Criminology - Knowledge (XXG)

3359:, sexual attraction and sexuality, and intersectional themes. Naegler and Salman believed that Ferrell's mold was limited and that they could add to the understanding of cultural criminology by studying women and those who do not fit Ferrell's mold. Hayward would later add that not only feminist theory, but green theory as well, played a role in the cultural criminology theory through the lens of adrenaline, the soft city, the transgressive subject, and the attentive gaze. The adrenaline lens deals with rational choice and what causes a person to have their own terms of availability, opportunity, and low levels of social control. The soft city lens deals with reality outside of the city and the imaginary sense of reality: the world where transgression occurs, where rigidity is slanted, and where rules are bent. The transgressive subject refers to a person who is attracted to rule-breaking and is attempting to be themselves in a world where everyone is against them. The attentive gaze is when someone, mainly an 3425:", focused on disseminating criminological insights to a broader audience than academia. Advocates of public criminology argue that criminologists should be "conducting and disseminating research on crime, law, and deviance in dialogue with affected communities." Its goal is for academics and researchers in criminology to provide their research to the public in order to inform public decisions and policymaking. This allows criminologists to avoid the constraints of traditional criminological research. In doing so, public criminology takes on many forms, including media and policy advising as well as activism, civic-oriented education, community outreach, expert testimony, and knowledge co-production. 3394:, a condition where one cannot meet a necessary level to maintain basic living standards. Rather, relative deprivation enforces the idea that even if a person is financially stable, he or she can still feel relatively deprived. The perception of being relatively deprived can result in criminal behavior and/or morally problematic decisions. Relative deprivation theory has increasingly been used to partially explain crime as rising living standards can result in rising crime levels. In criminology, the theory of relative deprivation explains that people who feel jealous and discontent of others might turn to crime to acquire the things that they can not afford. 48: 3410:

metropolitan and suburban areas. The crime in rural communities consists predominantly of narcotic related crimes such as the production, use, and trafficking of narcotics. Social disorganization theory is used to examine the trends involving narcotics. Social disorganization leads to narcotic use in rural areas because of low educational opportunities and high unemployment rates. Routine activity theory is used to examine all low-level street crimes such as theft. Much of the crime in rural areas is explained through routine activity theory because there is often a lack of capable guardians in rural areas.

2509:, finding that they were concentrated in the zone of transition. The Chicago School was a school of thought developed that blames social structures for human behaviors. This thought can be associated or used within criminology, because it essentially takes the stance of defending criminals and criminal behaviors. The defense and argument lies in the thoughts that these people and their acts are not their faults but they are actually the result of society (i.e. unemployment, poverty, etc.), and these people are actually, in fact, behaving properly. 1126: 75: 3114:), Becker's theory acknowledged that a society could not eradicate crime beneath a certain level. For example, if 25% of a supermarket's products were stolen, it would be very easy to reduce this rate to 15%, quite easy to reduce it until 5%, difficult to reduce it under 3% and nearly impossible to reduce it to zero (a feat which the measures required would cost the supermarket so much that it would outweigh the benefits). This reveals that the goals of utilitarianism and 7117: 3363:, is immersed into the culture and interested in lifestyle(s) and the symbolic, aesthetic, and visual aspects. When examined, they are left with the knowledge that they are not all the same, but come to a settlement of living together in the same space. Through it all, sociological perspective on cultural criminology theory attempts to understand how the environment an individual is in determines their criminal behavior. 3598: 7081: 2175: 7106: 3584: 1922: 377: 3023: 3152:

victim, and lack of a capable guardian. A guardian at a place, such as a street, could include security guards or even ordinary pedestrians who would witness the criminal act and possibly intervene or report it to law enforcement. Routine activity theory was expanded by John Eck, who added a fourth element of "place manager" such as rental property managers who can take

7093: 3290:, oftentimes having spent years inside the prison system. Researchers in the field of convict criminology such as John Irwin and Stephan Richards argue that traditional criminology can better be understood by those who lived in the walls of a prison. Martin Leyva argues that "prisonization" oftentimes begins before prison, in the home, community, and schools. 2453:, who focused on how "a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law." Associating with people who may condone criminal conduct, or justify crime under specific circumstances makes one more likely to take that view, under his theory. Interacting with this type of " 3344:

culture. Kane adds that cultural criminology has three tropes; village, city street, and media, in which males can be geographically influenced by society's views on what is broadcast and accepted as right or wrong. The village is where one engages in available social activities. Linking the history of an individual to a location can help determine

3348:. The city street involves positioning oneself in the cultural area. This is full of those affected by poverty, poor health and crime, and large buildings that impact the city but not neighborhoods. Mass media gives an all-around account of the environment and the possible other subcultures that could exist beyond a specific geographical area. 3331:

is highly valuable in highlighting how LGBT individuals are affected by the criminal justice system. This research also has the opportunity to "queer" the curriculum of criminology in educational institutions by shifting the focus from controlling and monitoring LGBT communities to liberating and protecting them.

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The value of pursuing criminology from a queer theorist perspective is contested; some believe that it is not worth researching and not relevant to the field as a whole, and as a result is a subject that lacks a wide berth of research available. On the other hand, it could be argued that this subject

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is an interdisciplinary field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors. While contemporary criminology has been dominated by sociological theories, biosocial criminology also recognizes the potential contributions of fields such

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Labeling theory refers to an individual who is labeled by others in a particular way. The theory was studied in great detail by Becker. It was originally derived from sociology, but is regularly used in criminological studies. When someone is given the label of a criminal they may reject or accept it

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idea, suggesting that delinquency among lower-class youths is a reaction against the social norms of the middle class. Some youth, especially from poorer areas where opportunities are scarce, might adopt social norms specific to those places that may include "toughness" and disrespect for authority.

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Routine activity theory, developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen, draws upon control theories and explains crime in terms of crime opportunities that occur in everyday life. A crime opportunity requires that elements converge in time and place including a motivated offender, suitable target or

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identified four main characteristics: "attachment to others", "belief in moral validity of rules", "commitment to achievement", and "involvement in conventional activities". The more a person features those characteristics, the less likely he or she is to become deviant (or criminal). On the other

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involves the process where an individual measures his or her own well-being and materialistic worth against that of other people and perceive that they are worse off in comparison. When humans fail to obtain what they believe they are owed, they can experience anger or jealousy over the notion that

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and continue to commit crime. Even those who initially reject the label can eventually accept it as the label becomes more well known, particularly among their peers. This stigma can become even more profound when the labels are about deviancy, and it is thought that this stigmatization can lead to

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and the personality of criminals; and third, it studies the control of crime and the rehabilitation of offenders. Thus, criminology includes within its scope the activities of legislative bodies, law-enforcement agencies, judicial institutions, correctional institutions and educational, private and

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A simple example: Someone wants a big yacht but does not have the means to buy one. If the person cannot exert self-control, he or she might try to get the yacht (or the means for it) in an illegal way, whereas someone with high self-control will (more likely) either wait, deny themselves of what

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argues criminal behaviour comes from internal and external factors out of the individual's control. Its key method of thought is that criminals are born as criminals and not made into them; this school of thought also supports theory of nature in the debate between nature versus nurture. They also

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Criminology grew substantially as a discipline in the first quarter of the twentieth century. From 1900 through to 2000 this field of research underwent three significant phases in the United States: (1) Golden Age of Research (1900–1930) which has been described as a multiple-factor approach, (2)

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As more and more people identify as something other than heterosexual, queer criminology continues to grow in relevance. At the same time, in jurisdictions such as Russia, Uganda, and Ghana, governments have become even more punitive through laws that expand the criminalisation of LGBTQ+ conduct,

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Delinquency tends to occur among the lower-working-class males who have a lack of resources available to them and live in impoverished areas, as mentioned extensively by Albert Cohen (Cohen, 1965). Bias has been known to occur among law enforcement agencies, where officers tend to place a bias on

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Criminologists are individuals who engage in the exploration and investigation of the intersection between crime and society's reactions to it. Certain criminologists delve into the behavioral trends of potential offenders. In a broader sense, these professionals undertake research and inquiries,

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between what society expected of its citizens and what those citizens could actually achieve. Therefore, if the social structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of those dejected will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it.

