885:
ensure against tampering and improper disclosure. Accident scene pictures should also be identified and sourced, police photographs taken at the scene are often used in civil cases. Another important aspect of forensic photography is obtaining consent. If a victim is still alive, they must give consent to have their picture taken and be used in a case. There are only two exceptions to this, which include implied consent - when a victim is not in a state where they can give consent - and when photographs are court ordered. All that said, not all photographs taken at a crime scene will be used. If they are suspected to create a prejudice in the jury for things like an unnecessary amount of gore, then a judge can deem a photo inadmissible.
106:
617:
prints or stains on a camouflaged background, a photographer might find image subtraction techniques most helpful. However, if they were trying to analyze bite marks or fingerprints, they might use
Alternative Light Source photography instead. Moreover, these photographs may be taken at various ranges depending on the content that is being captured. For example, physical evidence (e.g., footprints, wound details, trace evidence, etc.) may require close-up images, whereas the conditions of a room may only require overall and/or midrange photography. Photographs may also be supported with video recordings.
894:
581:. It may include the documentation of the crime scene, or physical evidence that is either found at a crime scene or already processed in a laboratory. Forensic photography differs from other variations of photography because crime scene photographers usually have a very specific purpose for capturing each image. As a result, the quality of forensic documentation may determine the result of an investigation; in the absence of good documentation, investigators may find it impossible to conclude what did or did not happen.
74:
711:
3131:
3142:
902:
36:
776:
938:. Alternative explanations such as that the bridge was blown down by the wind during the storm that night, or that the train derailed and hit the girders are unlikely. The re-analysis supports the original court of inquiry conclusions, which stated that the bridge was "badly designed, badly built and badly maintained".
862:
evidence by jurors, but also the verdict and length of a sentence given. When photographs are used in criminal cases, especially gruesome photographs, the jury is more likely to give a guilty verdict as well as a harsher sentence. The use of several views taken from different angles helps to minimize the problem of
866:. Overall images do not have scales and serve to show the general layout, such as the house where the murder is thought to have occurred. Context images show evidence in context, like how the knife was next to the sofa. Close up images show fine detail of an artifact, such as a bloody fingerprint on the knife.
877:. As with crime scene photography, it is essential that the site is pristine and untouched as far as possible. Some essential intervention, such as rescuing a trapped victim, must be recorded in the notes made at the time by the photographer, so that the authenticity of the photographs can be verified.
950:
investigation found that despite frequent use by the FBI, there are considerable concerns over scientific validity of the FBI's analysis of photographic evidence. ProPublica "asked leading statisticians and forensic science experts to review methods image examiners have detailed in court transcripts,
792:
External flash units are helpful tools when responding to a crime scene and for the proper documentation of evidence. The white balance of a photo flash unit is set to mimic daylight to ensure the proper color balance of the subject matter. The photographer must be mindful of the reflections that can
722:
Preliminary overall photographs should attempt to capture the locations of evidence and identifying features of the scene, such as addresses, vehicle identification numbers and serial numbers, footwear/tire mark impressions, and the conditions of the scene. While the purpose of the overall photograph
718:
All forensic photographs must contain three elements: the subject, a scale, and a reference object. Crime scene photographs should always be in focus, with the subject of the photograph as the main object of the scene. There should always be a scale or ruler present. This will allow investigators the
726:
In all photographs, a scale must be included, as well as a marker to indicate the identity of the object in question. Again, objects in medium-range photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Adjusting the photographic principles or lighting may allow the photographer to
884:
must be maintained for crime scene photographs. Sometimes a CSI (forensic photographer) will process his/her own film or there is a specific lab for it. Regardless of how it is done any person who handles the evidence must be recorded. Secure
Digital Forensic Imaging methods may be applied to help
657:
Photographs of impressions such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tool marks require certain standards as they may be analyzed, compared, and searched through a large digital databases. For example, fingerprints are often entered into the
Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS).
