179:), Germany, where the crucibles are around 4 cm in size, however, these are small examples. There are examples of larger vessels such as cooking pots and amphorae being used for cementation to process larger amounts of brass; since the reaction takes place at low temperatures lower fired ceramics could be used. The ceramic vessels which are used are important as the vessel must be able to lose gas through the walls otherwise the pressure would break the vessel. Cementation vessels are mass-produced due to crucibles having to be broken open to remove the brass once the reaction has finished as in most cases the lid would have baked hard to the vessel or the brass might have adhered to the vessel walls.
511:, i. e. they absorb a bit of weighable moisture from the air. For this reason, the porcelain crucible and lid is also pre-fired (pre-heating to high temperature) to constant mass before the pre-weighing. This determines the mass of the completely dry crucible and lid. At least two firings, coolings, and weighings resulting in exactly the same mass are needed to confirm the constant (completely dry) mass of the crucible and lid and similarly again for the crucible, lid, and sample residue inside. Since the mass of every crucible and lid is different, the pre-firing/pre-weighing must be done for every new crucible/lid used. The desiccator contains
171:. This is heated to about 900 °C, the zinc oxide vaporizes into a gas, and the zinc gas bonds with the molten copper. This reaction has to take place in a part-closed or closed container otherwise the zinc vapor would escape before it can react with the copper. Cementation crucibles, therefore, have a lid or cap which limits the amount of gas loss from the crucible. The crucible design is similar to the smelting and melting crucibles of the period utilizing the same material as the smelting and melting crucibles. The conical shape and smallmouth allowed the lid to be added. These small crucibles are seen in
113:. Ceramic crucibles from this time had slight modifications to their designs such as handles, knobs or pouring spouts allowing them to be more easily handled and poured. Early examples of this practice can be seen in Feinan, Jordan. These crucibles have added handles to allow for better manipulation, however, due to the poor preservation of the crucibles there is no evidence of a pouring spout. The main purpose of the crucible during this period was to keep the ore in the area where the heat was concentrated to separate it from impurities before shaping.
250:. Cupellation started long before the Post Medieval period, however, the first vessels made to carry out this process started in the 16th Century. Another vessel used for the same process is a scorifier which is similar to a cupel but slightly larger and removes the lead and leaves the noble metals behind. Cupels and scorifiers were mass-produced as after each reduction the vessels would have absorbed all of the lead and become fully saturated. These vessels were also used in the process of
34:
329:
352:
268:
49:
489:. The crucible and lid with the sample inside are weighed very accurately again only after it has completely cooled to room temperature (higher temperature would cause air currents around the balance giving inaccurate results). The mass of the empty, pre-weighed crucible and lid is subtracted from this result to yield the mass of the completely dried residue in the crucible.
207:
from India, where the crucibles were filled with good quality low-carbon wrought iron and carbon in the form of organics such as leaves, wood, etc. However, no charcoal was used within the crucible. These early crucibles would only produce a small amount of steel as they would have to be broken once
195:
The cementation process, which was lost from the end of the Roman to the early
Medieval period, continued in the same way with brass. Brass production increased during the medieval period due to a better understanding of the technology behind it. Furthermore, the process for carrying out cementation
151:
The Roman period shows technical innovations, with crucibles for new methods used to produce new alloys. The smelting and melting process also changed with both the heating technique and the crucible design. The crucible changed into rounded or pointed bottom vessels with a more conical shape; these
191:
such as leaded bronze was done in crucibles similar to those of the Roman period which have thinner walls and flat bases to sit within the furnaces. The technology for this type of smelting started to change at the end of the
Medieval period with the introduction of new tempering material for the
211:
By the late
Medieval period, steel production had moved from India to modern-day Uzbekistan where new materials were being used in the production of steel crucibles, for example, Mullite crucibles were introduced. These were sandy clay crucibles which had been formed around a fabric tube. These
237:
clay and tempered with pure quartz sand. Furthermore, another specialized crucible which was made at the same time was that of a graphite crucible from southern
Germany. These had a very similar design to that of the triangular crucibles from Hesse but they also occur in conical forms. These
444:. These small-size crucibles and their covers made of porcelain are quite cheap when sold in quantity to laboratories, and the crucibles are sometimes disposed of after use in precise quantitative chemical analysis. There is usually a large mark-up when they are sold individually in
224:
and into the Post-Medieval Era, new types of crucible designs and processes started. Smelting and melting crucibles types started to become more limited in designs which are produced by a few specialists. The main types used during the Post
Medieval period are the
340:
152:
were heated from below, unlike prehistoric types which were irregular in shape and were heated from above. These designs gave greater stability within the charcoal. These crucibles in some cases have thinner walls and have more refractory properties.
