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1616:
1663:
68:
1567:
1586:
953:
302:
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471:
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557:. Galena also sometimes crystallizes as octahedrons, and the eight faces of the octahedron belong to another crystallographic form reflecting a different symmetry of the isometric system. A crystallographic form is described by placing the Miller indices of one of its faces within brackets. For example, the octahedral form is written as {111}, and the other faces in the form are implied by the symmetry of the crystal.
1384:
2048:
1101:
330:
1192:
581:
54:
1650:
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Forms may be closed, meaning that the form can completely enclose a volume of space, or open, meaning that it cannot. The cubic and octahedral forms are examples of closed forms. All the forms of the isometric system are closed, while all the forms of the monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems are
531:). As a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces. Therefore, the flat surfaces tend to grow larger and smoother, until the whole crystal surface consists of these plane surfaces. (See diagram on right.)
1702:
Crystallized sugar. Crystals on the right were grown from a sugar cube, while the left from a single seed crystal taken from the right. Red dye was added to the solution when growing the larger crystal, but, insoluble with the solid sugar, all but small traces were forced to precipitate out as it
1277:
and single-crystal metals. The latter are grown synthetically, for example, fighter-jet turbines are typically made by first growing a single crystal of titanium alloy, increasing its strength and melting point over polycrystalline titanium. A small piece of metal may naturally form into a single
1286:
are often composed of single crystal, or many large crystals that may be several meters in size, due to very slow cooling in the vacuum of space. The slow cooling may allow the precipitation of a separate phase within the crystal lattice, which form at specific angles determined by the lattice,
1662:
1615:
1496:
crystals consist of a stack of sheets, and although each individual sheet is mechanically very strong, the sheets are rather loosely bound to each other. Therefore, the mechanical strength of the material is quite different depending on the direction of stress.
2771:
618:. Crystals found in rocks typically range in size from a fraction of a millimetre to several centimetres across, although exceptionally large crystals are occasionally found. As of 1999, the world's largest known naturally occurring crystal is a crystal of
1366:
form molecular bonds because the large molecules do not pack as tightly as atomic bonds. This leads to crystals that are much softer and more easily pulled apart or broken. Common examples include chocolates, candles, or viruses. Water ice and
1003:, with various possibilities for the size, arrangement, orientation, and phase of its grains. The final form of the solid is determined by the conditions under which the fluid is being solidified, such as the chemistry of the fluid, the
1627:
415:, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically. There are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the
2222:
911:
is a noncrystalline form. Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have very different properties. For example, diamond is the hardest substance known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant.
437:
is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries (230 is commonly cited, but this treats chiral equivalents as separate entities), called
1229:. Like a grain boundary, a twin boundary has different crystal orientations on its two sides. But unlike a grain boundary, the orientations are not random, but related in a specific, mirror-image way.
572:(which restricts the possible facet orientations), the specific crystal chemistry and bonding (which may favor some facet types over others), and the conditions under which the crystal formed.
1438:
Quasicrystals, first discovered in 1982, are quite rare in practice. Only about 100 solids are known to form quasicrystals, compared to about 400,000 periodic crystals known in 2004. The 2011
1566:
1656:
A specimen consisting of a bornite-coated chalcopyrite crystal nestled in a bed of clear quartz crystals and lustrous pyrite crystals. The bornite-coated crystal is up to 1.5 cm across.
494:
for a crystal—a crystal is scientifically defined by its microscopic atomic arrangement, not its macroscopic shape—but the characteristic macroscopic shape is often present and easy to see.
1331:) are typically formed from one or more non-metals, such as carbon or silicon and oxygen, and are often very hard, rigid, and brittle. These are also very common, notable examples being
1297:
typically form when a metal reacts with a non-metal, such as sodium with chlorine. These often form substances called salts, such as sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium nitrate (
979:
Crystallization is a complex and extensively-studied field, because depending on the conditions, a single fluid can solidify into many different possible forms. It can form a
1893:
1585:
1375:
materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization—and sometimes polymers are completely amorphous.