625:
This form of photography is to provide images of the varying types of physical evidence and used as evidence in court, part of the case record, or by other investigators; typically of forensic findings during the analysis of various forensic disciplines. Forensic laboratories generally use infrared
913:
or when the images need to be enlarged to show critical details. Photographs made by film exposure usually contain much information which may be crucial long after the photograph was taken. They can readily be digitized by scanning, and then enlarged to show the detail needed for new analysis. For
783:
The responding officer must also maintain a photo log if any photographic documentation is taken. The log should contain the date and time of the photograph, the subject matter, and any additional notes. These logs must be maintained within a case file or incident report, as they are a part of the
616:
and key areas of the crime scene (e.g., entrances and exits). There are also different techniques forensic photographers use, and the selection of what technique is used depends on the object of a photograph or the desired information one wants to obtain. For example, when trying to find footwear
611:
Crime scene photography allows one to capture essential aspects of the crime scene, including its scope, the focal points of the scene, and any physical or material evidence found at or from a result of it. With the use of crime scene photography, the context of the crime scene can be represented
592:
Knowing that crucial information for an investigation can be found at a crime scene, forensic photography is a form of documentation that is essential for retaining the quality of discovered physical evidence. Such physical evidence to be documented includes those found at the crime scene, in the
861:
The images must be clear and usually have scales. They serve to not only remind investigators of the scene, but also to provide a tangible image for the court to better enable them to understand what happened. Inclusion of photographs in a court case can not only impact the perceived veracity of
701:
are taken for individuals who have been charged with a crime, and once one is created, it is automatically entered into a master database with any existing information on that individual. To maintain consistent quality, standardized lighting, background, and distance is required. In addition to
588:
is a major concept that helps determine these relationships of evidence. It is the basic tenet of why crime scenes should be investigated. Anything found at a crime scene can be used as physical evidence as long as it is relevant to the case, which is why the documentation of a crime scene and
626:(IR), ultraviolet (UV), X-Ray, or laser radiation in addition to cameras and microscopes, to represent details that would otherwise be invisible to the naked eye. However, it is crucial that such details do not interfere with the appearance and condition of the evidence being documented.
743:
format. The two widely accepted lossless compression formats are tagged image file format (TIFF) and RAW. TIFF is a universal file type, whereas RAW files are proprietary based upon the manufacturer of the camera. Specialized software may be required to open and enhance a RAW
747:
The camera must be on a grounded platform, such as a copy stand or tripod' In general, the human body cannot stop natural vibrations with a camera shutter speed slower than 1/60 of a second. Using a grounded platform will allow the subject matter to be in complete
719:
ability to resize the image to accurately reconstruct the scene. The overall photographs must be a fair and accurate representation of what is seen. Any change in color may misidentify an object for investigators and possibly jurors.
921:
The set of photographs taken a few days after the accident have been re-analyzed in 1999–2000 by digitalizing them and enlarging the files to show critical details. The originals were of very high resolution since a large
793:
occur due to the directionality of the flash and the position of the subject matter. To avoid flash reflections, the flash must either be removed from the camera body, creating an angle, or bounced off the ceiling.
751:
The camera shutter must be controlled by a remote cord or by using the timer mode. The simple action of depressing the shutter control will cause the camera to vibrate, losing focus on the subject matter.
596:
All forensic photography must consider three elements at a crime scene: the subject, the scale, and a reference object. Also, the overall forensic photographs must be shown as a neutral and accurate
918:
of 1879 when a half-mile section of the new bridge collapsed in a storm, taking an express train down into the estuary of the river Tay. At least 75 passengers and crew were killed in the disaster.
735:
If any evidentiary photographs are to be taken for use in a critical comparison examination at a later time, guidelines must be followed in accordance with the best practices of digital evidence.
612:
through a series of photographs, aiming to tell the whole story. Such photographs are used to capture the physical environment of the scene and its surroundings, in addition to physical evidence
951:
published articles and presentations. The experts identified numerous instances of examiners overstating the techniques’ scientific precision and said some of their assertions defy logic."
755:
Photographers must also understand the principles of photography. When the photographers take the photographs itself, they must consider three components. These three components are
3099:
702:
associating file information, physical features (e.g., hair and eye colour, facial hair, tattoos, etc.) are also associated and an appropriate photo line-up is required.
3041:
3089:
3036:
2816:
584:
Crime scenes can be major sources of physical evidence that is used to associate or link suspects to scenes, victims to scenes, and suspects to victims.
561:
1439:
Farrar, Andrew; Porter, Glenn; Renshaw, Adrian (2012). "Detection of Latent
Bloodstains Beneath Painted Surfaces using Reflected Infrared Photography".
869:
Road traffic incident (RTI) photographs show the overall layout at the scene taken from many different angles, with close-ups of significant damage, or
723:
is to document the conditions of the scene and the relationship of objects, the medium range photograph serves to document the appearance of an object.
105:
1686:
636:
Even illumination. This can be achieved with two light sources of equal power and distance, placed approximately 45 degrees toward the evidence.