245:
The refining of methods during the
Medieval and Post-Medieval periods led to the invention of the cupel which resembles a small egg cup, made of ceramic or bone ash which was used to separate base metals from noble metals. This process is known as
574:
Pigott, Vincent C. "The
Neolithic (C.A 7500–5500 B.C) and Caltholithic (C.A 5500–3200 B.C) Periods." The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World. Philadelphia: UPenn Museum of Archaeology, 1999. 73–74. Google Scholar.
192:
ceramic crucibles. Some of these copper alloy crucibles were used in the making of bells. Bell foundry crucibles had to be larger at about 60 cm. These later medieval crucibles were a more mass-produced product.
77:
The form of the crucible has varied through time, with designs reflecting the process for which they are used, as well as regional variation. The earliest crucible forms derive from the sixth/fifth millennium B.C. in
465:
or its derivative). Common crucible use may be as follows. A residue or precipitate in a chemical analysis method can be collected or filtered from some sample or solution on special "ashless"
829:, reconsidered, T. Stollner, G. Korlin, G. Steffens & J. Cierny, Eds., Man and mining, studies in honour of Gerd Weisgerber on occasion of his 65th birthday, Deutsches Bergbau Museum, Bochum
485:
are driven out of the sample residue in the crucible. The "ashless" filter paper is completely burned up in this process. The crucible with the sample and lid is allowed to cool in a
163:. This process involves the combination of a metal and a gas to produce an alloy. Brass is made by mixing solid copper metal with zinc oxide or carbonate which comes in the form of
492:
A crucible with a bottom perforated with small holes which are designed specifically for use in filtration, especially for gravimetric analysis as just described, is called a
203:. Steel production using iron and carbon works similarly to brass, with the iron metal being mixed with carbon to produce steel. The first examples of cementation steel are
60:
is a container in which metals or other substances may be melted or subjected to very high temperatures. Although crucibles have historically tended to be made out of
924:
2153:
2132:
424:
have been used. The lids are typically loose-fitting to allow gases to escape during the heating of a sample inside. Crucibles and their lids can come in
2242:
1768:
199:
However, during this period a vast and highly important technological innovation happened using the cementation process, the production of
212:
crucibles were used in the same way as other cementation vessels but with a hole in the top of the vessel to allow pressure to escape.
917:
2271:
1829:
315:
254:
where the noble metals are removed from a coin or a weight of metal to determine the amount of the noble metals within the object.
1806:
604:, Jordan, P. Craddock & J. Lang, Eds, Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages, British Museum Press, London, pp93–100
2281:
293:
2276:
2261:
2097:
1986:
1327:
910:
477:, the residue on the filter paper can be placed in the crucible and fired (heated at very high temperature) until all the
457:
In the area of chemical analysis, crucibles are used in quantitative gravimetric chemical analysis (analysis by measuring
441:
1801:
871:, Ed in P. Craddock & J. Lang, Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages, British Museum Press, London pp207–215
629:, Ed in P. Craddock & J. Lang, Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages, British Museum Press, London pp207–215
64:, they can be made from any material that withstands temperatures high enough to melt or otherwise alter its contents.
897:
Smelting, Refining and
Alloying of copper and copper Alloys in Crucible Furnaces During Prehistoric up to Roman Times
278:
1877:
1846:
1758:
297:
282:
2266:
2001:
1332:
558:
452:
289:
27:
1403:
1006:
801:
1836:
1753:
1217:
1439:
1187:
1156:
478:
1429:
1307:
1019:
172:
33:
1725:
1385:
1227:
899:, P. Craddock & M. Hughes, Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity, British Museum, London
1413:
1222:
1137:
1074:
251:
156:
106:
42:
563:
Natural
Refractory Materials Employed in the Construction of Crucibles, Retorts, Forunaces &c.