1413:
consists of arrays of atoms that are ordered but not strictly periodic. They have many attributes in common with ordinary crystals, such as displaying a discrete pattern in
2083:
Yoshinori
Furukawa, "Ice"; Matti Leppäranta, "Sea Ice"; D.P. Dobhal, "Glacier"; and other articles in Vijay P. Singh, Pratap Singh, and Umesh K. Haritashya, eds.,
2195:
363:
Not all solids are crystals. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a
1388:
1130:, places where the crystal's pattern is interrupted. The types and structures of these defects may have a profound effect on the properties of the materials.
2466:
2069:
2133:
1621:
An apatite crystal sits front and center on cherry-red rhodochroite rhombs, purple fluorite cubes, quartz and a dusting of brass-yellow pyrite cubes.
1301:), with crystals that are often brittle and cleave relatively easily. Ionic materials are usually crystalline or polycrystalline. In practice, large
964:
Crystallization is the process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in a fluid. (More rarely, crystals may be
916:
can form six different types of crystals, but only one has the suitable hardness and melting point for candy bars and confections. Polymorphism in
490:
Crystals are commonly recognized, macroscopically, by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. These shape characteristics are not
2172:
1428:
645:
are formed from molten magma and the degree of crystallization depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified. Such rocks as
1970:
1880:
1421:
768:, without passing through a liquid state. Another unusual property of water is that it expands rather than contracts when it crystallizes.
2060:
1600:
553:
often take the shape of cubes, and the six faces of the cube belong to a crystallographic form that displays one of the symmetries of the
1431:
has redefined the term "crystal" to include both ordinary periodic crystals and quasicrystals ("any solid having an essentially discrete
2752:
2392:
2106:
1807:
1420:
Quasicrystals are most famous for their ability to show five-fold symmetry, which is impossible for an ordinary periodic crystal (see
2430:
2143:
2116:
1500:
Not all crystals have all of these properties. Conversely, these properties are not quite exclusive to crystals. They can appear in
1903:
335:
Macroscopic (~16 cm) halite crystal. The right-angles between crystal faces are due to the cubic symmetry of the atoms' arrangement
1126:
crystal has every atom in a perfect, exactly repeating pattern. However, in reality, most crystalline materials have a variety of
2790:
2459:
1831:
831:
821:
482:. Therefore, these parts of the crystal grow out very quickly (yellow arrows). Eventually, the whole surface consists of smooth,
2353:
1267:, and others. None of these are necessarily crystalline or non-crystalline. However, there are some general trends as follows:
561:
open. A crystal's faces may all belong to the same closed form, or they may be a combination of multiple open or closed forms.
2289:"Twenty years of structure research on quasicrystals. Part I. Pentagonal, octagonal, decagonal and dodecagonal quasicrystals"
2092:
2017:
1028:. Other less exotic methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including
549:
are sets of possible faces of the crystal that are related by one of the symmetries of the crystal. For example, crystals of
478:
crystal is growing, new atoms can very easily attach to the parts of the surface with rough atomic-scale structure and many
538:
consists of measuring the three-dimensional orientations of the faces of a crystal, and using them to infer the underlying
1037:
965:
1925:
2732:
1848:
626:, 18 m (59 ft) long and 3.5 m (11 ft) in diameter, and weighing 380,000 kg (840,000 lb).
2452:
1480:, where a double image appears when looking through a crystal. Moreover, various properties of a crystal, including
1219:, are made possible largely by putting different semiconductor dopants into different places, in specific patterns.
2556:
1815:
1552:
2373:
752:. Ice crystals may form from cooling liquid water below its freezing point, such as ice cubes or a frozen lake.
653:
were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly, and in this latter group a small amount of amorphous or
348:
The scientific definition of a "crystal" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the
1439:
554:
455:
139:
with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as
45:
2566:
1485:
1481:
1328:
1127:
1083:
1033:
992:
67:
1309:
fluid, or by crystallization out of a solution. Some ionic compounds can be very hard, such as oxides like
689:
have acted on them by erasing their original structures and inducing recrystallization in the solid state.