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used data and statistical analysis to study the relationship between crime and sociological factors. He found age, gender, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption were important factors to crime. Lance Lochner performed three different research experiments, each one proving education reduces

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The notion of having a criminal personality is achieved from the school of thought of psychological positivism. It essentially means that parts of an individual's personality have traits that align with many of those possessed by criminals, such as neuroticism, anti-social tendencies, aggressive

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Modern academic criminology has direct roots in the 19th-century Italian School of "criminal anthropology", which according to the historian Mary Gibson "caused a radical refocusing of criminological discussion throughout Europe and the United States from law to the criminal. While this 'Italian

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Cultural criminology views crime and its control within the context of culture. Ferrell believes criminologists can examine the actions of criminals, control agents, media producers, and others to construct the meaning of crime. He discusses these actions as a means to show the dominant role of

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of crime, social reaction to crime, and the functioning of law enforcement agencies and the penal institutions. It can be broadly said that criminology directs its inquiries along three lines: first, it investigates the nature of criminal law and its administration and conditions under which it

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is no longer taken seriously (later in his career even Lombroso recognized that not all criminals were biological throwbacks). Early biological determinism has been discredited because it is methodologically flawed: most studies did not use control groups from the general population to compare

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Becker, for example, acknowledged that many people operate under a high moral and ethical constraint but considered that criminals rationally see that the benefits of their crime outweigh the cost, such as the probability of apprehension and conviction, severity of punishment, as well as their

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According to the Marxist perspective on crime, "defiance is normal – the sense that men are now consciously involved ... in assuring their human diversity." Thus Marxists criminologists argued in support of society in which the facts of human diversity, be it social or personal, would not be

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posits a difference in the thoughts of individuals suffering traumatic unconscious pain which corresponds to them having thoughts and feelings which are not reflections of their true selves. There is enough correlation between this altered state of mind and criminality to suggest causation.

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Rural criminology is the study of crime trends outside of metropolitan and suburban areas. Rural criminologists have used social disorganization and routine activity theories. The FBI Uniform Crime Report shows that rural communities have significantly different crime trends as opposed to

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suggested that delinquency can result from a differential opportunity for lower class youth. Such youths may be tempted to take up criminal activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more lucrative economic benefits than conventional, over legal options such as

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Social Positivism, which is often referred to as Sociological Positivism, discusses the thought process that criminals are produced by society. This school claims that low income levels, high poverty/unemployment rates, and poor educational systems create and motivate criminals.

2367:, a student of Lombroso, believed social as well as biological factors played a role, and believed criminals should not be held responsible when factors causing their criminality were beyond their control. Criminologists have since rejected Lombroso's biological theories since 3087:. Rational choice theory argues that criminals, like other people, weigh costs or risks and benefits when deciding whether to commit crime and think in economic terms. They will also try to minimize risks of crime by considering the time, place, and other situational factors. 3433:

Both the positivist and classical schools take a consensus view of crime: that a crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society. Those values and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon. However, there are two types of laws:

2925:. This school of thought focused on the relationship between state, media, and conservative-ruling elite and other less powerful groups. The powerful groups had the ability to become the "significant other" in the less powerful groups' processes of generating 2774:, where some criminal activities were seen as "imaginary solutions" to the problem of belonging to a subordinate class. A further study by the Chicago school looked at gangs and the influence of the interaction of gang leaders under the observation of adults. 2821:, parents, and others can have a countering effect on one's low self-control. For families of low socio-economic status, a factor that distinguishes families with delinquent children, from those who are not delinquent, is the control exerted by parents or 2631:

Since the 1950s, social ecology studies have built on the social disorganization theories. Many studies have found that crime rates are associated with poverty, disorder, high numbers of abandoned buildings, and other signs of community deterioration. As

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have sought to explain trends in criminality through the lens of evolutionary biology. Specifically, they seek to explain why criminality is so much higher in men than in women and why young men are most likely to exhibit criminal behavior. See also:

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Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry McKay and Clifford R. Shaw of the Chicago School. Social disorganization theory postulates that neighborhoods plagued with poverty and economic deprivation tend to experience high rates of

2929:. The former could to some extent impose their meanings on the latter; therefore they were able to "label" minor delinquent youngsters as criminal. These youngsters would often take the label on board, indulge in crime more readily, and become 3843: 2125:

Golden Age of Theory (1930–1960) which endeavored to show the limits of systematically connecting criminological research to theory, and (3) a 1960–2000 period, which was seen as a significant turning point for criminology.

3106:. Rational choice theories also suggest that increasing risk and likelihood of being caught, through added surveillance, law enforcement presence, added street lighting, and other measures, are effective in reducing crime. 3335:

relationships, and organising. 'Digiqueer criminology' has emerged as a sub discipline of queer criminology and aims to deepen understanding of the relationship between digital technology, LGBTQ+ identity, and justice.

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One of the main differences between this theory and Bentham's rational choice theory, which had been abandoned in criminology, is that if Bentham considered it possible to completely annihilate crime (through the

2347:. Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence for studying crime. He suggested physiological traits such as the measurements of cheekbones or hairline, or a cleft palate could indicate " 3293:

According to Rod Earle, Convict Criminology started in the United States after the major expansion of prisons in the 1970s, and the U.S. still remains the main focus for those who study convict criminology.

3052:. Beccaria conceived of punishment as the necessary application of the law for a crime; thus, the judge was simply to confirm his or her sentence to the law. Beccaria also distinguished between crime and 2870:. Freud suggested that unconscious impulses such as 'repetition compulsion' and a 'death drive' can dominate a person's creativity, leading to self-destructive behavior. Phillida Rosnick, in the article 2092:

School' was in turn attacked and partially supplanted in countries such as France by 'sociological' theories of delinquency, they retained the new focus on the criminal." According to Gibson, the term

3137:, which is a systematic toolkit for those seeking to focus attention on "crime facilitators" by tackling the markets for stolen goods that provide motivation for thieves to supply them by theft. 4186: 6424: 3441:

are rooted in core values shared by many cultures. Natural laws protect against harm to persons (e.g. murder, rape, assault) or property (theft, larceny, robbery), and form the basis of

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argue that criminal behavior is innate and within a person. Philosophers within this school applied the scientific method to study human behavior. Positivism comprises three segments:

4282: 3042:. They argued that punishment, if certain, swift, and proportionate to the crime, was a deterrent for crime, with risks outweighing possible benefits to the offender. In 1096: 6045:

Stallwitz, A. (2014). "Community-Mindedness: Protection against Crime in the Context of Illicit Drug Cultures?" International Journal of Rural Criminology, 2(2), 166-208.

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Sutton, M. Schneider, J. and Hetherington, S. (2001) Tackling Theft with the Market Reduction Approach. Crime Reduction Research Series paper 8. Home Office. London.

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O'Riordan, Cáit; O'Connell, Michael (1 October 2014). "Predicting adult involvement in crime: Personality measures are significant, socio-economic measures are not".

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Samuels, Jack; Bienvenu, O. Joseph; Cullen, Bernadette; Costa, Paul T.; Eaton, William W.; Nestadt, Gerald (July 2004). "Personality dimensions and criminal arrest".

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set by the military. Relative deprivation can be made up of societal, political, economic, or personal factors which create a sense of injustice. It is not based on

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Bunei, E. K., & Barasa, B. (2017). "Farm Crime Victimisation in Kenya: A Routine Activity Approach." International Journal of Rural Criminology, 3(2), 224-249.

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are not crimes that occur out of contempt for one's fellow man, but are crimes of power. They continue systems of control and hegemony which allow state crime and

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describes Athens' observations about domestic and societal violence in the criminals' backgrounds. Both Athens and Rhodes reject the genetic inheritance theories.

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want or seek an intelligent intermediate solution, such as joining a yacht club to use a yacht by group consolidation of resources without violating social norms.