1792:
1544:
1361:
1208:
1087:
1409:
3094:
930:, plus a fine-grain film. The re-analyzed pictures shed new light on why the bridge fell, suggesting that design flaws and defects in the
3031:
2578:
2787:
1516:
1272:
1247:
1166:
1112:
1059:
1034:
633:
The evidence is placed on a clean and distraction-free background (i.e., background paper, butcher paper, neutral countertop, etc.).
513:
2754:
462:
3073:
3051:
2540:
980:
417:
315:
153:
46:
2719:
2207:
1994:
965:
554:
447:
275:
585:
3172:
3167:
2628:
2560:
2313:
1840:
608:
Common types of photography such as creative and artistic photography give a different purpose than forensic photography.
432:
3061:
3056:
1224:
970:
639:
The camera should be placed directly overhead of the evidence. A ladder or scaffolding may be required for larger items.
452:
285:
1192:
Fundamentals of
Forensic Photography: Practical Techniques for Evidence Documentation on Location and in the Laboratory
3066:
2338:
1845:
530:
133:
2480:
893:
2792:
2383:
1681:
290:
1336:
2759:
2709:
2669:
2522:
2408:
2358:
2055:
1999:
1855:
1612:
1537:
547:
535:
89:
2965:
2555:
2288:
2080:
1288:
Grady, Rebecca
Hofstein; Reiser, Lauren; Garcia, Robert J; Koeu, Kristian; Scurich, Nicholas (August 1, 2015).
1378:
2925:
2729:
2633:
2497:
2348:
2185:
2090:
1733:
1622:
1195:(1 ed.). New York : Routledge, 2017. | Series: Applications in scientific photography: Routledge.
910:
392:
377:
335:
3146:
2985:
2960:
2764:
2749:
2684:
2664:
2570:
2492:
2323:
2247:
2242:
2217:
2145:
2135:
2085:
2075:
2009:
1972:
1900:
1875:
362:
226:
3046:
2836:
2744:
2739:
2724:
2714:
2689:
2674:
2535:
2468:
2438:
2398:
2308:
2298:
2140:
2019:
1982:
1905:
175:
165:
123:
2593:
843:
Measurement instruments (tape measures, rulers, electronic measuring devices, perspective grids, etc.)
3135:
2734:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2679:
2333:
2257:
2227:
2180:
2115:
2040:
1865:
1812:
1530:
960:
935:
740:
492:
442:
422:
265:
231:
2831:
2804:
2774:
2428:
2343:
2252:
2130:
2110:
2100:
2095:
2065:
1957:
1870:
1698:
1693:
915:
824:
457:
325:
255:
250:
221:
216:
195:
180:
160:
1263:
Fish, Jacqueline T.; Miller, Larry S.; Braswell, Michael C.; Wallace Jr., Edward W. (2014-01-01).
2980:
2638:
2588:
2413:
2273:
2232:
2212:
2150:
2105:
2070:
2045:
1607:
1572:
1464:
1218:
427:
367:
357:
300:
270:
260:
185:
170:
138:
73:
2945:
2881:
2868:
2799:
2463:
2388:
2378:
2368:
2353:
2222:
2190:
2050:
1885:
1656:
1512:
1456:
1357:
1319:
1268:
1243:
1204:
1162:
1108:
1083:
1055:
1030:
874:
629:
To ensure quality photographs, general evidence is documented under the following conditions:
382:
349:
190:
3005:
2950:
2908:
2893:
2876:
2846:
2841:
2485:
2443:
2393:
2160:
2120:
2060:
1915:
1509:
Beautiful
Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay: Reinvestigating the Tay Bridge Disaster of 1879
1448:
1309:
1301:
1196:
975:
881:
679:
372:
330:
128:
97:
3010:
2913:
2530:
2283:
2165:
1860:
1807:
1802:
1770:
1755:
1713:
814:
683:
497:
397:
143:
17:
2782:
2608:
2550:
2318:
2004:
1910:
1895:
1890:
1785:
1597:
1587:
1577:
1314:
1000:
870:
710:
597:
589:
physical evidence in its true form is key for the interpretation of the investigation.
