176:
143:, when viewed objectively and stripped of its religious context, is "rather ordinary, one of hundreds of workmanlike crucifixes" created by an unknown sculptor probably toward the end of the 14th century. On the night of 25 May 1519 it was nearly destroyed in a fire. The fire burned the interior of the church to the ground; residents found only the outer walls still standing. The crucifix—still alight—was almost the only recoverable item of note, while many valuable artworks, liturgical items and vestments were destroyed. Because the crucifix—although deformed by the heat—had survived the flames, it was believed to possess
22:
249:
206:, the procession began on August 4 and ended on August 20, and comprised members of the nobility and churchmen alongside ordinary Roman citizens (wearing black habits and carrying crosses), as well as "barefoot youths with their heads covered in ashes", notes Kira Albinsky. As the procession passed, the Romans implored the crucifix to intercede on the city's behalf with calls of "Mercy, Holy Crucifix!" while
1255:
256:
The confraternity formed to promote the crucifix, says
Albinsky, soon became one of Rome's "most elite and influential". It based its uniform—black habits with an image of the crucifix on the left shoulder—on the dress of many who originally marched. By the middle of the 16th century, its membership
166:
as realistic as possible, kidnapped a local peasant and killed him slowly. The sculptor sketched the peasant's dying moments, it was claimed, for authenticity in representing Christ's death agonies. Although almost certainly a myth, argues McCann—probably designed to boost the object's reputation—it
265:
So that more honoured, and with more devotion and greatness to His holy name, it be desired to see it, we order and decree that the most holy image of the most holy crucifix be kept closed with its keys and not opened but for four times a year. Good Friday, the Feast of the Cross in May, the day of
101:
in the 14th century, and Italy had rarely gone more than a few years without an outbreak. It was "the most perennial of medieval threats". The scholar Daniel McCann notes that when the plague reached Rome in 1522, it took hold of the popular imagination to the extent that many blamed
106:
for the outbreak. Adrian had recently arrived from Spain, and it was assumed that he had brought the pestilence with him. Some of the population was able to leave Rome in time; most were not. This outbreak was the second most deadly to reach Rome in the 16th century.
354:, "as represented by the two works of art". The art historian Liz Lev has commented that some of the recent reports on the crucifix almost "run the risk of idolatry", because they suggest that "the object itself is more important than what the object stands for".
494:
It is a Virgin and Child painted on cloth applied to panels of limewood, with a frame of ash. When it was restored by
Vatican conservators in 2017, radiocarbon analysis dated the wood with 80% certainty to some time between the late 9th and early 11th
194:
arranged a penitential procession from San
Marcello to St Peter's. This was a particularly bold move, suggests McCann, reflecting the desire of the citizenry who remained in Rome to be proactive rather than merely await death quietly. The French
517:
Cocks notes also that it is rarely, if ever, the famous and expensive icons that receive such popular veneration; rather, she says, "it is the old, often strange or downright ugly pictures or statues to which legends and events have become
57:
was carried in a procession through the city. According to popular belief at the time, the procession caused the plague to leave the neighborhoods through which the crucifix passed, and eventually to die out in Rome.
430:
Adrian was to remain associated with plague for the remainder of his pontificate: one contemporary wrote how having rid itself of one pest—the plague—it had gained another, the Pope. After Adrian's death, the poet
373:, believed that the damage was minimal and that, although the crucifix had been sent for examination, it was not expected to be gone long. It was suspected that the old wood had become waterlogged and split, the
233:, the reason for the long duration of the procession despite the relatively short distance between the church and the Vatican was that each district attempted to delay the crucifix due to the good it was doing.
221:, so that each neighbourhood sought to have the crucifix stay with them as long as possible. By the time the crucifix reached St Peter's, the plague had begun to ebb in the city, and eventually in the whole
345:
Cocks asks, hypothetically, "Does this mean that he believes they are capable of bringing about a miracle?", to which she replies in the negative. The
Catholic Church, she says, has firm rules against
162:—this one possessed "darker tones and hues" than most. This particular crucifix's origins were surrounded by "disturbing rumours", one of which claimed that the original sculptor, wishing to make his
389:
Delumeau suggests that study of the S. Marcello crucifix allows scholars to trace the development of popular religious sentiment in 16th century Italy. The 1522 procession was a forerunner of the
831:
1020:
147:, a belief that was further enhanced by its perceived role in ridding the city of plague in 1522. Following the fire, Romans venerated the cross in the church's ruins every Friday evening.