649:, which have cooled very slowly and under great pressures, have completely crystallized; but many kinds of
426:, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are
1029:
1472:
of the crystal, i.e. the lack of rotational symmetry in its atomic arrangement. One such property is the
1715:
1288:
1150:
416:
38:
373:" or "grains") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does
2300:
2180:
1811:
1473:
1212:
1052:
501:
447:
427:
320:
2328:
1547:(in other words, the atomic arrangement) of a crystal. One widely used crystallography technique is
2800:
2760:
2544:
1793:
1684:
1576:
1343:
1160:, meaning that the "wrong" type of atom is present in a crystal. For example, a perfect crystal of
1138:
1021:
952:
520:
2738:
2638:
2475:
1976:
1740:
1517:
1318:
1264:
1071:
1044:
1025:
276:
31:
2411:
1489:
614:
By volume and weight, the largest concentrations of crystals in the Earth are part of its solid
1239:
consists of smaller crystalline units that are somewhat misaligned with respect to each other.
221:, i.e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Polycrystals include most
2821:
2765:
2665:
2660:
2601:
2591:
2529:
2139:
2112:
2088:
2013:
1966:
1876:
1730:
1548:
1544:
1414:
1324:
1146:
1115:
569:
516:
434:
349:
343:
237:, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include
76:
1282:, but larger pieces generally do not unless extremely slow cooling occurs. For example, iron
2616:
2426:
2396:
2308:
2267:
2259:
2053:
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
1996:
1958:
1771:
1302:
1273:
crystallize rapidly and are almost always polycrystalline, though there are exceptions like
1222:
1108:
1091:
1004:
908:
781:
378:
264:
2576:
2539:
1633:
1539:
1533:
1521:
1347:
1310:
1274:
1016:
988:
957:
943:
931:
797:
693:
692:
Other rock crystals have formed out of precipitation from fluids, commonly water, to form
535:
407:
365:
301:
268:
234:
148:
140:
136:
124:
764:
gaseous-solution of water vapor and air, when the temperature of the air drops below its
2304:
2159:
Nucleation of Water: From
Fundamental Science to Atmospheric and Additional Applications
888:(a crystal). Likewise, if a substance can form crystals, it can also form polycrystals.
685:
condition nor entirely in solution, but the high temperature and pressure conditions of
591:
470:
2727:
2722:
2655:
2272:
2247:
1745:
1735:
1641:
1513:
1455:
1294:
1236:
1226:
1134:
984:
980:
947:
869:
861:
761:
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are common crystalline/polycrystalline structures on Earth and other planets. A single
638:
539:
528:
483:
479:
443:
152:
144:
128:
72:
2772:
How Long Is the Coast of
Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension
1460:
Crystals can have certain special electrical, optical, and mechanical properties that
504:
crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid.
2815:
2717:
2712:
2357:
2064:
2054:
1980:
1477:
1443:
1279:
1260:
1252:
1248:
1204:
1173:
996:
927:
921:
873:
834:
is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For example, water
642:
565:
163:
1383:
377:
have a periodic arrangement of atoms, because the periodic pattern is broken at the
2628:
2551:
2534:
1750:
1410:
1404:
1396:
1392:
881:
853:
686:
527:. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others (lower
524:
422:
A crystal structure (an arrangement of atoms in a crystal) is characterized by its
353:
2236:
by Museum and
Galleries Commission -- Museum and Galleries Commission 2005 Page 57
2223:
Angelo State
University: Formulas and Nomenclature of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
1399:. Only quasicrystals can take this 5-fold symmetry. The edges are 2 mm long.
2313:
2288:
1962:
2746:
2704:
2623:
2519:
2514:
1720:
1509:
1505:
1465:
1432:
1142:
1100:
1008:
1000:
749:
713:
662:
634:
598:
439:
370:
218:
84:
80:
1952:
712:
and some limestones have been deposited from aqueous solution, mostly owing to
669:, are recrystallized. This means that they were at first fragmental rocks like
2693:
2688:
2606:
2509:
2263:
1591:
1469:
1256:
1216:
859:, and many other forms. The different polymorphs are usually called different
809:
623:
253:
214:
2795:
2698:
2213:
by Tilman Spohn, Doris Breuer, Torrence V. Johnson -- Elsevier 2014 Page 632
1898:
1725:
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789:
777:
765:
741:
701:
678:
670:
666:
382:
206:
88:
1594:: A type of ice crystal (picture taken from a distance of about 5 cm).