507:
209:
3161:
2935:
2903:
2888:
2853:
2613:
2458:
2423:
2373:
2014:
1987:
1967:
1935:
1880:
1452:
760:
320:
295:
148:
1468:
1240:
Crime Scene
Response and Evidence Collection, In Security Supervision and Management
1190:
3111:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2940:
2826:
2821:
2475:
2200:
2170:
1952:
1947:
1930:
1775:
1602:
1592:
1582:
1289:
833:
437:
305:
1305:
577:
may refer to the visual documentation of different aspects that can be found at a
3116:
2975:
2970:
2898:
2811:
2648:
2623:
2453:
2448:
2433:
2293:
2175:
2155:
2024:
1925:
1817:
1780:
1750:
1703:
1671:
1666:
1632:
1553:
1265:
Chapter 3 - Documenting the Crime Scene: Photography, Videography, and
Sketching
990:
985:
819:
678:
In addition, it is suggested that these impression images be recorded in camera
662:
Fill the frame with the impression to take advantage of the camera's resolution;
578:
482:
280:
3106:
2618:
2598:
2512:
2502:
2363:
2328:
2303:
2237:
1977:
1962:
1942:
1824:
1760:
1676:
1627:
1414:
947:
901:
756:
487:
310:
115:
1290:"Impact of Gruesome Photographic Evidence on Legal Decision: A Meta-Analysis"
1054:(Online-Ausg. ed.). Oxford, UK: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 1–77.
3015:
2955:
2583:
2545:
2507:
2403:
1765:
1728:
1723:
1708:
1661:
1649:
995:
931:
810:
502:
78:
1460:
1323:
914:
example, controversy has raged for a number of years over the cause of the
1200:
2603:
2418:
1920:
1850:
1718:
1644:
1639:
927:
863:
764:
698:
2643:
1797:
1743:
805:
2195:
1617:
1567:
923:
838:
775:
2858:
2278:
1738:
774:
709:
72:
801:
The tools required to properly document the crime scene include:
1497:
by Peter Rhys Lewis, Colin Gagg, Ken
Reynolds, CRC Press (2004).
1082:. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 107–144.
909:
Crime or accident scene photographs can often be re-analyzed in
687:
1526:
934:
columns which supported the centre section led directly to the
648:
Close-up photographs of relevant details found on the evidence.
1522:
29:
658:
To meet the standards for such material evidence, they must:
1485:(The Forensic Library) by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (1992).
1242:(Fourth ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 443–459.
1410:"The FBI Says Its Photo Analysis Is Scientific Evidence.…"
27:
Art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene
1159:
Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation
1027:
Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation
846:
Evidence identification and position markers or placards
1161:. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. pp. 49–70.
1029:. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. pp. 49–70.
784:
examination record and discoverable material at trial.
53:
668:
Have parallel planes of the subject, scale, and image;
714:
Photograph of a paper fragment with a ruler for scale
642:
Case number and scale are present in all photographs.
1267:. Boston: Anderson Publishing, Ltd. pp. 59–83.
830:
Still camera with external flash and extra batteries
3082:
3024:
2924:
2867:
2773:
2657:
2569:
2521:
2266:
2033:
1833:
1560:
1337:
Lawrence Memorial Hospital sexual assault exam room
682:, although the photographer may decide to edit via
593:laboratory, or for the identification of suspects.
1080:Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation
1504:, Engineering Failure Analysis,13 (2006) 946–962.
1502:Fuel Line Failure from stress corrosion cracking
1356:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 265–277.
686:or another editing software. That will create a
1352:Gallahue, Fiona E.; Melville, Laura D. (2008).
674:Have even illumination of the area of interest.
690:image, but increase the quality of the image.
1538:
1189:Mancini, Keith; Sidoriak, John (2017-10-02).
1107:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 37–44.
1103:Miller, Marilyn; Peter, Massey (2016-01-29).
1078:Gardner, Ross M.; Krouskup, Donna R. (2019).
555:
8:
1495:Forensic Materials Engineering: Case Studies
905:Photograph of 1880 showing fallen Tay Bridge
671:Be in sharp focus and exposed correctly; and
3090:Conservation and restoration of photographs
2817:Comparison of digital and film photography
1545:
1531:
1523:
562:
548:
84:
3042:Photographs considered the most important
1313:
665:Include a scale for accurate calibration;
1157:Nafte, Myriam; Dalrymple, Brian (2021).
1025:Nafte, Myriam; Dalrymple, Brian (2021).
900:
892:
739:The digital image must be captured in a
1052:Introduction to crime scene photography
1012:
96:
1216:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
645:All sides of the evidence photographed
1491:by Randall K. Noon, CRC Press (2000).
1347:
1345:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1124:
7:
1500:Peter R Lewis and Sarah Hainsworth,
1483:Introduction to Forensic Engineering
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1073:
1071:
1020:
1018:
1016:
3037:Museums devoted to one photographer
1238:Reitnauer, Andrew R. (2015-06-24).