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or structural conflict perspective in sociology and sociology of crime. As this perspective is itself broad enough, embracing as it does a diversity of positions.

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criminalized. They further attributed the processes of crime creation not to genetic or psychological facts, but rather to the material basis of a given society.

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is more likely to become criminal. As opposed to most criminology theories, these do not look at why people commit crime but rather why they do not commit crime.

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should be used as a way to deter people from further criminal action. This is premised on the belief that individuals want to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

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Walton, K. G.; Levitsky, D. K. (2003). "Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on neuroendocrine abnormalities associated with aggression and crime".

3126: 3886: 1505: 2662:, suggests that mainstream culture, especially in the United States, is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom, and prosperity—as Merton put it, the 6369:, Black, W. K., & Geis, G. (2014). "Too big to fail, too powerful to jail? On the absence of criminal prosecutions after the 2008 financial meltdown." 2806:

hand, if these factors are not present, a person is more likely to become a criminal. Hirschi expanded on this theory with the idea that a person with low

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Kevin M. Beaver and Anthony Walsh. 2011. Biosocial Criminology. Chapter 1 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Biosocial Theories of Crime. 2011. Ashgate.

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Comparative criminology, which is the study of the social phenomenon of crime across cultures, to identify differences and similarities in crime patterns.

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Morenoff, Jeffrey; Robert Sampson; Stephen Raudenbush (2001). "Neighborhood Inequality, Collective Efficacy and the Spatial Dynamics of Urban Violence".

4304: 3204: 6300: 2607:. This theory suggests that crime and deviance is valued within groups in society, 'subcultures' or 'gangs'. These groups have different values to the 6460: 3091:

current set of opportunities. From the public policy perspective, since the cost of increasing the fine is marginal to that of the cost of increasing

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suggested a poverty "concentration effect", which may cause neighborhoods to be isolated from the mainstream of society and become prone to violence.

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developed a theory about how a process of brutalization by parents or peers that usually occurs in childhood results in violent crimes in adulthood.

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There were three main schools of thought in early criminological theory, spanning the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-twentieth century:

3240:– members of the NDC – rejected previous explanations of crime and deviance. Thus, they decided to pursue a new Marxist criminological approach. In 713: 190: 5618:

J. B. Charles, C. W. G. Jasperse, K. A. van Leeuwen-Burow. "Criminology Between the Rule of Law and the Outlaws." (1976). Deventer: Kluwer D.V. 116

6012: 2145:. These schools of thought were superseded by several contemporary paradigms of criminology, such as the sub-culture, control, strain, labelling, 5263: 4243:

Jones, Shayne E.; Miller, Joshua D.; Lynam, Donald R. (1 July 2011). "Personality, antisocial behavior, and aggression: A meta-analytic review".

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Ellis, Justin R. Representation Resistance and the Digiqueer: Fighting for Recognition in Technocratic Times (2023). Bristol University Press.

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Ellis, Justin R. Representation Resistance and the Digiqueer: Fighting for Recognition in Technocratic Times (2023). Bristol University Press.

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Miller, Joshua D.; Lynam, Donald (2001). "Structural Models of Personality and Their Relation to Antisocial Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review*".

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Psychological Positivism is the concept that criminal acts or the people doing said crimes do them because of internal factors driving them.

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Dam, Coleta van; Janssens, Jan M. A. M.; De Bruyn, Eric E. J. (1 July 2005). "PEN, Big Five, juvenile delinquency and criminal recidivism".

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and suggests there is a direct link between an unconscious desire for pain or punishment and the impulse to commit crime or deviant acts.

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behaviors, and other factors. There is evidence of correlation, but not causation, between these personality traits and criminal actions.

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This theory is applied to a variety of approaches within the bases of criminology in particular and in sociology more generally as a

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Sutton, M. (2010) Stolen Goods Markets. U.S. Department of Justice. Centre for Problem Oriented Policing, COPS Office. Guide No 57.

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approach to studying cities and postulated that urban neighborhoods with high levels of poverty often experience a breakdown in the

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Convict criminology is a school of thought in the realm of criminology. Convict criminologists have been directly affected by the

4278: 3262:, which considers these crimes to be some of the most costly to society in terms of overall harm/injury. In a Marxist framework, 1340: 7033: 3387: 2305: 2301: 2138: 1640: 1425: 1176: 960: 657: 211: 140: 2268:

Punishment should be "public, prompt, necessary, the minimum possible under the given circumstances, and established by law."

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developed this theory further to include types of strain which were not derived from financial constraints. This is known as

2668:. Most people buy into this dream, and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivator. Merton also used the term 2408: 2231: 2158: 2134: 897: 877: 451: 5986: 3915:

David, Christian Carsten. "Criminology - Crime." Cybercrime. Northamptonshire (UK), 5 June 1972. Web. 23 February 2012. <

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use and gambling. Marxist criminology, conflict criminology, and critical criminology claim that most relationships between

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This philosophy was replaced by the positivist and Chicago schools and was not revived until the 1970s with the writings of

2953:" describing the societal reaction to spectacular, alarming social phenomena (e.g. post-World War 2 youth cultures like the 3929: 7153: 7148: 6597: 6453: 3575: 2981: 2412: 2344: 1906: 1560: 1058: 1053: 907: 312: 307: 2437:

viewed crime as an inevitable aspect of a society with uneven distribution of wealth and other differences among people.

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Hillyard, P., Pantazis, C., Tombs, S., & Gordon, D. (2004). Beyond Criminology: Taking Harm Seriously. London: Pluto

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Bursik, Robert J. Jr. (1988). "Social Disorganization and Theories of Crime and Delinquency: Problems and Prospects".

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individuals and their interactions with the criminal justice system. The goals of this field of study are as follows:

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when society began designing prisons for the sake of extreme punishment. This period also saw many legal reforms, the

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The work of Lombroso and his contemporaries is regarded today as a historical curiosity, not scientific fact. Strict

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by introducing the universal term "harm" into the criminological debate as a replacement for the legal term "crime".

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suggested that people learn criminal behavior from older, more experienced criminals with whom they may associate.

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Raymond D. Gastil, "Homicide and a Regional Culture of Violence", American Sociological Review 36 (1971): 412-427.

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argued that criminals are able to temporarily neutralize internal moral and social-behavioral constraints through

7178: 6752: 6480: 5961: 3267: 3130: 2782: 2730: 2653: 2547: 2457:" peer is a major cause of delinquency. Reinforcing criminal behavior makes it chronic. Where there are criminal 2059: 1876: 1712: 1445: 1315: 1181: 1010: 892: 796: 762: 747: 553: 471: 341: 302: 261: 7121: 6386: 4187:"Longitudinal associations of cognitive ability, personality traits and school grades with antisocial behaviour" 2188: 7158: 7116: 7085: 6933: 6923: 6720: 6446: 6257: 3233: 3044: 2934: 2797:. Instead of looking for factors that make people become criminal, these theories try to explain why people do 2726: 2446: 2284: 2244: 1435: 1270: 1015: 421: 266: 114: 99: 5337: 4213: 3857: 2073:

The interests of criminologists include the study of nature of crime and criminals, origins of criminal law,

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Ball, Matthew. "Queer Criminology as Activism." Critical Criminology 24.4 (2016): 473-87. Web. 5 April 2018

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Sparks, Richard F., "A Critique of Marxist Criminology." Crime and Justice. Vol. 2 (1980). JSTOR. 170 - 171

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Briar, S., & Piliavin, I. (1966). Delinquency, Situational Inducements, and Commitment to Conformity.

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Why LGBT citizens are incarcerated and if or why they are arrested at higher rates than heterosexual and

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is not necessarily representative of public beliefs and wishes: it is exercised in the interests of the

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people leave deteriorating neighborhoods, the most disadvantaged portions of the population may remain.

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Sparks, Richard F., "A Critique of Marxist Criminology." Crime and Justice. Vol. 2 (1980). JSTOR. 169.

