittmann (2001)
1476:Riau Indonesian
1423:, little or no
1402:
1382:
1321:Riau Indonesian
1316:
1283:Riau Indonesian
1251:
1248:
1245:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1147:
1138:
1089:
1083:
1055:
1036:Parkvall (2000)
1006:
971:second language
967:
892:
816:
799:
785:Hugo Schuchardt
761:
756:
726:
663:hypercorrection
651:
602:
576:
571:
507:Hugo Schuchardt
483:
455:Atlantic Creole
346:
319:negros crioulos
283:
280:
277:
230:
225:
155:
84:native speakers
68:creole language
42:
39:Creole (markup)
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6693:
6691:
6683:
6682:
6677:
6667:
6666:
6660:
6659:
6656:
6655:
6648:
6638:
6637:
6634:
6633:
6630:
6629:
6627:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6569:Makassar Malay
6566:
6564:Light Warlpiri
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6539:Gurindji Kriol
6536:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6516:
6511:
6506:
6501:
6496:
6490:
6487:
6486:
6481:
6474:
6473:
6470:
6469:
6466:
6465:
6463:
6462:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6442:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6354:
6349:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6323:
6318:
6311:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6281:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6255:
6250:
6244:
6239:
6234:
6229:
6224:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6181:
6175:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6156:Bamboo English
6153:
6148:
6142:
6140:
6136:
6135:
6133:
6132:
6127:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6096:
6091:
6086:(ancestral to
6081:
6071:
6066:
6061:
6056:
6051:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6026:
6021:
6018:Butler English
6015:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5994:
5992:
5978:
5977:
5972:
5965:
5964:
5961:
5960:
5957:
5956:
5954:
5953:
5943:
5941:Vedda language
5934:
5927:Pretoria Sotho
5924:
5917:Oorlams Creole
5914:
5905:
5896:
5882:
5873:
5864:
5855:
5845:
5843:
5839:
5838:
5836:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5817:
5815:
5805:
5804:
5801:
5800:
5798:
5797:
5796:
5795:
5784:
5778:
5772:
5770:
5766:
5765:
5762:
5761:
5759:
5758:
5751:
5744:
5739:
5731:
5729:
5728:Southeast Asia
5725:
5724:
5722:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5710:
5709:
5706:
5698:
5691:
5686:
5679:
5671:
5669:
5660:
5656:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5649:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5631:Angolar Creole
5627:
5625:
5624:Gulf of Guinea
5621:
5620:
5618:
5617:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5609:
5608:
5603:
5598:
5590:
5589:
5588:
5583:
5569:
5567:
5560:
5553:
5543:
5542:
5540:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5518:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5505:
5504:
5503:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5463:
5458:
5456:Ambonese Malay
5453:
5443:
5442:
5441:
5431:
5429:Balinese Malay
5426:
5425:
5424:
5413:
5411:
5401:
5400:
5397:
5396:
5394:
5393:
5388:
5387:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5374:RĂ©union Creole
5371:
5366:
5361:
5359:Agalega Creole
5350:
5348:
5344:
5343:
5341:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5328:Haitian Creole
5325:
5320:
5319:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5297:
5295:
5288:
5278:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5271:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5251:
5246:
5245:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5203:
5201:
5197:
5196:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5178:
5177:
5167:
5166:
5165:
5160:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5134:
5132:
5128:
5127:
5125:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5104:
5099:
5098:
5097:
5086:
5085:
5084:
5074:
5073:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5041:
5040:
5030:
5025:
5019:
5017:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5009:
5008:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4977:
4972:
4971:
4970:
4961:
4959:
4952:
4945:
4935:
4934:
4932:
4931:
4924:
4917:
4910:
4909:
4908:
4896:
4889:
4882:
4874:
4872:
4862:
4861:
4859:
4858:
4853:
4847:
4845:
4831:
4830:
4825:
4818:
4817:
4799:
4797:
4796:
4789:
4782:
4774:
4768:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:in libraries (
4747:
4740:
4737:
4736:
4735:
4730:
4718:
4706:
4693:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4665:
4664:External links
4662:
4661:
4660:
4649:
4639:
4619:
4596:
4587:(2): 185â230,
4576:
4565:10.2307/414784
4548:
4539:
4526:
4517:
4509:Meisel, JĂŒrgen
4505:
4496:
4485:10.2307/417003
4479:(4): 788â818,
4465:
4456:
4447:
4438:
4421:(5): 575â619,
4410:
4397:
4388:
4379:
4362:(2): 391â410,
4351:
4342:(4): 321â414,
4324:
4322:(2â3): 213â310
4307:
4302:
4284:
4279:
4266:
4261:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4240:
4219:
4208:
4195:
4179:
4163:
4147:
4124:
4115:(1): 131â151,
4104:
4092:
4079:
4056:
4051:
4038:
4029:
4020:
4011:
3995:
3982:
3973:
3961:
3952:(2): 185â230,
3941:
3930:10.2307/414784
3913:
3908:
3895:
3886:
3881:
3868:
3859:
3839:
3830:(1): 147â151,
3819:
3810:
3797:
3785:
3773:
3763:, ed. (1993),
3757:
3748:
3739:(1): 167â179,
3725:
3702:
3693:
3681:
3672:
3661:10.2307/417003
3655:(4): 788â818,
3641:
3632:
3623:
3600:
3591:
3582:
3573:
3564:
3552:
3540:
3531:
3518:
3509:(2): 439â468,
3498:
3473:(4): 347â368,
3462:
3449:
3444:
3427:
3418:
3407:10.2307/408831
3401:(4): 245â254,
3390:
3377:
3364:
3334:
3307:(4): 834â839,
3289:
3272:(2): 391â410,
3254:
3234:
3232:(2â3): 213â310
3217:
3204:
3195:
3172:
3160:
3133:(2): 173â188,
3122:
3097:(8): 116â122,
3086:
3081:
3061:
3052:
3043:
3034:
3025:
3012:
2987:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2969:
2949:
2937:
2925:
2921:DeGraff (2003)
2913:
2901:
2889:
2887:, p. 809.
2877:
2874:DeGraff (2005)
2870:DeGraff (2003)
2861:
2849:
2837:
2826:
2822:Mufwene (2000)
2814:
2809:www.nou-la.org
2796:
2785:
2774:
2763:
2743:
2731:
2703:
2691:
2687:relexification
2678:
2670:Geeslin (2002)
2645:
2633:
2621:
2604:
2591:
2579:
2576:Stewart (1962)
2568:
2557:
2554:Whinnom (1965)
2550:Whinnom (1956)
2542:
2530:
2515:
2500:
2489:
2478:
2458:
2446:
2432:
2421:
2417:Singler (1988)
2413:Singler (1983)
2384:
2381:Singler (1996)
2373:
2370:Singler (1988)
2362:
2359:Mufwene (1993)
2351:
2337:
2325:
2306:(3): 208â214.
2290:
2281:
2267:
2251:
2224:(3): 335â346.
2208:
2196:
2166:
2150:
2130:
2127:DeGraff (2003)
2116:
2105:
2091:
2077:
2074:Mufwene (2000)
2066:
2055:
2040:
2028:
2017:
2005:
1998:
1980:
1965:
1935:
1922:
1913:
1904:
1887:
1856:
1839:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1809:Kutchi-Swahili
1802:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1774:
1769:
1760:
1755:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1708:
1699:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1650:Criollo people
1645:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1621:
1618:
1606:
1605:
1599:
1589:
1586:
1565:
1562:
1558:Haitian Creole
1550:Henri Wittmann
1521:
1518:
1500:Mufwene (2000)
1466:for measuring
1440:Haitian Creole
1417:Michel DeGraff
1413:Henri Wittmann
1409:John McWhorter
1401:
1398:
1381:
1378:
1370:Mufwene (2002)
1344:Henri Wittmann
1340:Michel DeGraff
1315:
1314:Exceptionalism
1312:
1311:
1310:
1287:
1263:Henri Wittmann
1201:
1200:
1197:
1164:
1153:John McWhorter
1146:
1143:
1137:
1136:Recent studies
1134:
1082:
1079:
1054:
1051:
1032:Mufwene (1993)
1024:Dillard (1970)
1011:relexification
1005:
1002:
998:
997:
994:
991:
984:
981:
978:
966:
963:
955:
954:
951:
948:
938:
920:
919:
916:
913:
910:
891:
888:
882:and models of
862:communities),
834:is a language
820:French creoles
815:
812:
803:Hancock (1985)
798:
795:
760:
757:
755:
752:
747:
746:
743:
740:
737:
725:
724:Creole genesis
722:
655:decreolization
650:
649:Decreolization
647:
601:
598:
575:
572:
570:
569:Classification
567:
539:, U.S. in 2014
533:Haitian Creole
482:
479:
345:
342:
338:creole peoples
229:
226:
224:
221:
216:basilectalized
173:in the 1960s.