2579:Timeline of photography technology
1489:Forensic Engineering Investigation
897:Original Tay Bridge from the north
25:
942:Concerns over scientific validity
56:and remove advice or instruction.
3140:
3130:
3129:
1453:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02231.x
889:Analysis of historic photographs
604:Features of forensic photography
463:Traffic collision reconstruction
104:
34:
3141:
1408:Gabrielson, Ryan (2019-01-17).
981:History of forensic photography
316:Questioned document examination
1294:Psychiatry, Psychology and Law
1105:The Crime Scene A Visual Guide
966:Forensic materials engineering
1:
2629:Painted photography backdrops
2561:Golden triangle (composition)
1841:35 mm equivalent focal length
1306:10.1080/13218719.2018.1440468
1441:Journal of Forensic Sciences
1354:Emergency Care of the Abused
1050:Robinson, Edward M. (2013).
971:Forensic polymer engineering
2339:Intentional camera movement
586:Locard's exchange principle
134:Bloodstain pattern analysis
3189:
3032:Most expensive photographs
2384:Multi-exposure HDR capture
3125:
433:Fire accelerant detection
2966:Digital image processing
1223:: CS1 maint: location (
873:such as tire marks at a
827:(pens, pencils, markers)
18:Crime scene photographer
3074:Photography periodicals
2634:Photography and the law
880:As with all evidence a
336:Social network analysis
2986:Gelatin silver process
2010:Science of photography
1995:Photographic processes
1973:Perspective distortion
1377:Porter, Glenn (2013).
926:was used with a small
906:
898:
780:
779:Example of a photo log
715:
653:Impression photography
418:Electrical engineering
82:
2439:Schlieren photography
1983:Photographic printing
1906:Exposure compensation
1201:10.4324/9781315693125
904:
896:
778:
713:
448:Materials engineering
276:Facial reconstruction
81:left at a crime scene
76:
3173:Photography by genre
3168:Forensic disciplines
2228:Straight photography
1866:Chromatic aberration
1379:"Images as Evidence"
961:Forensic engineering
936:catastrophic failure
741:lossless compression
621:Evidence photography
575:Forensic photography
493:Perry Mason syndrome
281:Fingerprint analysis
79:footwear impressions
54:rewrite this article
3100:photographic plates
2775:Digital photography
1958:Hyperfocal distance
1871:Circle of confusion
916:Tay Bridge disaster
825:Writing instruments
727:achieve this goal.
516:forensic entomology
453:Polymer engineering
411:Related disciplines
326:Forensic geophysics
306:Gloveprint analysis
286:Firearm examination
256:Body identification
2594:Autochrome Lumière
2589:Analog photography
2414:Pigeon photography
2208:Social documentary
1687:discontinued films
907:
899:
781:
716:
428:Fire investigation
311:Palmprint analysis
271:Election forensics
154:Forensic genealogy
83:
3155:
3154:
2946:Collodion process
2882:Chromogenic print
2869:Color photography
2379:Multiple exposure
2354:Lo-fi photography
1886:Color temperature
1363:978-0-511-41541-8
1210:978-1-315-69312-5
1089:978-1-138-04778-5
875:traffic collision
572:
571:
350:Digital forensics
291:Footwear evidence
71:
70:
47:a manual or guide
16:(Redirected from
3180:
3144:
3143:
3133:
3132:
3006:Print permanence
2951:Cross processing
2909:CMYK color model
2894:Color management
2847:Foveon X3 sensor
2842:Three-CCD camera
2486:Miniature faking
2444:Sabattier effect
2061:Astrophotography
1916:Zebra patterning
1547:
1540:
1533:
1524:
1511:, Tempus, 2004,
1507:Peter R. Lewis,
1472:
1447:(5): 1190–1198.