1043:
Large single crystals can be created by geological processes. For example,
1476:, where a voltage across the crystal can shrink or stretch it. Another is
1191:
580:
369:
structure. In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called "
2524:
2489:
1957:, vol. A, Chester, England: International Union of Crystallography,
1681:
1677:
1493:
1351:
1185:
1181:
1157:
1087:
900:
745:
657:
matter is common. Other crystalline rocks, the metamorphic rocks such as
630:
512:
497:
316:
272:
226:
132:
116:
58:
1055:
in Naica, Mexico. For more details on geological crystal formation, see
1014:
Specific industrial techniques to produce large single crystals (called
930:
is a similar phenomenon where the same atoms can exist in more than one
401:, etc. Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as
17:
2645:
2633:
2611:
2596:
2504:
1673:
1637:
1606:
1572:
1372:
1368:
1332:
1161:
969:
896:
793:
785:
757:
737:
733:
646:
615:
602:
390:
329:
246:
210:
1492:, may be different in different directions in a crystal. For example,
53:
2444:
1336:
1306:
1208:
1196:
1165:
904:
885:
856:
846:
839:
709:
705:
697:
682:
658:
595:
550:
475:
459:
451:
352:. A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement. (
312:
308:
222:
195:
185:
173:
61:
2377:
123:) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a
1579:. The low gravity allows crystals to be grown with minimal defects.
830:
The same group of atoms can often solidify in many different ways.
2683:
1501:
1461:
1382:
1359:
1270:
1225:
is a phenomenon somewhere between a crystallographic defect and a
1190:
1169:
1099:
1048:
973:
951:
917:
805:
753:
674:
654:
619:
590:
579:
515:
crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying
508:
469:
412:
402:
398:
386:
280:
238:
108:
92:
66:
52:
450:(where the crystals may form cubes or rectangular boxes, such as
2561:
2499:
2494:
1640:, like this one, are an important type of industrially-produced
1314:
1177:
1145:(see figure at right). Dislocations are especially important in
801:
729:
650:
112:
2448:
2395:. Commission on Crystallographic Teaching. 2007. Archived from
868:
In addition, the same atoms may be able to form noncrystalline
2087:(Dordrecht, NE: Springer Science & Business Media, 2011).
1363:
1355:
1346:
also help hold together certain crystals, such as crystalline
1011:, and the speed with which all these parameters are changing.
835:
725:
584:
500:
crystals are those that have obvious, well-formed flat faces.
394:
242:
230:
181:
120:
44:
This article is about crystalline solids. For other uses, see
2354:"Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems"
2161:
by Ari
Laaksonen, Jussi Malila -- Elsevier 2022 Page 239--240
189:
167:
1247:
In general, solids can be held together by various types of
260:
crystals, but rather types of glass, i.e. amorphous solids.
2073:. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1211:, drastically changes the crystal's electrical properties.
2234:
1551:. Large numbers of known crystal structures are stored in
1417:, and the ability to form shapes with smooth, flat faces.
756:, snowflakes, or small ice crystals suspended in the air (
744:
is a single crystal or a collection of crystals, while an
486:
faces, where new atoms cannot as easily attach themselves.
1062:
Crystals can also be formed by biological processes, see
568:
is its visible external shape. This is determined by the
127:
that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic
1853:
The
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
1176:
to slightly blue. Likewise, the only difference between
1066:. Conversely, some organisms have special techniques to
637:
processes, giving origin to large masses of crystalline
27:
Solid material with highly ordered microscopic structure
2352:
Howard, J. Michael; Darcy Howard (Illustrator) (1998).
2135:
Snow
Engineering 2000: Recent Advances and Developments
1371:
are examples of other materials with molecular bonding.
1141:(an extra atom squeezed in where it does not fit), and
1168:
atoms, but a real crystal might perhaps contain a few
294:
Halite (table salt, NaCl): Microscopic and macroscopic
30:"Crystalline" redirects here. For the Björk song, see
1468:
normally cannot. These properties are related to the
1156:
Another common type of crystallographic defect is an
891:
For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as
143:. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of
2783:
2676:
2584:
2482:
2012:. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand. pp. 134–138.
1133:A few examples of crystallographic defects include
263:Crystals, or crystalline solids, are often used in
95:) has no periodic arrangement even microscopically.
2194:Britain), Science Research Council (Great (1972).
83:is composed of many microscopic crystals (called "
2412:"Crystal Lattice Structures:Index by Space Group"
1172:atoms as well. These boron impurities change the
385:solids are polycrystalline, including almost all
466:Crystal faces, shapes and crystallographic forms
430:in three-dimensional space to form the crystal.