1940:
1923:
1862:
1763:
1687:
1623:
1618:
1536:
1357:
656:
534:
529:
497:
470:
333:
164:
121:
105:
properties which is similar to the types of clay used in other ceramics of the time. During the
328:
2208:
2198:
2006:
1996:
1773:
1577:
1567:
1562:
1408:
1322:
1317:
1069:
379:
367:
1546:
1511:
1501:
1493:
1468:
1452:
1362:
1269:
1172:
1064:
648:
524:
394:
374:. Crucibles are available in several sizes and typically come with a correspondingly-sized
233:
region in
Germany. These are triangular vessels made on a wheel or within a mold using high
226:
2223:
1950:
1816:
1598:
1572:
1347:
1242:
834:
Post Medieval crucible Production and Distribution: A Study of Materials and Materialities
780:
Post-Medieval crucible Production and Distribution: A Study of Materials and Materialities
413:
375:
110:
652:
507:
because fingerprints can add a weighable mass to the crucible. Porcelain crucibles are
2218:
2168:
2058:
2032:
1976:
1933:
1928:
1867:
1526:
1516:
1177:
1059:
1024:
986:
971:
493:
200:
117:
79:
602:
Developments in copper Metallurgy During the Fourth and Third Millennia B.C. at Feinan
2255:
2163:
2042:
1872:
1541:
1478:
1142:
976:
385:
Crucibles and their covers are made of high temperature-resistant materials, usually
356:
639:
Childs, T; Killick, D. (1993). "Indigenous African metallurgy: nature and culture".
351:
2203:
1991:
1955:
1882:
1778:
1748:
1743:
1671:
1506:
1292:
1247:
1164:
1132:
1115:
1094:
1084:
1014:
996:
843:: A Survey, British Archaeological Report, British Series 382, Archaeopress, Oxford
466:
221:
20:
848:
Cutting Edge Technology – The Ferghana Process of Medieval crucible steel Smelting
767:
Cutting Edge Technology – The Ferghana Process of Medieval crucible steel Smelting
515:
to absorb moisture from the air inside, so the air inside will be completely dry.
2117:
1945:
1905:
1841:
1824:
1697:
1666:
1651:
1646:
1608:
1483:
1447:
1297:
1099:
1054:
508:
371:
267:
247:
204:
168:
339:
48:
2122:
2112:
2063:
1981:
1793:
1638:
1613:
1473:
1352:
1312:
1282:
1237:
1232:
1212:
1182:
1079:
981:
933:
855:
A truly refractory crucible from fourth millennium Tepe Hissar, Northeast Iran
586:
A truly refractory crucible from fourth millennium Tepe Hissar, Northeast Iran
539:
486:
445:
437:
363:
141:
102:
2213:
2011:
1661:
1274:
1089:
1049:
991:
512:
421:
386:
239:
2158:
2037:
2027:
1783:
1692:
1656:
1337:
482:
474:
469:. The crucible and lid to be used are pre-weighed very accurately on an
409:
401:
137:
98:
2178:
2173:
1971:
1628:
1603:
1593:
1521:
1342:
1302:
902:
660:
462:
405:
390:
234:
38:
416:
will tolerate the highest temperatures. More recently, metals such as
1531:
417:
188:
176:
145:
95:
503:
For completely accurate results, the crucible is handled with clean
862:
Small Size, Large Scale Roman brass Production in Germania Inferior
720:
Small Size, Large Scale Roman brass Production in Germania Inferior
148:. The Iron Age crucible designs remain the same as the Bronze Age.
2148:
2127:
504:
397:
230:
160:
125:
1702:
1001:
458:
378:. When heated over a flame, the crucible is often held inside a
344:
83:
61:
2084:
1903:
1723:
1383:
944:
906:
155:
During the Roman period a new process of metalworking started,
895:
Zwicker U., Greiner H., Hofmann K. & Reithinger M., 1985,
261:
101:
were generally wide shallow vessels made from clay that lacks
565:
Metallurgy. London: W. Clowes and Sons, 1861. 208–09. Print.