342:
suggests that in this situation they were not actual pieces of art, but rather were protective icons that were being put to the same use as they had been hundreds of years earlier.
257:
had increased exponentially, and
Albinsky estimates that 4% of the city's population were members. The crucifix itself was protected, venerated and its stories promulgated by its
1114:
976:
1305:
334:
describes as a "scene of great dramatic power, at dusk, under driving rain, and facing the vast emptiness of St Peter’s Square". Behind him, against two columns of
1093:
1012:
992:
Albinsky, K. M. (2017). "The
Performance of Devotion: Ritual and Patronage at the Oratorio del SS. Crocifisso in Rome 273". In Prescuitti, D. M. (ed.).
175:
191:
1325:
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Specifically, 1,800 men, an unknown number of women, and an "even greater share of the laity in a city dominated by clerics", comments
Albinsky.
1315:
261:, which also limited physical access to it in order to heighten the mysticism surrounding it. The confraternity's standing orders stated that:
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1188:
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processions held annually in
Catholic cities, and the crucifix itself is still part of modern Roman religious processionary, particularly at
65:
was set up which quickly became one of the largest in Rome. The procession of 1522 is considered by some scholars to be the origin of modern
1110:
968:
45:. Having survived a fire that destroyed the church in 1519, the crucifix was popularly believed to possess intercessory powers. During an
362:
301:—reside in the church's oratory. Every Easter since 1650 the crucifix has been carried from the church to St Peter's on the Thursday of
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625:
1310:
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According to local tradition, as the crucifix toured a neighbourhood, the people of that neighbourhood were allegedly cured of the
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illustrates how, to the medieval popular imagination, plague and healing, life and death were inextricably linked in the crucifix.
1198:
von
Henneberg, J. (1970). "An Early Work by Giacomo della Porta: The Oratorio del Santissimo Crocifisso di San Marcello in Rome".
128:
34:
1290:
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Cocks suggests that in a spiritual sense it was also "Rome's most venerated image of Mary"; it was carried in a procession by
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275:
1320:
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of art. McCann notes, however, that unlike other crucifixes in Rome—which are ubiquitous on account of the importance the
350:, which would apply if one attributes holy powers to a temporal object. Francis, says Cocks, was praying to God through
1085:
1295:
365:. Due to the heavy rain which fell during the event, there were concerns that the old wood had been damaged, but the
421:
The historian Arthur White has calculated that the peninsula had experienced 127 outbreaks over the last 175 years.
21:
366:
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used as blood on Christ's face had washed away, with some detail being lost on the figure's hair and arms.
335:
211:
98:
449:
393:
processions which began in Rome in 1578 and form the basis of similar processions today, for example in
270:
The crucifix was also led in procession to celebrate the return of
England to the Catholic church under
38:
439:
for him: "Here lies Adrian. Be careful not to touch his throne, whoever succeeds him. He was a plague."
1285:
483:
The other piece present in St Peter's Square was a portrait. Alongside the crucifix was the painting
240:
to promote its cult. The crucifix's power, comments Delumeau, was now twice proven in people's eyes.
78:
1300:
1280:
504:
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Because contemporaries then believed that the crucifix had proven its spiritual efficacy twice, a
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Space, Place, and Motion: Locating Confraternities in the Late Medieval and Early Modern City
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so as to stop the disease spreading. However, some Catholics made a 16-day procession with a
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432:
402:
203:
50:
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Art, Ritual, and Reform: the Archconfraternity of the Holy Crucifix of San Marcello in Rome
401:, themselves an expression of the general tendency of greater popular piety following the
530:("to the city and the world") prayers are usually only offered at Easter and Christmas.
252:
External view of the Oratory of Santissimo Crocifisso where the cross is in place today
155:
103:
1269:
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237:
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163:
131:. This crucifix was thought to be miraculous because it had survived a fire in 1519.