2246:International Union of Crystallography (1992).
2105:Libbrecht, Kenneth; Wing, Rachel (2015-09-01).
1395:, which can take on the macroscopic shape of a
1305:crystals can be created by solidification of a
534:One of the oldest techniques in the science of
458:(where the crystals may form hexagons, such as
2460:
1235:is a spread of crystal plane orientations. A
217:. Most inorganic solids are not crystals but
8:
2248:"Report of the Executive Committee for 1991"
1995:, by Victor E. Henrich, P. A. Cox, page 28,
1609:, a metal that easily forms large crystals.
1137:(an empty space where an atom should fit),
780:are able to produce crystals grown from an
37:"Xtal" redirects here. For other uses, see
2467:
2453:
2445:
1676:crystal and oxidized on their surfaces to
838:is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form
2312:
2271:
2036:, London, Natural History Museum, page 58
1063:
283:beliefs and related religious movements.
1954:International Tables for Crystallography
1772:"Chem1 online textbook—States of matter"
1070:crystallization from occurring, such as
924:, giving it a wide range of properties.
2108:The Snowflake: Winter's Frozen Artistry
1894:"Using Crystals and Gemstones in Magic"
1762:
1562:
1350:, as well as the interlayer bonding in
1207:, a special type of impurity, called a
1184:is the type of impurities present in a
1104:Two types of crystallographic defects.
2085:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers
1873:Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia
1834:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1429:International Union of Crystallography
2433:, Department of Crystallography. 2010
1926:"The Magic of Crystals and Gemstones"
920:is responsible for its ability to be
111:material whose constituents (such as
7:
2032:G. Cressey and I. F. Mercer, (1999)
1446:for the discovery of quasicrystals.
1422:crystallographic restriction theorem
2753:The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis
2329:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2011"
1993:The surface science of metal oxides
872:. For example, water can also form
205:Examples of large crystals include
1892:Patti Wigington (31 August 2016).
1450:Special properties from anisotropy
1149:, because they help determine the
845:, but can also exist as the cubic
357:
131:are usually identifiable by their
25:
2431:Spanish National Research Council
2356:. Bob's Rock Shop. Archived from
1078:Defects, impurities, and twinning
517:atomic arrangement of the crystal
2575:
2211:Encyclopedia of the Solar System
2132:Hjorth-Hansen, E. (2017-10-19).
2046:
1695:
1661:
1649:
1626:
1614:
1599:
1584:
1565:
1543:is the science of measuring the
1313:found in many gemstones such as
1151:mechanical strength of materials
983:, perhaps with various possible
822:Polymorphism (materials science)
328:
300:
275:, are sometimes associated with
233:. A third category of solids is
2372:Krassmann, Thomas (2005–2008).
287:Crystal structure (microscopic)
1672:crystals partially encased in
1047:crystals in excess of 10
419:, but forming a crystal does.
1:
1038:solvent-based crystallization
903:are two crystalline forms of
629:Some crystals have formed by
440:crystallographic space groups
2314:10.1524/zkri.219.7.391.35643
2177:National Geographic Magazine
2171:Shea, Neil (November 2008).
1963:10.1107/97809553602060000001
1951:Welberry, T. R, ed. (2021),
1838:, on Perseus Digital Library
1822:, on Perseus Digital Library
1791:Ashcroft and Mermin (1976).
1522:stress-induced birefringence
507:The flat faces (also called
196:
174:
75:has atoms in a near-perfect
2376:. Krassmann. Archived from
2374:"The Giant Crystal Project"
2059:Flett, John Smith (1911). "
442:. These are grouped into 7
307:Microscopic structure of a
256:, and related products are
254:lead crystal, crystal glass
2838:
1553:crystallographic databases
1531:
1453:
1402:
1081:
1056:
941:
819:
816:Polymorphism and allotropy
341:
190:
168:
43:
36:
29:
2733:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
2573:
2264:10.1107/S0108767392008328
2200:. H.M. Stationery Office.
1327:solids (sometimes called
884:(an amorphous glass) and
760:) more often grow from a
681:and have never been in a
323:in the atoms' arrangement
2173:"Cave of Crystal Giants"
2008:Sinkankas, John (1964).