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Sparks, Richard F., "A Critique of Marxist Criminology." Crime and Justice. Vol. 2 (1980). JSTOR. 165.

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Garland, David (2002). "Of Crimes and Criminals". In Maguire, Mike; Rod Morgan; Robert Reiner (eds.).

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It was later that Naegler and Salman introduced feminist theory to cultural criminology and discussed

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Ellis, Justin R. Policing Legitimacy: Social Media, Scandal and Sexual Citizenship (2021). Springer.

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Richards, Stephen C.; Ross, Jeffrey Ian (2001). "Introducing the New School of Convict Criminology".

3548: 3527: 3371: 3115: 2962: 2859: 2684: 2571: 2529: 2506: 2339:(1835–1909), an Italian sociologist working in the late 19th century, is often called "the father of 2150: 2146: 1999: 1896: 1750: 1698: 1665: 1635: 1470: 1440: 1430: 1360: 1345: 1140: 1135: 990: 985: 975: 927: 887: 882: 845: 789: 698: 592: 426: 334: 241: 236: 226: 175: 5409: 3692: 1125: 74: 7055: 7049: 6975: 6890: 6835: 6710: 6575: 6521: 5880: 3621: 3259: 3223: 3192: 3169: 2914: 2604: 2360: 2047: 2003: 1770: 1515: 1415: 1253: 1240: 1035: 912: 835: 825: 629: 406: 286: 3757:

Braithwaite, J. (1 March 2000). "The New Regulatory State and the Transformation of Criminology".

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or reduction measures can be devised to increase the effort required to commit the crime, such as

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conducted a test which showed that labeling theory affected some youth offenders but not others.

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or dominant class. The more right-wing criminologies tend to posit that there is a consensual

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Kelin, Malcolm (March 1986). "Labeling Theory and Delinquency Policy: An Experimental Test".

3718:

Gibson, M. S. (1982). The 'female offender' and the Italian school of criminal anthropology.

3705:

Gibson, M. S. (1982). The 'female offender' and the Italian school of criminal anthropology.

6985: 6830: 6805: 6612: 6602: 6592: 6178: 6064: 5935: 5885: 5833: 5783: 5516: 5473: 5414: 5365: 5119: 5029: 4986: 4941: 4722: 4695: 4467: 4425: 4252: 4209: 4201: 4159: 4101: 4058: 4021: 3982: 3947: 3766: 3626: 3558: 3511: 3506: 3422: 3391: 3208: 3103: 3099: 2985: 2954: 2938: 2722: 2659: 2616: 2536: 2517: 2450: 2396: 2392: 2387: 2063: 2023: 1850: 1810: 1754: 1610: 1565: 1520: 1465: 1405: 1320: 1285: 1235: 688: 634: 145: 4592: 4453:"The Effect of Education on Crime: Evidence from Prison Inmates, Arrests, and Self-Reports" 3310:

To better understand the history of LGBT individuals and the laws put against the community

3095:, one can conclude that the best policy is to maximize the fine and minimize surveillance. 6995: 6762: 6757: 6570: 6429: 6419: 6252: 4416:

Beirne, Piers (March 1987). "Adolphe Quetelet and the Origins of Positivist Criminology".

3641: 3472: 3456: 3345: 3320:

How queer activists have fought against oppressive laws that criminalized LGBT individuals

3195:

has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body:

3068: 3035: 2974: 2922: 2751: 2736: 2591: 2482: 2336: 2239: 2079: 1858: 1854: 1838: 1818: 1746: 1734: 1623: 1595: 1540: 1500: 1265: 1215: 1025: 667: 607: 602: 587: 519: 514: 436: 416: 276: 94: 6393:

Adverse childhood experiences, negative emotionality, and pathways to juvenile recidivism

6271:

Bouchard, Jean-Pierre, "Can criminology be considered as a discipline in its own right?"

6287:

Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse.

5866:

Kane, Stephanie C. (August 2004). "The Unconventional Methods of Cultural Criminology".

4010:"Examining antisocial behavior through the lens of the five factor model of personality" 3800: 3734:

Sociological Theory and Criminological Research: Views from Europe and the United States

2866:

talks about how the unconscious desire for pain relates to psychoanalysis in his essay,

2386:, membership of subcultures, or low levels of education can predispose people to crime. 7110: 6958: 6870: 6865: 6622: 6543: 6538: 6469: 6264:

Blatier, Catherine (1998), "The Specialized Jurisdiction: A Better Chance for Minors".

5187: 4945: 4914: 4726: 4699: 3986: 3951: 3589: 3460: 3244:, they argued against the biological "positivism" perspective represented by Lombroso, 3118:

have to be tempered and reduced to more modest proposals to be practically applicable.

3080: 3039: 3031: 3001: 2910: 2888: 2851: 2802: 2778: 2664: 2563: 2551: 2543: 2498: 2478: 2474: 2356: 2249: 2235: 2007: 1926: 1842: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1778: 1738: 1325: 1171: 784: 411: 6084:

Criminology and Criminal Justice; Epilogue: Toward a public criminology of state crime

5442:

Reducing Crime and Drug Dealing by Improving Place Management: A Randomized Experiment

5270: 5033: 7137: 7061: 7017: 6980: 6910: 6885: 6795: 6693: 6639: 6634: 6414: 6366: 6334: 6182: 6068: 5905: 5803: 5528: 5131: 4437: 4128: 3959: 3934: 3786: 3616: 3538: 3488: 3448: 3200: 3122: 2997: 2958: 2876: 2863: 2830: 2740: 2633: 2612: 2567: 2502: 2497:", which was identified as the most volatile and subject to disorder. In the 1940s, 2368: 2112: 2055: 1978: 1814: 1802: 1786: 1782: 1708: 1220: 1166: 940: 772: 682: 580: 165: 5947: 5493: 5041: 5006: 4734: 4479: 4229: 4062: 3402:"Rural crime" redirects here. For illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, see 3386:

measured their personal success by the experience in their units rather than by the

6860: 6800: 6548: 6506: 5335:

Home Office Crime Reduction Website. Tackling Burglary: Market Reduction Approach.

4932:

Wilson, Harriet (1980). "Parental Supervision: A Neglected Aspect of Delinquency".

4256: 3468: 3464: 3383: 3245: 3092: 2942: 2807: 2771: 2760: 2637: 2620: 2559: 2416: 2199: 2070:

formulating hypotheses, and scrutinizing observable trends in a systematic manner.

2027: 1806: 1758: 935: 509: 56: 5310: 4129:"Delinquent Behavior and the Five-Factor Model: Hiding in the Adaptive Landscape?" 2748:

Criminal acts may result when youths conform to norms of the deviant subculture.

6292:

Cohen, A. K. (1965). The Sociology of the Deviant Act: Anomie Theory and Beyond.

5837: 4375: 4185:

Mõttus, René; Guljajev, Juri; Allik, Jüri; Laidra, Kaia; Pullmann, Helle (2012).

3278:, along with state-corporate non-profit criminals, to continue governing people. 3232:(NDC) group. The group was restricted to academics and consisted of 300 members. 7012: 6900: 6661: 6654: 6511: 6169:

clear, todd (6 October 2010). "editorial introduction to public criminologies".

5169: 5123: 3597: 3563: 3484: 3438: 3382:, who was a pioneer of this theory. Stouffer revealed that soldiers fighting in 3360: 3352: 3255: 3072: 2950: 2826: 2767:

minority groups, without knowing for sure if they had committed a crime or not.

2755: 2658:

Strain theory, also known as Mertonian Anomie, advanced by American sociologist

2608: 2521: 2458: 2424: 2097: 2039: 1822: 1794: 1766: 1650: 1605: 1310: 767: 672: 619: 486: 441: 155: 5464:

Ellis, Lee (2005). "A Theory Explaining Biological Correlates of Criminality".

4471: 4163: 4105: 2445:

Differential association (sub-cultural) posits that people learn crime through

2343:". He was one of the key contributors to biological positivism and founded the 376: 7105: 7066: 6905: 6747: 6705: 6649: 6132: 5671: 5395:

Cohen, Lawrence; Marcus Felson (1979). "Social Change and Crime Rate Trends".