827:
Early Bronze Age copper metallurgy at Shahr-i Sokhta (Iran)
864:, Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 26, pp 1083–1087
722:, Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 26, pp 1083–1087
196:
for brass did not change greatly until the 19th century.
890:
Gold and Gold working in Later Bronze Age Northern Greece
857:, Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 36, pp2700–2712
825:
Hauptmann A., T. Rehren & Schmitt-Strecker S., 2003,
588:, Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 36, pp2700–2712
473:. After some possible washing and/or pre-drying of this
874:
Roberts B. W., Thornton C. P. & Pigott V. C., 2009,
52:
Smaller clay graphite crucibles for copper alloy melting
436:
shapes and in various sizes, but rather small 10 to 15
841:
Bronze Artefact Production in Late Bronze Age Ireland
2191:
2141:
2095:
2051:
2020:
1964:
1916:
1855:
1815:
1792:
1736:
1680:
1637:
1586:
1555:
1492:
1461:
1438:
1422:
1396:
1262:
1196:
1108:
1033:
955:
627:
Crucibles as Reaction Vessels in Ancient Metallurgy
144:with copper and tin smelting being used to produce
869:rucibles as Reaction Vessels in Ancient Metallurgy
238:crucibles were traded all across Europe and the
761:
759:
440:size porcelain crucibles are commonly used for
116:A crucible furnace dating to 2300–1900 BC for
109:, crucibles were heated from the top by using
918:
8:
37:A modern crucible used in the production of
1878:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
832:Martinon-Torres M. & Rehren Th., 2009,
822:, Edinburgh University Press Ltd, Edinburgh
778:Martinon-Torres M. & Rehren Th., 2009,
744:, Edinburgh University Press Ltd, Edinburgh
596:
594:
296:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2105:
2092:
2081:
1913:
1900:
1733:
1720:
1393:
1380:
952:
941:
925:
911:
903:
892:, Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 95, pp 361–366
621:
619:
382:which itself is held on top of a tripod.
316:Learn how and when to remove this message
2243:Instruments used in medical laboratories
404:was to make crucibles. Ceramics such as
350:
338:
327:
47:
32:
16:Container in which substances are heated
1759:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
846:Rehren, Th. and Papakhristu, O., 2000,
765:Rehren, Th. and Papakhristu, O., 2000,
551:
187:Smelting and melting of copper and its
1807:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
888:Vavelidis M. & Andreou S., 2003,
853:Rehren T. & Thornton C. P, 2009,
584:Rehren T. & Thornton C. P, 2009,
7:
876:Development of Metallurgy in Eurasia
294:adding citations to reliable sources
140:remains very similar to that of the
653:10.1146/annurev.an.22.100193.001533
1802:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
836:, Archaeometry Vol.51 No.1 pp49–74
802:"What Are Lab Crucibles Used For?"
782:, Archaeometry Vol.51 No.1 pp49–74
14:
820:Early Metal Mining and Production
742:Early Metal Mining and Production
1847:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
1657:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
878:, Antiquity Vol. 83 pp 1012–1022
266:
883:Egyptian Metalworking and Tools
850:, Metalla, Bochum, 7(2) pp55–69
769:, Metalla, Bochum, 7(2) pp55–69
673:Bayley & Rehren 2007: p 49
613:Bayley & Rehren 2007: p 47
400:. One of the earliest uses of
370:when heated to extremely high
1:
641:Annual Review of Anthropology
442:gravimetric chemical analysis
159:, used in the production of
136:The use of crucibles in the
2298:
691:Zwicker et al. 1985: p 107
450:
208:the process has finished.