1440:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
1278:crystal, such as Type 2
1128:crystallographic defects
968:directly from gas; see:
960:in a beet sugar factory.
555:isometric crystal system
456:hexagonal crystal system
46:Crystal (disambiguation)
2070:Encyclopædia Britannica
2010:Mineralogy for amateurs
1836:A Greek-English Lexicon
1820:A Greek-English Lexicon
1486:electrical permittivity
1482:electrical conductivity
1397:pentagonal dodecahedron
1329:covalent network solids
1084:Crystallographic defect
641:. The vast majority of
87:" or "grains"); and an
1871:Regal, Brian. (2009).
1400:
1389:holmium–magnesium–zinc
1289:Widmanstatten patterns
1200:
1119:
1030:hydrothermal synthesis
961:
606:
588:
547:crystallographic forms
487:
356:are an exception, see
202:), "icy cold, frost".
96:
64:
2567:Widmanstätten pattern
2197:Report of the Council
1716:Atomic packing factor
1386:
1354:. Substances such as
1213:Semiconductor devices
1194:
1103:
955:
594:
583:
473:
435:symmetry of a crystal
417:latent heat of fusion
135:, consisting of flat
70:
56:
39:Xtal (disambiguation)
2393:"Teaching Pamphlets"
1875:. Greenwood. p. 51.
1812:Henry George Liddell
1577:grown in earth orbit
1508:that have been made
1474:piezoelectric effect
1344:van der Waals forces
1139:interstitial defects
1053:Cave of the Crystals
999:. Or, it can form a
958:cooling crystallizer
792:in the case of most
772:Organigenic crystals
576:Occurrence in nature
448:cubic crystal system
311:crystal. (Purple is
2801:Mathematics and art
2791:Pattern recognition
2761:Aristid Lindenmayer
2305:2004ZK....219..391S
2299:(7–2004): 391–446.
2287:Steurer W. (2004).
2252:Acta Crystallogr. A
1906:on 15 November 2016
1794:Solid State Physics
1685:Milwaukee Formation
1265:van der Waals bonds
1164:would only contain
1072:antifreeze proteins
1022:Czochralski process
454:shown at right) or
381:. Most macroscopic
71:Microscopically, a
2739:On Growth and Form
2639:Logarithmic spiral
2476:Patterns in nature
2111:. Voyageur Press.
1932:. 14 December 2011
1741:Crystal oscillator
1401:
1319:synthetic sapphire
1201:
1120:
1026:Bridgman technique
962:
716:in arid climates.
622:from Malakialina,
607:
589:
523:of relatively low
488:
460:ordinary water ice
271:, and, along with
267:practices such as
252:Despite the name,
97:
65:
32:Crystalline (song)
2809:
2808:
2766:Benoît Mandelbrot
2666:Self-organization
2602:Natural selection
2592:Pattern formation
2427:"Crystallography"
1997:google books link
1972:978-1-119-95235-0
1881:978-0-313-35507-3
1731:Colloidal crystal
1549:X-ray diffraction
1545:crystal structure
1415:x-ray diffraction
1391:(Ho–Mg–Zn) forms
1325:Covalently bonded
1147:materials science
1116:screw dislocation
1051:are found in the
570:crystal structure
350:crystal structure
344:Crystal structure
180:), meaning both "
162:derives from the
133:geometrical shape
105:crystalline solid
16:(Redirected from
2829:
2617:Sexual selection
2579:
2469:
2462:
2455:
2446:
2441:
2439:
2438:
2422:
2420:
2419:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2388:
2386:
2385:
2368:
2366:
2365:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2336:
2331:. Nobelprize.org
2325:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2275:
2243:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2220:
2214:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2183:on Dec 19, 2017.