3603: 3583: 3579: 3532: 3479:

There have been moves in contemporary criminological theory to move away from

3442: 3356: 3237: 3111: 3022: 2818: 2404: 2352: 2262: 2254: 2035: 2031: 1921: 1355: 1275: 1200: 1000: 995: 801: 251: 246: 195: 17: 5939: 5897: 5889: 5845: 5795: 5787: 5485: 5477: 4264: 4221: 4171: 4113: 4070: 4035: 3994: 3778: 3064:

and inhumane treatments, as he did not consider them as rational deterrents.

2937:" of the powerful groups. Later developments in this set of theories were by 2351:" criminal tendencies. This approach, whose influence came via the theory of 6840: 6737: 6666: 6560: 6533: 5751: 4990: 3314: 3214:

Biosocial approaches remain very controversial within the scientific field.

3196: 2930: 2854:

is a psychological theory (and therapy) which regards the unconscious mind,

2679: 2420: 2043: 2019: 2011: 1774: 1730: 1117: 639: 575: 6112: 4998: 4537: 4078: 3770: 2733:

away from the mainstream to form their own values and meanings about life.

6055:

Uggen, Christopher; Inderbitzin, Michelle (2010). "Public Criminologies".

5520: 4452: 3378:

Relative deprivation was originally utilized in the field of sociology by

2427:

approach to address social questions and poverty, and gave his studies in

5739: 5727: 3553: 3403: 3263: 3153: 3049: 2276: 2258:), and other early criminological philosophers proposed ideas including: 2074: 779: 726: 368: 5656: 3822:. Translated by Richard Davies. Cambridge University Press. p. 64. 2271:

Severity of punishment should be determined by actual harms, not intent.

6587: 6354: 6082:

Kramer, Michalowski, J. Chambliss, Ronald C., Raymond, William (2013).

5426: 3061: 2555: 2383: 2348: 1161: 840: 810: 52: 5962:"Relative Deprivation definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com" 5774:

Hayward, Keith J.; Young, Jock (August 2004). "Cultural Criminology".

3455:, albeit that some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws that prohibit 3421:

is a strand within criminology closely tied to ideas associated with "

3323:

To conduct research and use it as a form of activism through education

3048:(On Crimes and Punishments, 1763–1764), Beccaria advocated a rational 2461:, many individuals learn crime, and crime rates swell in those areas. 6433: 4026: 4009: 2670: 2619:

often fails to develop, which in turn makes it difficult to maintain

757: 391: 5418: 4205: 2770:

British sub-cultural theorists focused more heavily on the issue of

2674:, but it meant something slightly different for him than it did for 6301:"Risky Business: Harlem Pimps' Work Decisions and Economic Returns" 6232:

Why Do Criminals Offend? A General Theory of Crime and Delinquency.

4429: 6438: 6381:

Great American City: Chicago and the Enduring Neighborhood Effect.

5311:"Stolen Goods Markets | Center for Problem-Oriented Policing" 3653: 3452: 2884: 1995: 1969: 752: 533: 6329:

Seductions of crime: Moral and sensual attractions in doing evil.

5020:

Gilman, Sander (2008). "Freud and the Making of Psychoanalysis".

3207:. Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by 2535:

Other researchers suggested an added social-psychological link.

4563:(3rd ed.). Chicago: J.B. Lippincott Company. pp. 4–8. 4536:. Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science. Archived from 3303: 2692: 2688: 2195: 6442: 6313:

Global Criminology: Crime and Victimization in a Globalized Era

4380:(12 ed.). Cengage Learning (published 2015). p. 135. 2862:, as the key drivers of behavior, especially deviant behavior. 6629: 3271: 3053: 2168: 2051: 5672:"From Corrections to College: The Value of a Convict's Voice" 3858:"On Crimes and Punishments | Office of Justice Programs" 2883:, looks for evidence in the physical mechanisms of the human 1981: 6316:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group. 6013:"Whether Rich Or Poor, Feeling Deprived Makes Us Steal More" 3844:"What is Criminology? The Study of Crime and Criminal Minds" 5569:

Hereditary: The Persistence of Biological Theories of Crime

4977:

Rosnick, Phillida (2017). "Mental Pain and Social Trauma".

4619:"Criminology, the Study of Crime, Causes, and Consequences" 3211:, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress. 1994:

meaning: "word, reason") is the interdisciplinary study of

6343:

Not Just Deserts. A Republican Theory of Criminal Justice.

5147:

Why They Kill: The Discoveries of a Maverick Criminologist

4008:

Miller, Joshua D.; Lynam, Donald; Leukefeld, Carl (2003).

2729:, sub-cultural theorists focused on small cultural groups 2473:

arose in the early twentieth century, through the work of

4333:

McLennan, Gregor; Jennie Pawson; Mike Fitzgerald (1980).

3451:

are enacted by legislatures and reflect current cultural

5544:

Conviction: the making and unmaking of the violent brain

4495:

City Limits: Crime, Consumerism and the Urban Experience

2611:. These neighborhoods also tend to have high population 5824:

Ferrell, Jeff (1 August 1999). "Cultural criminology".

2002:. Criminology is a multidisciplinary field in both the 3807:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021. 3302:

Queer criminology is a field of study that focuses on

2234:

arose in the mid-18th century and reflects ideas from

2542:

Theoretical perspectives used in criminology include

3873:

The New Criminology: For a Social Theory of Deviance

7042: 7026: 6773: 6499: 6355:

Republican Criminology and Victim Advocacy: Comment

6266:

International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family

5364: 2489:. In the 1920s, Park and Burgess identified five 5630:State Crime: Governments, Violence and Corruption 4534:"Henry Mayhew: London Labour and the London Poor" 4335:Crime and Society: Readings in History and Theory 4214:20.500.11820/e509a56e-5d66-4411-938c-ea6d41764ddb 3887:"Classifying Crime: Major Schools of Criminology" 3258:is a distinct field of crimes that is studied by 2996:At the other side of the spectrum, criminologist 2161:, Queer criminology, and others discussed below. 5546:. Stanford (Calif.): Stanford University press. 2493:that often exist as cities grow, including the " 2415:on their studies of crime and its distribution. 2111:In the late 19th century, French anthropologist 5924:"Cultural Criminology and Gender Consciousness" 4750:Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies 4520:The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 3rd edition 4377:Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies 3930:"Positivism, Empiricism and Criminology Theory" 3228:In 1968, young British sociologists formed the 2793:Another approach is made by the social bond or 2524:, such as family and schools. This results in 2275:This school developed during a major reform in 5232: 5230: 4681: 4679: 4677: 4404:results, a violation of the scientific method. 6454: 3928:Weatherburn, Don; Findlay, Mark (July 1985). 3820:On Crimes and Punishments, and Other Writings 3463:and citizen are non-consensual and, as such, 3127:crime prevention through environmental design 2010:, which draws primarily upon the research of 1946: 1090: 342: 8: 6210:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6096:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4966:. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Editions. 2407:, with crowded cities producing more crime. 27:Study of crime and criminal actions/behavior 6391:Wolff, Kevin & Baglivio, M. T. (2017). 5670:Leyva, Martin; Bickel, Christopher (2010). 4979:The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 4656:Shaw, Clifford R.; McKay, Henry D. (1942). 1972: 6461: 6447: 6439: 6145:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6114:Routledge handbook of public criminologies 5204: 5202: 5178:, vol. 76 (2), March–April 1968, p.196-217 4846: 4844: 3205:hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis 2198:. Please do not remove this message until 1953: 1939: 1124: 1108: 1097: 1083: 731: 360: 349: 335: 73: 62: 6196:Barak-Glantz, I.L., E.H. Johnson (1983). 5879: 5752:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73519-7 5408: 5209:Cornish, Derek; Ronald V. Clarke (1986). 4025: 3180:. Various theoretical frameworks such as 3121:Such rational choice theories, linked to 2218:Learn how and when to remove this message 7174:Interdisciplinary subfields of sociology 6423:) is being considered for deletion. See 6310:Jaishankar, K., & Ronel, N. (2013). 5390: 5388: 5190:, "The Optimum Enforcement of Laws", in 3021: 2194:Relevant discussion may be found on the 46: 5571:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 5196:, vol.78 (3), May–June 1970, p. 526–536 4851:Cloward, Richard; Ohlin, Lloyd (1960). 3805:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3684: 3499:Areas of study in criminology include: 3030:Rational choice theory is based on the 2721:and strain theory, and also drawing on 2441:Differential association (sub-cultural) 2058:, as well as the processes that define 1116: 809: 363: 294: 203: 132: 81: 65: 6203: 6138: 6111:Henne, Kathryn E.; Shah, Rita (2020). 6089: 5740:https://doi.org/10.51952/9781529228731 5728:https://doi.org/10.51952/9781529228731 5294:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5287: 4522:. Oxford University Press. p. 21. 4303:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 4296: 4152:Personality and Individual Differences 4094:Personality and Individual Differences 3544:The International Crime Victims Survey 3375:they have been wrongly disadvantaged. 2881:Freud and the Making of Psychoanalysis 2512:Chicago school sociologists adopted a 6383:Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 5922:Naegler, Laura; Salman, Sara (2016). 5917: 5915: 5861: 5859: 5857: 5855: 5819: 5817: 5815: 5813: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5761: 5759: 5344:from the original on 12 December 2009 4957: 4955: 4285:from the original on 27 December 2015 2905:Symbolic interactionism draws on the 2683:Others will retreat or drop out into 7: 7092: 6387:Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology 6363:, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 765–776). 4658:Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas 4591:. Cullen & Agnew. Archived from 3018:Rational choice theory (criminology) 2678:. Merton saw the term as meaning a 6357:for article concerning the book in 5705:Convict Criminology: Inside and Out 5692:from the original on 9 August 2017. 4660:. The University of Chicago Press. 4374:Siegel, Larry J. (1 January 2015). 3669:Quantitative methods in criminology 3664:Qualitative research in criminology 3182:evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory 3034:, classical school philosophies of 6345:New York: Oxford University Press 6234:New York: Oxford University Press. 5509:Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 4946:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a047169 4775:Social Theory and Social Structure 4727:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00932.x 4700:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1988.tb00854.x 3987:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2001.tb00940.x 3952:10.1111/j.1748-121X.1985.tb00608.x 3632:List of crime-related publications 2411:and John Glyde read papers to the 2382:suggests societal factors such as 2096:was most likely coined in 1885 by 2078:develops; second, it analyzes the 204:Subfields and other major theories 38:. For the true crime podcast, see 25: 6427:to help reach a consensus. › 5628:Green, Penny; Ward, Tony (2004). 5440:Eck, John; Julie Wartell (1997). 5317:from the original on 21 June 2010 4752:. Cengage Learning. p. 191. 4586:"Criminological Theory Summaries" 4362:. Thomson-Wadsworth. p. 139. 3327:Legitimacy of Queer criminology: 2825:. In addition, theorists such as 2430:London Labour and the London Poor 2285:legal system in the United States 7115: 7104: 7091: 7080: 7079: 6371:Crime, Law and Social Change, 61 6289:Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6183:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00665.x 6069:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00666.x 5444:. National Institute of Justice. 5099:. Nelson Thornes. pp. 154+. 3596: 3582: 2763:-paying jobs available to them. 2173: 1920: 452:Risk & actuarial criminology 375: 7034:List of social science journals 6171:Criminology & Public Policy 6057:Criminology & Public Policy 5466:European Journal of Criminology 4827:. University of Chicago Press. 4322:. Thomson-Wadsworth. p. 7. 4194:European Journal of Personality 4133:Individual Differences Research 4127:Wiebe, Richard (1 April 2004). 4063:10.1016/j.comppsych.2004.03.013 3519:Criminal careers and desistance 3085:The Optimum Enforcement of Laws 2615:. With high turnover, informal 2449:. This theory was advocated by 2115:used the analogous French term 2087:History of academic criminology 1506:Peace, war, and social conflict 6991:Science and technology studies 5059:. University of Chicago Press. 4934:British Journal of Criminology 4257:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.03.004 3893:. 21 July 2017. Archived from 3891:Southeastern University Online 3871:Taylor; Walton; Young (1973). 3759:British Journal of Criminology 3429:Types and definitions of crime 2872:Mental Pain and Social Trauma, 2868:Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 2781:have explored the impact of a 2371:were not used in his studies. 30:For the academic journal, see 1: 5172:, "Crime and Punishment", in 5112:Criminal Justice and Behavior 5055:Mead, George Herbert (1934). 5034:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61746-8 4964:Beyond the Pleasure Principle 4825:Social Sources of Delinquency 4418:American Journal of Sociology 3732:Deflem, Mathieu, ed. (2006). 3576:Index of criminology articles 3125:, have been at the basics of 2413:Statistical Society of London 2345:Italian school of criminology 2283:, and the development of the 6294:American Sociological Review 6273:L'Evolution Psychiatrique 78 6237:Barak, Gregg (ed.). (1998). 5838:10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.395 5397:American Sociological Review 5239:Situational Crime Prevention 5193:Journal of Political Economy 5175:Journal of Political Economy 4921:. Stanford University Press. 4642:Hester, S., Eglin, P. 1992, 3535:of criminal justice agencies 3230:National Deviance Conference 3056:, and advocated against the 3038:, which were popularized by 2835:techniques of neutralization 2165:Origins and Classical School 34:. For the Raekwon song, see 6397:Crime & Delinquency, 63 6299:Horning, A. et al. (2020). 5338:"Crime prevention – GOV.UK" 5124:10.1177/0093854886013001004 4853:Delinquency and Opportunity 4245:Journal of Criminal Justice 3720:Journal of European Studies 3707:Journal of European Studies 3612:Anthropological criminology 2945:, in the mid-20th century. 2200:conditions to do so are met 7195: 5826:Annual Review of Sociology 5679:Western Criminology Review 5237:Clarke, Ronald V. (1992). 4889:. Transaction Publishers. 4559:Sutherland, E. H. (1939). 4493:Hayward, Keith J. (2004). 4472:10.1257/000282804322970751 4337:. Routledge. p. 311. 4164:10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.010 4106:10.1016/j.paid.2004.06.016 3693:"Etymology of Criminology" 3573: 3475:between state and citizen. 3401: 3221: 3144: 3015: 2972: 2949:developed the concept of " 2898: 2847:Psychoanalytic criminology 2844: 2710: 2651: 2399:to suggest a link between 1982: 1177:Human environmental impact 432:Expressive function of law 29: 7075: 6476: 5567:Larregue, Julien (2024). 