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from S. Marcello al Corso, through the streets of Rome, to St Peter's Basilica. As a
115:
When the second plague pandemic hit Rome again in 1522, the local authorities banned
66:
62:
25:
Interior of the Oratory of Santissimo Crocifisso illustrating its murals and crucifix
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The crucifix survives into the 21st century, and usually has hung above the altar's
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1013:"Pope Francis, his Crucifix and the Virgin Mary: Miraculous or Merely Traditional?"
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321:
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271:
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74:
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describes it as, effectively, a "neo-pagan demonstration". Led by friars of the
144:
116:
94:
1179:
Reiss, S. E. (2005). "Adrian VI, Clement VII, and Art". In Reiss, S. E. (ed.).
305:. It has also been brought out on occasions of political and social emergency.
1149:
Eitel-Porter, R. (2000). "The Oratorio del SS. Crocifisso in Rome Revisited".
230:
151:
1162:
1076:
959:
1219:
302:
1170:
O'Regan, N. (1992). "Processions and their Music in post-Tridentine Rome".
1068:
1254:
1231:. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. pp. 21–48.
1111:"Pope Francis Prays for a Coronavirus Miracle at 'Plague' Crucifix Church"
266:
the procession of Corpus Christi, and the Feast of the Cross in September.
969:"Damage to 'Miraculous Crucifix' not as Serious as Reported, Rector says"
462:
347:
258:
120:
54:
46:
626:"Pope Francis' twin prayers for an "end to the pandemic" - Vatican News"
397:. It was also the basis for future Papal processions against plague and
93:
Epidemics of plague had been occurring continuously in Europe since the
834:
436:
394:
378:
274:
in 1554. The crucifix has since been carried in processions during the
226:
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374:
286:
154:. Made of wood and dusted with gold, it is probably a product of the
70:
229:
in which the crucifix played a key role. According to contemporary
1038:
Cultures of Plague: Medical thinking at the end of the Renaissance
279:
247:
174:
20:
295:
Miraculous Survival of the Crucifix from the Fire in San Marcello
42:
707:
705:
848:
846:
844:
842:
832:"On Good Friday, Pope hears sorrows of prisoners and victims"
33:
is a medieval work of religious art that is venerated in the
1055:
Delumeau, J. (1951). "Une Confrérie Romaine au XVI Siècle".
1181:
The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture
1132:
Soul-Health: Therapeutic Reading in Later Medieval England
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452:, which itself may have been brought from Northern Europe.
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walls commemorating the founding of the confraternity—the
16:
Crucifix associated with the 1522 plague epidemic in Rome.
764:
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760:
361:
prayer in St Peter's Square, which was empty due to the
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who called each Jubilee were written on the back of it.
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The crucifix was again utilised on 27 March 2020 in an
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Cocks notes that it is similar to another crucifix in
1229:
Plague and Pleasure: The Renaissance World of Pius II
1086:"Crucifix, Icon's Miracles Abound in Times of Plague"
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Procession of the Crucifix Against the Plague in 1522
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Procession of the Crucifix Against the Plague of 1522
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317:embraced the crucifix in the Jubilee Year of 2000.
214:, attempted unsuccessfully to halt the procession.
127:they carried the wooden crucifix now housed in the
487:, traditionally believed to have been painted by
492:
263:
711:
507:, also in a call for a plague to leave Rome.
461:Although not for long, as another wave swept
324:prayed before the crucifix for an end to the
210:themselves. The city authorities, mindful of
8:
954:(PhD thesis). State University of New York.
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932:
920:
1306:16th-century deaths from plague (disease)
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190:In response to popular clamour, Cardinal
186:(1583–84), Oratorio del Crocifisso fresco
139:The crucifix, notes Anna Somers Cocks in
1183:. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 341–363.
1172:Fondazione Italiana per la Musica Antica
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879:
867:
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780:
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1227:White, A. (2014). "The Four Horsemen".
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73:, although also at times of emergency.
1134:. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.