1426:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1389:(Nov/Dec): 38–42
1374:
1368:
1367:
1349:
1340:
1339:with SDFI system
1334:
1328:
1327:
1317:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1222:
1214:
1186:
1173:
1172:
1154:
1119:
1118:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1075:
1066:
1065:
1047:
1041:
1040:
1022:
976:Forensic science
882:chain of custody
849:Photographic log
564:
557:
550:
476:Related articles
383:Network analysis
373:Malware analysis
331:Forensic geology
108:
98:Forensic science
85:
77:A photograph of
66:
63:
57:
45:is written like
38:
37:
30:
21:
3188:
3187:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3121:
3078:
3020:
3011:Push processing
2927:
2920:
2914:RGB color model
2863:
2769:
2653:
2565:
2531:Diagonal method
2517:
2262:
2166:Photojournalism
2029:
1861:Black-and-white
1829:
1808:Slide projector
1803:Movie projector
1682:available films
1556:
1551:
1479:
1477:Further reading
1438:
1435:
1430:
1429:
1420:
1418:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1390:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1351:
1350:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1287:
1286:
1282:
1275:
1262:
1261:
1257:
1250:
1237:
1236:
1232:
1215:
1211:
1188:
1187:
1176:
1169:
1156:
1155:
1122:
1115:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1090:
1077:
1076:
1069:
1062:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1024:
1023:
1014:
1009:
957:
944:
891:
859:
813:and/or digital
799:
790:
773:
733:
708:
696:
655:
623:
606:
568:
523:
522:
521:
518:
515:
498:Pollen calendar
477:
469:
468:
467:
412:
404:
403:
402:
352:
342:
341:
340:
245:
237:
236:
212:
202:
201:
200:
144:DNA phenotyping
118:
67:
61:
58:
51:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3186:
3184:
3176:
3175:
3170:
3160:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3138:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3103:
3102:
3097:
3086:
3084:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3028:
3026:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2932:
2930:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2891:
2886:
2885:
2884:
2873:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2783:Digital camera
2779:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2609:Camera obscura
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2575:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2551:Rule of thirds
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2478:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2319:Harris shutter
2316:
2314:Hand-colouring
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2005:Red-eye effect
2002:
1997:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1911:Exposure value
1908:
1903:
1898:
1896:Depth of focus
1893:
1891:Depth of field
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1837:
1835:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1821:
1820:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1696:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1654:
1653:
1652:
1647:
1637:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1564:
1562:
1558:
1557:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1542:
1535:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1505:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1473:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1400:
1369:
1362:
1341:
1329:
1300:(4): 503–521.
1280:
1273:
1255:
1248:
1230:
1209:
1174:
1167:
1120:
1113:
1095:
1088:
1067:
1060:
1042:
1035:
1011:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1001:Trace evidence
998:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
956:
953:
943:
940:
890:
887:
871:trace evidence
858:
855:
854:
853:
850:
847:
844:
841:
836:
831:
828:
822:
817:
808:
798:
795:
789:
786:
772:
769:
753:
752:
749:
745:
732:
729:
707:
704:
695:
692:
676:
675:
672:
669:
666:
663:
654:
651:
650:
649:
646:
643:
640:
637:
634:
622:
619:
605:
602:
598:representation
570:
569:
567:
566:
559:
552:
544:
541:
540:
539:
538:
533:
525:
524:
520:
519:
512:
510:
508:Trace evidence
505:
500:
495:
490:
485:
479:
478:
475:
474:
471:
470:
466:
465:
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
425:
420:
414:
413:
410:
409:
406:
405:
401:
400:
398:Audio analysis
395:
393:Video analysis
390:
385:
380:
378:Mobile devices
375:
370:
368:Database study
365:
360:
358:Computer exams
354:
353:
348:
347:
344:
343:
339:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
247:
246:
244:Criminalistics
243:
242:
239:
238:
235:
234:
229:
224:
219:
213:
208:
207:
204:
203:
199:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
157:
156:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
120:
119:
114:
113:
110:
109:
101:
100:
94:
93:
69:
68:
62:September 2021
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3185:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3163:
3148:
3139:
3137:
3128:
3127:
3124:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3081:
3075:
3072:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3047:Photographers
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2936:Bleach bypass
2934:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2923:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2904:primary color
2902:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2889:Reversal film
2887:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2866:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2854:Image sharing
2852:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2776:
2772:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2755:United States
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2614:Daguerreotype
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2459:Stopping down
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2424:Rephotography
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2359:Long-exposure
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2056:Architectural
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2015:Shutter speed
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1968:Metering mode
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1924:
1922:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1881:Color balance
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1846:Angle of view
1844:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1793:Manufacturers
1791:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1566:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1548:
1543:
1541:
1536:
1534:
1529:
1528:
1525:
1518:
1517:0-7524-3160-9
1514:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1417:
1416:
1411:
1404:
1401:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1373:
1370:
1365:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1281:
1276:
1274:9781455775408
1270:
1266:
1259:
1256:
1251:
1249:9780128001134
1245:
1241:
1234:
1231:
1226:
1220:
1212:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1168:9781531008536
1164:
1160:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1116:
1114:9780128012451
1110:
1106:
1099:
1096:
1091:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1061:9780123865434
1057:
1053:
1046:
1043:
1038:
1036:9781531008536
1032:
1028:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1013:
1006:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
958:
954:
952:
949:
941:
939:
937:
933:
929:
925:
919:
917:
912:
903:
895:
888:
886:
883:
878:
876:
872:
867:
865:
857:Fit for court
856:
852:colored cones
851:
848:
845:
842:
840:
837:
835:
832:
829:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
815:tablet device
812:
809:
807:
804:
803:
802:
796:
794:
787:
785:
777:
771:Documentation
770:
768:
766:
762:
761:shutter speed
758:
750:
746:
742:
738:
737:
736:
730:
728:
724:
720:
712:
705:
703:
700:
693:
691:
689:
685:
681:
673:
670:
667:
664:
661:
660:
659:
652:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
631:
630:
627:
620:
618:
615:
609:
603:
601:
599:
594:
590:
587:
582:
580:
576:
565:
560:
558:
553:
551:
546:
545:
543:
542:
537:
534:
532:
529:
528:
527:
526:
517:
514:Use of DNA in
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
480:
473:
472:
464:
461:
459:
456:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
415:
408:
407:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
363:Data analysis
361:
359:
356:
355:
351:
346:
345:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
321:Vein matching
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
296:Forensic arts
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
254:
252:
249:
248:
241:
240:
233:
230:
228:
227:Psychotherapy
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
214:
211:
206:
205:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
155:
152:
151:
150:
149:DNA profiling
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
121:
117:
116:Physiological
112:
111:
107:
103:
102:
99:
95:
91:
87:
86:
80:
75:
65:
55:
50:
48:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
3112:Polaroid art
3001:K-14 process
2996:Instant film
2991:Gum printing
2941:C-41 process
2926:Photographic
2827:Image sensor
2822:Film scanner
2476:Sun printing
2409:Print toning
2201:space selfie
2171:Pictorialism
2125:
2101:Ethnographic
2081:Conservation
1953:Guide number
1948:Focal length
1508:
1501:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1444:
1440:
1419:. Retrieved
1413:
1403:
1391:. Retrieved