5095:Slattery, Martin (2003). 4919:A General Theory of Crime 4561:Principles of Criminology 4497:. Routledge. p. 89. 4358:Siegel, Larry J. (2003). 4318:Siegel, Larry J. (2003). 3818:Beccaria, Cesare (1764). 3736:. Elsevier. p. 279. 3268:environmental degradation 3131:Market Reduction Approach 2783:Southern culture of honor 2654:Strain theory (sociology) 2586:Social structure theories 2245:On Crimes and Punishments 2060:administration of justice 6425:templates for discussion 6360:Law & Society Review 6258:Dei delitti e delle pene 5940:10.1177/1557085116660609 5890:10.1177/1362480604044611 5788:10.1177/1362480604044608 5542:Rollins, Oliver (2021). 5478:10.1177/1477370805054098 5145:Rhodes, Richard (2000). 4885:Hirschi, Travis (1969). 4460:American Economic Review 4360:Criminology, 8th edition 4320:Criminology, 8th edition 4051:Comprehensive Psychiatry 3045:Dei delitti e delle pene 2935:self-fulfilling prophecy 2785:on violent crime rates. 2739:tied anomie theory with 2727:differential association 2083:public social agencies. 1271:Structural functionalism 422:Differential association 115:Structural functionalism 100:Differential association 6679:international relations 6239:Integrative criminology 6198:Comparative criminology 5868:Theoretical Criminology 5776:Theoretical Criminology 5367:Crime and Everyday Life 5363:Felson, Marcus (1994). 5070:Becker, Howard (1963). 4991:10.1111/1745-8315.12165 4962:Freud, Sigmund (2011). 4911:Gottfredson, Michael R. 4823:Kornhauser, R. (1978). 4773:Merton, Robert (1957). 4451:Lochner, Lance (2004). 3288:criminal justice system 3178:evolutionary psychology 3147:Routine activity theory 3141:Routine activity theory 3098:With this perspective, 2901:Symbolic interactionism 2895:Symbolic interactionism 2580:evolutionary psychology 2380:Sociological positivism 2375:Sociological positivist 2363:, has been superseded. 1291:Symbolic interactionism 1186:Industrial revolutions 482:Symbolic interactionism 125:Symbolic interactionism 105:Integrative criminology 7006:Quantum social science 6331:New York: Basic Books. 5632:. London: Pluto Press. 5211:The Reasoning Criminal 5097:Key Ideas In Sociology 4798:Cohen, Albert (1955). 4748:Siegel, Larry (2015). 4401:biological determinism 3722:, 12(47), 155-165. 3709:, 12(47), 155-165. 3637:List of criminologists 3187:genetics of aggression 3174:personality psychology 3027: 3012:Rational choice theory 2982:deviancy amplification 2817:Social bonds, through 2576:personality psychology 2526:social disorganization 2155:postmodern criminology 2048:social anthropologists 1973: 1281:Social constructionism 462:Social disorganization 110:Rational choice theory 60: 7043:Other categorizations 6896:International studies 6881:History of technology 6816:Communication studies 6699:public administration 6285:Clear, T. R. (2009). 6086:. Taylor and Francis. 5521:10.1300/J076v36n01_04 5241:. Harrow and Heston. 5057:Mind Self and Society 4887:Causes of Delinquency 4584:Anderson, Ferracuti. 3276:state-corporate crime 3165:Biosocial criminology 3025: 2795:social control theory 2777:Sociologists such as 2701:general strain theory 2687:subcultures (such as 2642:William Julius Wilson 2487:University of Chicago 1656:Conversation analysis 1231:Social stratification 971:Biosocial criminology 678:Uniform Crime Reports 397:Biosocial criminology 222:Biosocial criminology 161:Uniform Crime Reports 50: 40:Criminology (podcast) 32:Criminology (journal) 7154:Behavioural sciences 7149:Academic disciplines 6876:Historical sociology 6305:Deviant Behavior, 21 5928:Feminist Criminology 4646:, London, Routledge. 4644:A Sociology of Crime 3942:(2). New York City: 3771:10.1093/bjc/40.2.222 3549:Juvenile delinquency 3372:Relative deprivation 3367:Relative deprivation 3248:and Gordon Trasler. 3156:abatement measures. 3116:classical liberalism 3077:Crime and Punishment 2963:football hooliganism 2691:, or what he calls " 2572:behavioural genetics 2507:juvenile delinquents 2323:Criminal personality 2159:feminist criminology 2151:cultural criminology 2147:critical criminology 2016:political scientists 1977:, "accusation", and 846:Solitary confinement 7169:Forensic psychology 7164:Criminal psychology 7056:Geisteswissenschaft 7050:Behavioral sciences 6976:Political sociology 6891:Information science 6836:Development studies 6268:. pp. 115–127. 5651:(1 (83)): 177–190. 5213:. 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Stouffer 3236:, Paul Walton and 3028: 2919:subcultural theory 2856:repressed memories 2745:reaction formation 2713:Subcultural theory 2495:zone of transition 2483:urban sociologists 2401:population density 2129:Schools of thought 2080:causation of crime 2024:legal sociologists 1927:Society portal 1550:History of science 1531:Race and ethnicity 1211:Social environment 120:Subcultural theory 61: 36:Criminology (song) 7131: 7130: 6971:Political economy 6966:Political ecology 6821:Community studies 6811:Cognitive science 6774:Interdisciplinary 6674:Political science 6351:978-0-19-824056-3 6339:Braithwaite, John 6327:Katz, J. 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Gastil 2310:social positivism 2297:Positivist school 2281:French Revolution 2252:(inventor of the 2228: 2227: 2220: 2102:Raffaele Garofalo 2000:deviant behaviour 1963: 1962: 1681:Social experiment 1561:Social psychology 1206:Social complexity 1107: 1106: 853: 852: 790:Prisoners' rights 694:Positivist school 359: 358: 171:Positivist school 16:(Redirected from 7186: 7179:1880s neologisms 7119: 7109: 7108: 7095: 7094: 7083: 7082: 6986:Regional science 6831:Cultural studies 6806:Business studies 6463: 6456: 6449: 6440: 6399:(12), 1495–1521. 6253:Beccaria, Cesare 6216: 6215: 6209: 6201: 6193: 6187: 6186: 6166: 6160: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6144: 6136: 6117:. 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Park 2471:Chicago school 2466: 2463: 2442: 2439: 2435:Émile Durkheim 2376: 2373: 2369:control groups 2357:Charles Darwin 2333: 2330: 2324: 2321: 2292: 2289: 2273: 2272: 2269: 2266: 2250:Jeremy Bentham 2226: 2225: 2181: 2179: 2172: 2166: 2163: 2130: 2127: 2088: 2085: 2050:, scholars of 2040:social workers 1961: 1960: 1958: 1957: 1950: 1943: 1935: 1932: 1931: 1930: 1929: 1914: 1913: 1910: 1909: 1904: 1899: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1879: 1873: 1868: 1867: 1864: 1863: 1717: 1716: 1702: 1697: 1696: 1693: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1663: 1658: 1653: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1633: 1627: 1622: 1621: 1618: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1608: 1603: 1598: 1593: 1588: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1563: 1558: 1553: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1443: 1438: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1328: 1326:Astrosociology 1323: 1318: 1313: 1307: 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6721:developmental 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6708: 6707: 6704: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6694:public policy 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6676: 6675: 6672: 6668: 6665: 6664: 6663: 6660: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6645:legal systems 6643: 6641: 6640:legal history 6638: 6636: 6635:jurisprudence 6633: 6632: 6631: 6628: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6590: 6589: 6586: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6563: 6562: 6559: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6536: 6535: 6532: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6508: 6505: 6504: 6502: 6498: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6475: 6471: 6464: 6459: 6457: 6452: 6450: 6445: 6444: 6441: 6435: 6431: 6426: 6422: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6410: 6406: 6404: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6382: 6378: 6375: 6372: 6368: 6365: 6362: 6361: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6333: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6322:9781439892497 6319: 6315: 6314: 6309: 6307:(2): 160–185. 6306: 6302: 6298: 6295: 6291: 6288: 6284: 6281: 6277: 6274: 6270: 6267: 6263: 6260: 6259: 6254: 6251: 6248: 6247:1-84014-008-9 6244: 6240: 6236: 6233: 6229: 6228:Agnew, Robert 6226: 6225: 6221: 6213: 6207: 6199: 6192: 6189: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6165: 6162: 6156: 6153: 6148: 6142: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6120: 6116: 6115: 6107: 6104: 6099: 6093: 6085: 6078: 6075: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6051: 6048: 6042: 6039: 6033: 6030: 6018: 6014: 6007: 6004: 5992: 5988: 5982: 5979: 5967: 5963: 5957: 5954: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5918: 5916: 5912: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5862: 5860: 5858: 5856: 5852: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5820: 5818: 5816: 5814: 5810: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5793: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5777: 5770: 5768: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5760: 5756: 5753: 5747: 5744: 5741: 5735: 5732: 5729: 5723: 5720: 5714: 5711: 5706: 5699: 5696: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5673: 5666: 5663: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5639: 5636: 5631: 5624: 5621: 5615: 5612: 5606: 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4811: 4805: 4801: 4794: 4791: 4786: 4780: 4776: 4769: 4766: 4761: 4755: 4751: 4744: 4741: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4721:(3): 517–60. 