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616:
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896:
696:
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7:
1057:Mélanges d'Archéologie et d'Histoire
607:
1040:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
830:Pullella, Phillip (April 10, 2020)
377:paintwork had also split, and the
160:symbol plays in Christian theology
14:
1117:from the original on June 8, 2020
1096:from the original on June 8, 2020
1023:from the original on June 8, 2020
996:. Leiden: Brill. p. 273298.
979:from the original on June 8, 2020
1253:
1109:Gallagher, D. (March 16, 2020).
328:. The Pope blessed Rome in what
129:Oratory of Santissimo Crocifisso
81:on several occasions during the
35:Oratory of Santissimo Crocifisso
236:Cardinal de Vico established a
225:. Contemporaries saw this as a
39:Church of San Marcello al Corso
1326:Plague monuments and memorials
1212:10.1080/00043079.1970.10790332
1011:Cocks, A. S. (April 9, 2020).
967:Allen, E. A. (April 1, 2020).
1:
1316:16th-century health disasters
1084:Flader, J. (April 15, 2020).
465:in March the following year.
1342:
485:Maria Salus Populi Romani
363:Italian COVID-19 lockdown
97:and the beginning of the
1311:1522 in the Papal States
1260:Crucifix of San Marcello
950:Albinsky, K. M. (2005).
31:crucifix of San Marcello
1151:The Burlington Magazine
278:, and the names of the
1291:Second plague pandemic
1069:10.3406/mefr.1951.7368
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99:Second plague pandemic
26:
1276:Christian processions
338:, were two artworks.
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145:thaumaturgical powers
24:
1321:16th century in Rome
1262:at Wikimedia Commons
1036:Cohn, S. K. (2010).
1130:McCann, D. (2018).
556:, pp. 373–377.
505:Roman Plague of 590
489:Luke the Evangelist
352:Marian intercession
336:St Peter's Basilica
197:religious historian
1296:Christian miracles
935:, pp. 46, 61.
712:von Henneberg 1970
630:www.vaticannews.va
369:of San Marcellus,
320:On 15 March 2020,
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188:
125:processional cross
77:had it brought to
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1258:Media related to
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1190:978-0-75460-680-2
1141:978-1-78683-332-7
1047:978-0-19161-588-7
1017:The Art Newspaper
1003:978-90-0433-952-1
923:, pp. 49–50.
853:Eitel-Porter 2000
501:Gregory the Great
340:The Art Newspaper
331:The Art Newspaper
326:COVID-19 pandemic
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632:. March 15, 2020
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85:in March 2020.
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943:Bibliography
933:O'Regan 1992
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921:O'Regan 1992
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771:, p. 1.
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135:The crucifix
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75:Pope Francis
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53:in 1522 the
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1286:Black Death
1157:: 613–623.
1063:: 281–306.
737:Flader 2020
579:McCann 2018
503:during the
450:San Lorenzo
231:chroniclers
219:Black Death
117:processions
95:Black Death
1301:Crucifixes
1281:Revelation
1270:Categories
897:Allen 2020
697:Cocks 2020
596:Reiss 2005
554:White 2014
538:References
518:attached".
495:centuries.
171:Procession
152:tabernacle
89:Background
1163:709976885
1077:504421849
960:638691892
608:Cohn 2010
303:Holy Week
212:contagion
1220:28124112
1174:: 45–80.
1115:Archived
1094:Archived
1021:Archived
977:Archived
973:Crux Now
636:June 10,
463:Florence
348:idolatry
276:Jubilees
259:sodality
121:crucifix
55:crucifix
47:epidemic
1121:June 8,
1113:. CNN.
1100:June 8,
1027:June 8,
983:June 8,
835:Reuters
437:epitaph
395:Seville
379:tempera
291:oratory
289:on the
287:Frescos
227:miracle
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399:heresy
375:stucco
367:rector
111:Plague
71:Easter
51:plague
409:Notes
385:Study
313:Pope
280:popes
1233:ISBN
1216:OCLC
1185:ISBN
1159:OCLC
1136:ISBN
1123:2020
1102:2020
1073:OCLC
1042:ISBN
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998:ISBN
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956:OCLC
638:2020
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