25:
18:
2240:
2108:
2091:
2080:
2002:Time-domain reflectometer
1912:
1899:
1769:Liquid chromatograph (LC)
1732:
1719:
1392:
1379:
951:
940:
885:, Shire Egyptology, Bucks
453:Ash content determination
28:Crucible (disambiguation)
2272:Laboratory porcelainware
362:Crucible is used in the
355:Three crucibles used by
1837:Melting-point apparatus
1218:Cryogenic storage dewar
229:which were made in the
73:Typology and chronology
1774:Mass spectrometer (MS)
1764:Gas chromatograph (GC)
359:
348:
347:in a graphite crucible
336:
53:
45:
2282:Scientific techniques
2149:Acid-resistant gloves
1830:differential scanning
839:O. Faolain S., 2004,
354:
342:
331:
173:Colonia Ulpia Trajana
51:
36:
2277:Analytical chemistry
2262:Laboratory equipment
1726:Analytical chemistry
1228:Laminar flow cabinet
934:Laboratory equipment
753:Craddock 1995: p 276
600:Hauptmann A., 2003,
496:after its inventor,
290:improve this section
120:has been found at a
26:For other uses, see
2098:Personal protective
1007:Meker–Fisher burner
867:Rehren Th., 2003, C
818:Craddock P., 1995,
740:Craddock P., 1995,
731:Tylecote 1976: p 73
709:Rehren 1999: p 1085
682:Tylecote 1976: p 20
252:metallurgical assay
107:Chalcolithic period
94:Crucibles used for
43:Czochralski process
1941:Function generator
1924:Bench power supply
1863:Analytical balance
1624:Ostwald viscometer
1619:Graduated cylinder
1358:Inoculation needle
860:Rehren Th., 1999,
791:Rehren 2003: p 208
718:Rehren Th., 1999,
700:Rehren 2003: p 209
625:Rehren Th., 2003,
535:Ladle (metallurgy)
530:Micro-pulling-down
498:Frank Austin Gooch
471:analytical balance
368:chemical compounds
360:
349:
337:
334:Czochralski method
332:Crucibles used in
220:At the end of the
122:religious precinct
54:
46:
19:For the play, see
2249:
2248:
2236:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2209:Fire extinguisher
2199:Biosafety cabinet
2187:
2186:
2076:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2007:Transistor tester
1997:Spectrum analyzer
1895:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1715:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1587:Measuring devices
1409:Soxhlet extractor
1375:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1323:Spectrophotometer
1318:Pipeclay triangle
1070:Mortar and pestle
881:Scheel B., 1989,
412:, and especially
380:pipeclay triangle
326:
325:
318:
227:Hessian crucibles
2289:
2267:Alchemical tools
2106:
2093:
2082:
1987:Network analyzer
1914:
1901:
1734:
1721:
1394:
1381:
1363:Inoculation loop
1233:Microtiter plate
1173:Test tube holder
1065:Magnetic stirrer
953:
942:
927:
920:
913:
904:
806:
805:
798:
792:
789:
783:
776:
770:
763:
754:
751:
745:
738:
732:
729:
723:
716:
710:
707:
701:
698:
692:
689:
683:
680:
674:
671:
665:
664:
636:
630:
623:
614:
611:
605:
598:
589:
582:
576:
572:
566:
556:
525:Hessian crucible
321:
314:
310:
307:
301:
270:
262:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2245:
2228:
2224:Solvent cabinet
2183:
2154:Eyewash station
2137:
2102:
2100:equipment (PPE)
2099:
2087:
2068:
2047:
2016:
1960:
1951:Pulse generator
1917:Control devices
1908:
1887:
1851:
1817:Thermochemistry
1811:
1788:
1728:
1707:
1676:
1633:
1599:Conical measure
1582:
1551:
1488:
1457:
1434:
1418:
1388:
1367:
1348:Test tube brush
1258:
1243:Picotiter plate
1206:
1192:
1188:Lab drying rack
1147:Extension clamp
1123:
1104:
1043:
1029:
965:
947:
936:
931:
815:
810:
809:
800:
799:
795:
790:
786:
777:
773:
764:
757:
752:
748:
739:
735:
730:
726:
717:
713:
708:
704:
699:
695:
690:
686:
681:
677:
672:
668:
638:
637:
633:
624:
617:
612:
608:
599:
592:
583:
579:
573:
569:
557:
553:
548:
521:
455:
322:
311:
305:
302:
287:
271:
260:
258:Modern-day uses
218:
185:
183:Medieval period
134:
92:
75:
70:
41:ingots via the
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2295:
2293:
2285:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2254:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2227:
2226:
2221:
2219:Safety cabinet
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2181:
2179:Safety goggles
2176:
2174:Safety glasses
2171:
2169:Nitrile gloves
2166:
2164:Medical gloves
2161:
2156:
2151:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2109:
2103:
2096:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2078:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2059:Alligator clip
2055:
2053:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2033:Soldering iron
2030:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1977:Logic analyzer
1974:
1968:
1966:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1934:Voltage source
1931:
1929:Current source
1920:
1918:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1886:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1868:Colony counter
1865:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1852:
1850:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1821:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1798:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1740:
1738:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1717:
1716:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1643:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1507:Vacuum (Dewar)
1504:
1498:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1455:
1450:
1444:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1400:
1398:
1390:
1389:
1384:
1377:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1277:
1272:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1178:Test tube rack
1175:
1170:
1167:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1153:Funnel support
1151:
1148:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1060:Liquid whistle
1057:
1052:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1028:
1027:
1025:Vacuum dry box
1022:
1017:
1012:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
987:Heating mantle
984:
979:
974:
972:Alcohol burner
968:
966:
964:
963:
960:
956:
949:
948:
945:
938:
937:
932:
930:
929:
922:
915:
907:
901:
900:
893:
886:
879:
872:
865:
858:
851:
844:
837:
830:
823:
814:
811:
808:
807:
793:
784:
771:
755:
746:
733:
724:
711:
702:
693:
684:
675:
666:
631:
615:
606:
590:
577:
567:
550:
549:
547:
544:
543:
542:
537:
532:
527:
520:
517:
494:Gooch crucible
324:
323:
274:
272:
265:
259:
256:
217:
214:
201:crucible steel
184:
181:
133:
130:
118:bronze casting
91:
88:
80:Eastern Europe
74:
71:
69:
66:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2294:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2244:
2239:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2133:Safety shower
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2094:
2090:
2083:
2079:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2043:Wire stripper
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1873:Spiral plater
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1737:Compositional
1735:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1558:
1554:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1382:
1378:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:Balance brush
1278:
1276:
1273:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1255:Weighing dish
1254:
1252:Weighing boat
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1195:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1143:Burette clamp
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1125:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1107:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
978:
977:Bunsen burner
975:
973:
970:
969:
967:
961:
958:
957:
954:
950:
943:
939:
935:
928:
923:
921:
916:
914:
909:
908:
905:
898:
894:
891:
887:
884:
880:
877:
873:
870:
866:
863:
859:
856:
852:
849:
845:
842:
838:
835:
831:
828:
824:
821:
817:
816:
812:
803:
797:
794:
788:
785:
781:
775:
772:
768:
762:
760:
756:
750:
747:
743:
737:
734:
728:
725:
721:
715:
712:
706:
703:
697:
694:
688:
685:
679:
676:
670:
667:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
635:
632:
628:
622:
620:
616:
610:
607:
603:
597:
595:
591:
587:
581:
578:
571:
568:
564:
560:
555:
552:
545:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
522:
518:
516:
514:
510:
506:
501:
499:
495:
490:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
454:
449:
447:
443:
439:
435:
434:
429:
428:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
396:
392:
388:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
358:
357:Thomas Edison
353:
346:
341:
335:
330:
320:
317:
309:
299:
295:
291:
285:
284:
280:
275:This section
273:
269:
264:
263:
257:
255:
253:
249:
243:
241:
236:
232:
228:
223:
216:Post-Medieval
215:
213:
209:
206:
202:
197:
193:
190:
182:
180:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
153:
149:
147:
143:
139:
131:
129:
127:
123:
119:
114:
112:
108:
104:
100:
97:
89:
87:
85:
81:
72:
67:
65:
63:
59:
50:
44:
40:
35:
29:
22:
2204:Fire blanket
2142:Eye and hand
2128:Rubber apron
1992:Oscilloscope
1956:Potentiostat
1883:Plate reader
1779:pH indicator
1749:CHN analyzer
1744:AutoAnalyzer
1537:Round-bottom
1430:Boston round
1293:Filter paper
1287:
1248:Refrigerator
1165:Retort stand
1133:Clamp holder
1129:Beaker clamp
1095:Vortex mixer
1090:Stirring rod
1085:Static mixer
1015:Teclu burner
896:
889:
882:
875:
868:
861:
854:
847:
840:
833:
826:
819:
813:Bibliography
796:
787:
779:
774:
766:
749:
741:
736:
727:
719:
714:
705:
696:
687:
678:
669:
644:
640:
634:
626:
609:
601:
585:
580:
570:
562:
554:
502:
491:
467:filter paper
456:
432:
431:
426:
425:
384:
372:temperatures
361:
312:
306:January 2021
303:
288:Please help
276:
244:
222:Medieval Era
219:
210:
198:
194:
186:
175:(modern-day
154:
150:
135:
115:
93:
90:Chalcolithic
76:
57:
55:
21:The Crucible
2192:Other items
2118:Face shield
1965:Measurement
1946:Galvanostat
1906:Electronics
1856:Other items
1842:Thermometer
1825:Calorimeter
1754:Colorimeter
1698:Gas syringe
1681:Other items
1609:Eye dropper
1484:Watch glass
1469:Evaporating
1448:Cold finger
1263:Other items
1169:Screw clamp
1161:Pinch clamp
1150:Flask clamp
1100:Wash bottle
1055:Homogenizer
647:: 317–337.