4720: 4716: 4709: 4706: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4682: 4680: 4678: 4674: 4669: 4663: 4659: 4652: 4649: 4645: 4639: 4636: 4624: 4620: 4613: 4610: 4594: 4587: 4580: 4577: 4572: 4570:0-930390-69-5 4566: 4562: 4555: 4552: 4539: 4535: 4529: 4526: 4521: 4514: 4511: 4506: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4486: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4454: 4447: 4444: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4409: 4405: 4402: 4389: 4387:9781305446090 4383: 4379: 4378: 4369: 4366: 4361: 4354: 4351: 4346: 4340: 4336: 4329: 4326: 4321: 4314: 4311: 4306: 4300: 4284: 4280: 4274: 4271: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4188: 4181: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4146: 4143: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4123: 4120: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4088: 4085: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4045: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4004: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3966: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3936: 3935:Legal Studies 3931: 3924: 3921: 3917: 3912: 3909: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3882: 3879: 3874: 3867: 3864: 3859: 3853: 3850: 3845: 3839: 3836: 3831: 3825: 3821: 3814: 3811: 3806: 3802: 3796: 3793: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3753: 3750: 3745: 3739: 3735: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3715: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3699: 3694: 3688: 3685: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3649: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3617:Crime science 3615: 3613: 3610: 3609: 3605: 3599: 3594: 3591: 3585: 3580: 3577: 3569: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3539:Fear of crime 3537: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3501: 3500: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3489:postmodernism 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3447: 3444: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3435: 3428: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3411: 3405: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3373: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3349: 3347: 3338: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3316: 3312: 3309: 3308: 3307: 3305: 3297: 3295: 3291: 3289: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3225: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3201:catecholamine 3198: 3194: 3190: 3188: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3166: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3148: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3133:to theft by 3132: 3128: 3124: 3123:neoliberalism 3119: 3117: 3113: 3107: 3105: 3101: 3096: 3094: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3065: 3063: 3060:, as well as 3059: 3058:death penalty 3055: 3051: 3047: 3046: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3024: 3019: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3006:Why They Kill 3003: 2999: 2998:Lonnie Athens 2991: 2989: 2987: 2986:Malcolm Klein 2983: 2976: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2960: 2959:AIDS epidemic 2956: 2952: 2948: 2947:Stanley Cohen 2944: 2940: 2939:Howard Becker 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2917:, as well as 2916: 2912: 2908: 2907:phenomenology 2902: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2877:Sander Gilman 2873: 2869: 2865: 2864:Sigmund Freud 2861: 2857: 2853: 2848: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2831:Gresham Sykes 2828: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2811: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2780: 2775: 2773: 2768: 2764: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2746: 2742: 2741:Sigmund Freud 2738: 2734: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2714: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2672: 2667: 2666: 2661: 2660:Robert Merton 2655: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2613:heterogeneity 2610: 2606: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2568:postmodernism 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2548:functionalism 2545: 2540: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2432: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2331: 2329: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2306:psychological 2303: 2298: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2261: 2260: 2259: 2257: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2246: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2222: 2219: 2211: 2201: 2197: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2180: 2171: 2170: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2121: 2119: 2114: 2113:Paul Topinard 2110: 2108: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2056:jurisprudence 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2036:psychiatrists 2033: 2029: 2028:psychologists 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1990:, from λόγος 1989: 1980: 1979:Ancient Greek 1975: 1971: 1967: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1944: 1942: 1937: 1936: 1934: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1917: 1916: 1915: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1900: 1898: 1895: 1893: 1892:Organizations 1890: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1874: 1871: 1866: 1865: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1841: · 1840: 1837: · 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1797: · 1796: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1729: · 1728: 1724: 1721: 1714: 1710: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1695: 1694: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1647: 1646:Computational 1644: 1642: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1632: 1629: 1628: 1625: 1620: 1619: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1602: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1391:Environmental 1389: 1386: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1341:Consciousness 1339: 1337: 1334: 1332: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1300: 1299: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1277: 1274: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1250: 1249: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1221:Social equity 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1183: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1168: 1167:Globalization 1165: 1163: 1160: 1159: 1153: 1152: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1132: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1088: 1086: 1081: 1080: 1078: 1077: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1064:Organizations 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1051: 1045: 1044: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1011:Environmental 1009: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 997: 994: 992: 989: 987: 984: 982: 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 962: 959: 958: 952: 951: 942: 939: 937: 934: 933: 931: 929: 928:Postmodernist 926: 924: 921: 919: 918:Neo-classical 916: 914: 911: 909: 906: 904: 901: 899: 896: 894: 893:Environmental 891: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 865: 859: 858: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 821:Participatory 819: 818: 817: 816: 812: 808: 803: 800: 798: 795: 791: 788: 786: 783: 782: 781: 778: 774: 771: 769: 766: 764: 761: 760: 759: 756: 754: 751: 749: 746: 744: 741: 739: 736: 735: 734: 733: 728: 723: 722: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 684: 683:Crime mapping 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 655: 649: 648: 641: 638: 636: 633: 631: 630:Transnational 628: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 611: 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 598:International 596: 594: 591: 589: 586: 582: 579: 578: 577: 574: 570: 567: 565: 562: 561: 559: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 541: 539: 538: 535: 529: 528: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 502: 496: 495: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 458: 455: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 413: 410: 408: 405: 403: 400: 398: 395: 393: 390: 389: 383: 382: 378: 374: 373: 370: 366: 362: 352: 347: 345: 340: 338: 333: 332: 330: 329: 324: 321: 319: 318:Organizations 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 300: 299: 298: 293: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 262:Environmental 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 209: 208: 207: 202: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 166:Crime mapping 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 138: 137: 136: 131: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 87: 86: 85: 82:Main Theories 80: 76: 72: 71: 68: 64: 58: 54: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7120: 7096: 7084: 7054: 6861:Food studies 6825: 6801:Area studies 6742: 6554:mathematical 6549:econometrics 6507:Anthropology 6418: 6402: 6396: 6380: 6370: 6358: 6342: 6328: 6312: 6304: 6293: 6286: 6279: 6272: 6265: 6261:(1763–1764). 6256: 6238: 6231: 6222:Bibliography 6197: 6191: 6174: 6170: 6164: 6155: 6113: 6106: 6083: 6077: 6060: 6056: 6050: 6041: 6032: 6020:. Retrieved 6016: 6006: 5994:. Retrieved 5990: 5981: 5969:. Retrieved 5965: 5956: 5931: 5927: 5871: 5867: 5829: 5825: 5779: 5775: 5746: 5734: 5722: 5713: 5704: 5698: 5685:(1): 50–60. 5682: 5678: 5665: 5648: 5644: 5638: 5629: 5623: 5614: 5605: 5596: 5587: 5568: 5562: 5543: 5537: 5512: 5508: 5502: 5469: 5465: 5459: 5450: 5441: 5435: 5400: 5396: 5366: 5358: 5346:. Retrieved 5331: 5319:. Retrieved 5304: 5278:. Retrieved 5271:the original 5257: 5238: 5210: 5191: 5183: 5173: 5165: 5146: 5140: 5118:(1): 47–79. 5115: 5111: 5105: 5096: 5090: 5071: 5065: 5056: 5050: 5025: 5021: 5015: 4982: 4978: 4972: 4963: 4937: 4933: 4927: 4918: 4905: 4886: 4880: 4871: 4852: 4824: 4818: 4799: 4793: 4774: 4768: 4749: 4743: 4718: 4714: 4708: 4691: 4687: 4657: 4651: 4643: 4638: 4626:. Retrieved 4622: 4612: 4600:. Retrieved 4593:the original 4579: 4560: 4554: 4542:. Retrieved 4538:the original 4528: 4519: 4513: 4494: 4488: 4463: 4459: 4446: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4398: 4391:. 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