154:
151:
74:, is a stable
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6692:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6672:
6670:
6653:
6649:
6647:
6643:
6640:
6639:
6635:
6625:
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6552:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6535:
6532:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6510:
6507:
6505:
6504:Bonin English
6502:
6500:
6497:
6495:
6492:
6491:
6488:
6484:
6479:
6475:
6461:
6458:
6456:
6453:
6451:
6448:
6446:
6443:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6363:Nootka Jargon
6361:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6340:
6338:
6335:
6333:
6332:Mekeo pidgins
6330:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6316:
6315:Maridi Arabic
6312:
6310:
6309:Madras Bashai
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6258:Haflong Hindi
6256:
6254:
6251:
6249:(Pidgin Zulu)
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6222:
6219:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6206:Broken Slavey
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6196:Bozal Spanish
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6186:
6185:Bongor Arabic
6182:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6173:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6143:
6141:
6137:
6131:
6128:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6095:
6092:
6089:
6085:
6082:
6079:
6075:
6072:
6070:
6067:
6065:
6062:
6060:
6057:
6055:
6052:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6030:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5995:
5993:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5970:
5966:
5951:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5938:
5935:
5932:
5928:
5925:
5922:
5918:
5915:
5913:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5900:
5897:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5850:
5847:
5846:
5844:
5840:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5823:
5822:Bozal Spanish
5819:
5818:
5816:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5794:
5791:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5773:
5771:
5767:
5757:
5756:
5752:
5750:
5749:
5745:
5743:
5740:
5738:
5737:
5733:
5732:
5730:
5726:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5707:
5704:
5703:
5702:
5699:
5697:
5696:
5692:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5684:
5680:
5678:
5677:
5673:
5672:
5670:
5668:
5664:
5661:
5657:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5628:
5626:
5622:
5616:
5613:
5607:
5604:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5593:
5591:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5578:
5576:
5575:
5574:
5571:
5570:
5568:
5564:
5561:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5514:
5511:
5510:
5509:
5506:
5502:
5499:
5498:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5491:Maumere Malay
5489:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5467:
5464:
5462:
5459:
5457:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5448:
5447:
5444:
5440:
5437:
5436:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5423:
5420:
5419:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5412:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5392:
5389:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5356:
5355:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5345:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5303:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5296:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5229:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5212:Bonin English
5210:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5202:
5198:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5176:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5168:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5129:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5096:
5093:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5083:
5080:
5079:
5078:
5075:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5039:
5036:
5035:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5014:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4968:
4967:
4966:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4956:
4953:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4930:
4929:
4925:
4923:
4922:
4918:
4916:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4902:
4901:
4897:
4895:
4894:
4890:
4888:
4887:
4886:Negerhollands
4883:
4881:
4880:
4876:
4875:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4848:
4846:
4844:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4823:
4819:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4795:
4790:
4788:
4783:
4781:
4776:
4775:
4772:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4755:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4725:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4704:
4700:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4667:
4663:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4647:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4625:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4577:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4549:
4545:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4527:
4523:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4497:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4457:
4453:
4448:
4444:
4439:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4352:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4330:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4308:
4305:
4299:
4296:, Macmillan,
4295:
4294:
4289:
4285:
4282:
4280:90-900268-3-5
4276:
4272:
4267:
4264:
4262:90-272-5236-X
4258:
4254:
4249:
4248:
4244:
4239:
4236:
4232:
4225:
4220:
4216:
4215:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4196:
4192:
4185:
4180:
4176:
4169:
4164:
4160:
4153:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4070:
4062:
4057:
4054:
4048:
4044:
4039:
4035:
4030:
4026:
4021:
4017:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3983:
3979:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3942:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3914:
3911:
3909:90-70176-95-5
3905:
3901:
3896:
3892:
3887:
3884:
3882:0-333-63024-6
3878:
3875:, MacMillan,
3874:
3869:
3865:
3860:
3857:
3853:
3850:(1): 79â113,
3849:
3845:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3820:
3816:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3749:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3723:
3719:
3716:(1): 82â117,
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3673:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3633:
3629:
3624:
3620:
3614:
3606:
3601:
3597:
3592:
3588:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3450:
3447:
3445:2-9802307-2-3
3441:
3436:
3435:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3365:
3362:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3335:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3295:
3290:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3260:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3123:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3084:
3082:0-89720-044-6
3078:
3073:
3072:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2978:
2973:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2938:
2935:, p. 16.