559:Percy, John
509:hygroscopic
446:hobby shops
366:to contain
248:cupellation
205:wootz steel
169:smithsonite
157:cementation
2256:Categories
2123:Respirator
2064:Test probe
1982:Multimeter
1794:Microscopy
1614:Eudiometer
1578:Separatory
1547:Volumetric
1512:Erlenmeyer
1440:Condensers
1404:Dean–Stark
1353:Wire brush
1313:Microscope
1308:Centrifuge
1283:Cork borer
1238:Petri dish
1213:Agar plate
1200:Containers
1183:Wire gauze
1020:Water bath
982:Desiccator
546:References
540:Wax melter
487:desiccator
451:See also:
364:laboratory
142:Bronze Age
103:refractory
2214:Fume hood
2159:Glove box
2012:Voltmeter
1397:Apparatus
1386:Glassware
1275:Autoclave
1270:Aspirator
1223:Incubator
1157:Iron ring
1080:Sonicator
1050:Chemostat
992:Hot plate
513:desiccant
479:volatiles
427:high form
422:zirconium
387:porcelain
277:does not
240:New World
111:blowpipes
2113:Lab coat
2038:Tweezers
2028:Heat gun
1784:pH meter
1693:Bell jar
1573:Dropping
1527:Florence
1517:Fernbach
1479:Syracuse
1338:Scoopula
1288:Crucible
997:Lab oven
519:See also
483:moisture
475:filtrate
433:low form
414:magnesia
410:zirconia
402:platinum
343:Melting
165:calamine
138:Iron Age
132:Iron Age
99:smelting
58:crucible
2052:General
1972:Ammeter
1672:Thistle
1629:Pipette
1604:Cuvette
1594:Burette
1563:BĂĽchner
1556:Funnels
1542:Schlenk
1522:Fleaker
1502:BĂĽchner
1423:Bottles
1343:Spatula
1333:Stopper
1303:Forceps
1203:Storage
1120:Holders
1040:Shakers
1011:Striker
959:Heaters
946:General
661:2155851
463:analyte
406:alumina
391:alumina
298:removed
283:sources
235:alumina
68:History
39:silicon
2086:Safety
1688:Beaker
1667:Thiele
1652:Cragie
1647:Drying
1568:Hirsch
1532:Retort
1494:Flasks
1462:Dishes
1453:Liebig
1414:Kipp's
1328:Splint
1138:Tripod
1116:Clamps
1112:Stands
1075:Shaker
1037:Mixers
962:Dryers
659:
461:of an
418:nickel
393:or an
189:alloys
177:Xanten
146:bronze
96:copper
2021:Tools
1639:Tubes
1474:Petri
657:JSTOR
505:tongs
398:metal
395:inert
231:Hesse
161:brass
126:Kerma
1703:Vial
1662:Test
1298:File
1002:Kiln
575:Web.
481:and
459:mass
430:and
420:and
345:gold
281:any
279:cite
84:Iran
82:and
62:clay
649:doi
376:lid
292:by
167:or
124:of
2258::
758:^
655:.
645:22
643:.
618:^
593:^
561:.
500:.
438:ml
408:,
389:,
242:.
128:.
86:.
56:A
926:e
919:t
912:v
804:.
663:.
651::
448:.
319:)
313:(
308:)
304:(
300:.
286:.
30:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