1386:
1382:
1372:
1353:
1332:
1297:
1293:
1283:
1264:
1258:
1239:
1233:
1191:
1158:
1104:
1098:
1079:
1051:
1045:
1026:
945:
924:plate camera
920:
908:
879:
868:
860:
834:Video camera
800:
791:
788:Use of flash
782:
754:
734:
725:
721:
717:
697:
677:
656:
628:
624:
613:
610:
607:
595:
591:
583:
574:
573:
438:Fractography
387:
166:Epidemiology
124:Anthropology
59:
52:Please help
44:
3117:Stereoscopy
2976:E-6 process
2971:Dye coupler
2899:color space
2812:Digiscoping
2805:camera back
2720:Philippines
2649:Visual arts
2639:Glass plate
2624:Heliography
2523:Composition
2498:Ultraviolet
2454:Stereoscopy
2449:Slow motion
2434:Scanography
2349:Kite aerial
2294:Contre-jour
2186:Post-mortem
2176:Pornography
2156:Neues Sehen
2091:Documentary
2025:Zone System
2000:Reciprocity
1926:Film format
1856:Backscatter
1834:Terminology
1704:beauty dish
1608:rangefinder
1573:light-field
1554:Photography
991:Photography
986:Murder book
820:Graph paper
579:crime scene
483:Crime scene
443:Linguistics
423:Engineering
388:Photography
266:Colorimetry
232:Social work
3162:Categories
3107:Lomography
2928:processing
2877:Print film
2793:comparison
2760:Uzbekistan
2710:Luxembourg
2670:Bangladesh
2619:Dufaycolor
2599:Box camera
2556:Simplicity
2513:Zoom burst
2508:Xerography
2503:Vignetting
2493:Time-lapse
2481:Tilt–shift
2374:Mordançage
2364:Luminogram
2329:Holography
2324:High-speed
2304:Fill flash
2289:Burst mode
2267:Techniques
2248:Vernacular
2243:Underwater
2238:Toy camera
2218:Still life
2146:Monochrome
2136:High-speed
2086:Cloudscape
2076:Conceptual
1978:Photograph
1963:Lens flare
1943:Film speed
1825:Zone plate
1771:wide-angle
1756:long-focus
1433:References
1421:2019-01-20
1415:ProPublica
948:ProPublica
911:cold cases
488:CSI effect
458:Statistics
251:Accounting
222:Psychology
217:Psychiatry
196:Toxicology
181:Palynology
161:Entomology
3052:Norwegian
3016:Stop bath
2961:Developer
2956:Cyanotype
2584:Ambrotype
2546:Lead room
2469:Slit-scan
2404:Photogram
2399:Panoramic
2309:Fireworks
2141:Landscape
1786:telephoto
1734:reflector
1729:monolight
1724:lens hood
1709:cucoloris
1650:safelight
1561:Equipment
1393:11 August
1383:Precedent
1219:cite book
996:Skid mark
932:cast iron
811:Clipboard
797:Equipment
699:Mug shots
694:Mug shots
684:Photoshop
503:Skid mark
301:Profiling
261:Chemistry
186:Pathology
171:Limnology
139:Dentistry
3136:Category
2832:CMOS APS
2730:Slovenia
2658:Regional
2604:Calotype
2541:Headroom
2419:Redscale
2334:Infrared
2284:Brenizer
2258:Wildlife
2181:Portrait
2126:Forensic
2116:Fine-art
2051:Aircraft
2041:Abstract
1921:F-number
1901:Exposure
1876:Clipping
1851:Aperture
1719:hot shoe
1645:enlarger
1640:Darkroom
1469:27502260
1461:22845038
1324:31984035
955:See also
928:aperture
864:parallax
765:aperture
731:Accuracy
536:Category
191:Podiatry
176:Medicine
90:a series
88:Part of
3147:Outline
3083:Related
2765:Vietnam
2750:Ukraine
2685:Denmark
2665:Albania
2644:Tintype
2571:History
2536:Framing
2429:Rollout
2394:Panning
2344:Kirlian
2253:Wedding
2131:Glamour
2111:Fashion
2096:Eclipse
2066:Banquet
1988:Albumen
1798:Monopod
1776:fisheye
1744:softbox
1598:pinhole
1588:instant
1578:digital
1315:6818434
946:A 2019
806:Notepad
706:Methods
614:in situ
531:Outline
129:Biology
3145:
3134:
3062:street
3057:Polish
2745:Turkey
2740:Taiwan
2725:Serbia
2715:Norway
2690:Greece
2675:Canada
2274:Afocal
2233:Street
2213:Sports
2196:Selfie
2151:Nature
2106:Erotic
2071:Candid
2046:Aerial
2034:Genres
1936:medium
1813:Tripod
1781:swivel
1694:Filter
1672:holder
1667:format
1568:Camera
1515:
1467:
1459:
1360:
1322:
1312:
1271:
1246:
1207:
1165:
1111:
1086:
1058:
1033:
839:Tripod
748:focus.
744:image.
210:Social
3067:women
3025:Lists
2981:Fixer
2859:Pixel
2788:D-SLR
2735:Sudan
2705:Korea
2700:Japan
2695:India
2680:China
2464:Strip
2389:Night
2369:Macro
2279:Bokeh
2223:Stock
2191:Ruins
1931:large
1761:prime
1739:snoot
1699:Flash
1677:stock
1618:still
1603:press
1593:phone
1583:field
1465:S2CID
1007:Notes
3095:film
2800:MILC
2299:ETTR
2161:Nude
2121:Fire
2020:Sync
1818:head
1766:zoom
1751:Lens
1714:gobo
1662:base
1657:Film
1633:view
1513:ISBN
1457:PMID
1395:2014
1358:ISBN
1320:PMID
1269:ISBN
1244:ISBN
1225:link
1205:ISBN
1163:ISBN
1109:ISBN
1084:ISBN
1056:ISBN
1031:ISBN
763:and
688:TIFF
2837:CCD
1628:toy
1623:TLR
1613:SLR
1449:doi
1387:119
1310:PMC
1302:doi
1197:doi
757:ISO
680:RAW
3164::
1463:.
1455:.
1445:57
1443:.
1412:.
1385:.
1381:.
1344:^
1318:.
1308:.
1298:25
1296:.
1292:.
1221:}}
1217:{{
1203:.
1177:^
1123:^
1070:^
1015:^
767:.
759:,
600:.
92:on
1546:e
1539:t
1532:v
1519:.
1471:.
1451::
1424:.
1397:.
1366:.
1326:.
1304::
1277:.
1252:.
1227:)
1213:.
1199::
1171:.
1117:.
1092:.
1064:.
1039:.
563:e
556:t
549:v
64:)
60:(
49:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