2934:
2929:
2926:
2922:
2917:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2902:
2898:
2893:
2890:
2886:
2881:
2878:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2818:
2815:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2794:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2646:
2642:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2608:
2605:
2601:
2595:
2592:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2551:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2539:Taylor (1977)
2534:
2531:
2526:
2519:
2516:
2511:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2482:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2462:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2447:
2442:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2425:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2329:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2291:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2197:
2186:on 2013-06-03
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2147:DeCamp (1977)
2143:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2114:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2075:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2048:Winford (1997
2044:
2041:
2037:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2006:
2001:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1966:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1914:
1908:
1905:
1897:
1891:
1888:
1877:on 2018-07-12
1873:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1849:
1843:
1840:
1829:
1823:
1820:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1665:Lingua franca
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1596:developmental
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1580:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1572:
1570:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1546:Magoua French
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1460:Magoua French
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1362:
1359:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1279:Magoua French
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1261:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1243:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1198:
1185:
1170:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1144:
1142:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1052:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1016:
1015:lexical items
1012:
1003:
1001:
995:
992:
989:
985:
982:
979:
976:
975:
974:
972:
964:
962:
960:
952:
949:
946:
943:
939:
936:
932:
931:
930:
927:
925:
917:
914:
911:
909:Accommodation
908:
907:
906:
904:
900:
898:
889:
887:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
832:French creole
829:
825:
821:
813:
811:
808:
804:
796:
794:
791:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
758:
753:
751:
744:
741:
738:
735:
734:
733:
731:
723:
721:
718:
714:
710:
709:Indo-European
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
673:
671:
666:
664:
660:
656:
648:
646:
644:
640:
634:
632:
628:
624:
619:
615:
611:
607:
599:
597:
594:
588:
585:
581:
573:
568:
566:
564:
560:
559:
554:
549:
547:
538:
534:
530:
526:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
495:neogrammarian
491:
489:
480:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
413:South America
410:
405:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
343:
341:
339:
335:
331:
326:
320:
314:
308:
307:
299:
293:
287:
275:
270:
265:
261:
256:
252:
248:
243:
239:
235:
227:
222:
220:
217:
213:
209:
205:
200:
197:
195:
191:
187:
183:
178:
174:
172:
168:
164:
160:
152:
150:
148:
144:
140:
135:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
116:ship-building
113:
109:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
60:
56:sign stating
55:
51:
46:
40:
33:
19:
6641:
6584:Mednyj Aleut
6579:Media Lengua
6445:Turku Arabic
6393:Pidgin Wolof
6313:
6183:
6170:
5931:SothoâTswana
5871:Unserdeutsch
5820:
5753:
5746:
5734:
5693:
5681:
5674:
5641:Forro Creole
5566:Upper Guinea
5508:Papuan Malay
5486:Manado Malay
5476:Kupang Malay
5294:The Americas
5102:Sranan Tongo
5023:Bajan Creole
4926:
4919:
4914:Mohawk Dutch
4912:
4905:
4900:Jersey Dutch
4898:
4891:
4884:
4877:
4826:
4800:
4688:
4656:
4645:
4634:
4630:
4614:
4610:
4584:
4580:
4559:(1): 27â51,
4556:
4552:
4543:
4534:
4530:
4521:
4512:
4500:
4476:
4472:
4460:
4451:
4442:
4418:
4414:
4405:
4401:
4392:
4383:
4359:
4355:
4339:
4335:
4319:
4315:
4292:
4270:
4252:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4213:
4203:
4190:
4174:
4158:
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2991:
2982:
2974:Bibliography
2952:
2940:
2928:
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2892:
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2492:
2486:Whorf (1956)
2481:
2461:
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2393:Feist (1932)
2387:
2376:
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2303:
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2184:the original
2179:
2169:
2163:Sebba (1997)
2108:
2069:
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2031:
2020:
2008:
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1983:
1972:
1968:
1956:. Retrieved
1952:the original
1947:
1938:
1930:
1925:
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1890:
1879:. Retrieved
1872:the original
1859:
1842:
1831:. Retrieved
1822:
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1602:Universalist
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1111:organization
1100:transparency
1092:Universalist
1090:
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1063:Hymes (1971)
1056:
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1029:
1007:
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956:
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901:
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817:
807:Sierra Leone
801:Proposed by
800:
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667:
652:
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589:
584:phylogenetic
577:
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550:
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453:
449:Indian Ocean
406:
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268:
251:Spanish term
233:
231:
201:
198:
179:
175:
163:nativization
156:
136:
104:
71:
70:, or simply
67:
65:
6441:(creolized)
6400:(creolized)
6388:Pidgin Onin
6359:(creolized)
6223:(creolized)
6191:BorgarmÄlet
6180:(creolized)
5581:Fogo Creole
5532:Sabah Malay
5513:Serui Malay
5461:Banda Malay
5439:Cocos Malay
5391:Tayo Creole
4906:Negro Dutch
4851:Juba Arabic
4690:Answers.com
4063:, Hong Kong
3710:Diachronica
3503:Linguistics
3213:Bloomington
2537:such as in
2409:Hall (1974)
2204:Holm (1988)
2025:Hall (1966)
1973:Linguistics
1542:inflections
1513:colonialist
1429:transparent
1415:(1999) and
1388:calls "the
1380:Controversy
1249:to squander
1122:plantations
1115:Bickerton's
1067:inflections
942:Bickerton's
918:Conventions
854:(mostly in
677:typological
610:superstrate
523:creolistics
447:and in the
433:Philippines
419:), western
417:The Guyanas
396:, RĂ©union,
386:Philippines
245:, which is
236:comes from
171:Robert Hall
100:linguistics
18:Creolistics
6669:Categories
6594:Missingsch
6409:Russenorsk
6378:Pidgin Iha
5946:Tsotsitaal
5919:(possibly
5833:Palenquero
5787:Saramaccan
5781:Papiamento
5547:Portuguese
5527:Orang Pulo
5501:Sula Malay
5466:Dili Malay
5451:Alor Malay
5417:Baba Malay
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2190:2010-04-24
2088:Gil (2001)
1958:October 9,
1881:2017-05-24
1833:2020-04-09
1815:References
1604:approaches
1598:hypotheses
1592:Gradualist
1496:Papiamentu
1472:Gil (2001)
1468:creoleness
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1432:derivation
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1405:Creoleness
1325:Saramaccan
1307:Papiamentu
1267:Gil (2001)
1075:generation
937:languages.
876:gradualism
828:creoleness
826:and their
773:relexified
639:Papiamento
604:The terms
499:wave model
445:Seychelles
398:Seychelles
352:, western
289:The terms
260:Portuguese
120:navigation
54:Guadeloupe
6652:varieties
6644:indicate
6439:Tok Pisin
6227:Cocoliche
6119:Tok Pisin
6078:Tok Pisin
5921:Afrikaans
5828:Chavacano
5422:Peranakan
5242:Tok Pisin
4739:In French
4408:: 325â371
3993:: 107â113
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3331:143265334
3309:CiteSeerX
3186:: 25â58,
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2246:159786747
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1655:Diglossia
1464:yardstick
1436:prototype
1210:diglossic
1108:discourse
912:Imitation
897:baby talk
864:Louisiana
838:based on
777:factories
703:that was
606:substrate
488:qualifier
441:Mauritius
437:Chavacano
425:Australia
409:Caribbean
394:Mauritius
382:Hong Kong
374:Singapore
370:Indonesia
332:, Kriol,
249:with the
228:Etymology
6624:Wutunhua
6609:Tangwang
6549:Lingling
6429:Tinglish
6352:Nefamese
6294:Kyowa-go
6247:Fanagalo
5939:-based:
5910:-based:
5901:-based:
5887:-based:
5885:Japanese
5878:-based:
5869:-based:
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5755:Portugis
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4951:Atlantic
4756:catalog)
4754:WorldCat
4724:Archived
4712:Archived
4699:Archived
4617:: 285â92
4602:(1983),
4553:Language
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4473:Language
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4130:(1973),
4090:: 509â27
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988:modality
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390:Malaysia
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190:dialects
153:Overview
147:semantic
143:phonetic
110:and the
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1234:to soil
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870:and as
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858:and in
558:ebonics
537:Florida
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298:crioulo
292:criollo
264:crioulo
255:criollo
247:cognate
223:History
194:extinct
139:lexicon
128:Chinese
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32:pidgins
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880:change
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852:Canada
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368:up to
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274:creare
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238:French
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212:slaves
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