2179:. Archived from
2168:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2102:
2096:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2005:
1999:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1902:. Archived from
1889:
1883:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1859:
1845:
1839:
1829:
1823:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1778:
1767:
1699:
1665:
1653:
1630:
1618:
1603:
1588:
1569:
1348:molecular solids
1109:edge dislocation
1092:Crystal twinning
1005:ambient pressure
909:amorphous carbon
782:aqueous solution
540:crystal symmetry
408:amorphous solids
379:grain boundaries
332:
304:
265:pseudoscientific
235:amorphous solids
201:
193:
192:
179:
171:
170:
21:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2828:
2827:
2826:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2805:
2779:
2672:
2580:
2571:
2478:
2473:
2436:
2434:
2425:
2417:
2415:
2410:
2402:
2400:
2391:
2383:
2381:
2371:
2363:
2361:
2351:
2348:
2346:Further reading
2343:
2334:
2332:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2217:
2209:
2205:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2119:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2095:, 9789048126415
2082:
2078:
2058:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1991:
1987:
1973:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1935:
1933:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1909:
1907:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1870:
1866:
1857:
1855:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1830:
1826:
1806:
1802:
1790:
1789:
1785:
1776:
1774:
1770:Stephen Lower.
1769:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1711:
1704:
1700:
1691:
1666:
1657:
1654:
1645:
1631:
1622:
1619:
1610:
1604:
1595:
1589:
1580:
1570:
1561:
1540:Crystallography
1536:
1534:Crystallography
1530:
1528:Crystallography
1490:Young's modulus
1458:
1452:
1442:was awarded to
1407:
1381:
1311:aluminium oxide
1295:Ionic compounds
1275:amorphous metal
1245:
1174:diamond's color
1135:vacancy defects
1098:
1082:Main articles:
1080:
989:stoichiometries
950:
944:Crystallization
942:Main articles:
940:
938:Crystallization
932:amorphous solid
895:. For example,
879:
850:
843:
828:
820:Main articles:
818:
800:in the case of
798:hydroxylapatite
774:
728:in the form of
722:
612:
578:
566:crystal's habit
536:crystallography
468:
444:crystal systems
366:polycrystalline
346:
340:
339:
338:
337:
336:
333:
325:
324:
319:ion). There is
305:
296:
295:
289:
269:crystal therapy
149:crystallization
141:crystallography
129:single crystals
125:crystal lattice
91:solid (such as
79:arrangement; a
49:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2835:
2833:
2825:
2824:
2814:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2787:
2785:
2781:
2780:
2778:
2777:
2776:
2775:
2763:
2758:
2757:
2756:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2730:
2728:Wilson Bentley
2725:
2723:Joseph Plateau
2720:
2715:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2661:Plateau's laws
2658:
2656:Fluid dynamics
2653:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2594:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2581:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2479:
2474:
2472:
2471:
2464:
2457:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2423:
2408:
2389:
2369:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2320:
2293:Z. Kristallogr
2279:
2258:(6): 922–946.
2238:
2226:
2215:
2203:
2186:
2163:
2151:
2144:
2124:
2117:
2097:
2076:
2065:Chisholm, Hugh
2038:
2025:
2018:
2000:
1985:
1971:
1943:
1917:
1884:
1864:
1840:
1824:
1800:
1783:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1746:Liquid crystal
1743:
1738:
1736:Crystal growth
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1705:
1701:
1694:
1692:
1667:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1648:
1646:
1642:single crystal
1632:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1613:
1611:
1605:
1598:
1596:
1590:
1583:
1581:
1571:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1532:Main article:
1529:
1526:
1520:—for example,
1456:Crystal optics
1451:
1448:
1403:Main article:
1380:
1377:
1339:respectively.
1261:covalent bonds
1253:metallic bonds
1249:chemical bonds
1244:
1243:Chemical bonds
1241:
1237:mosaic crystal
1227:grain boundary
1205:semiconductors
1199:crystal group.
1079:
1076:
1020:) include the
991:, impurities,
981:single crystal
948:Crystal growth
939:
936:
880:can form both
877:
848:
841:
817:
814:
784:, for example
773:
770:
762:supersaturated
721:
718:
611:
608:
577:
574:
529:surface energy
480:dangling bonds
467:
464:
411:, also called
342:Main article:
334:
327:
326:
321:cubic symmetry
315:ion, green is
306:
299:
298:
297:
293:
292:
291:
290:
288:
285:
153:solidification
145:crystal growth
73:single crystal
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2834:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2774:
2773:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2755:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2718:Ernst Haeckel
2716:
2714:
2713:Adolf Zeising
2711:
2707:
2706:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2557:Vortex street
2555:
2553:
2550:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2535:Quasicrystals
2533:
2531:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2465:
2463:
2458:
2456:
2451:
2450:
2447:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2413:
2409:
2399:on 2008-04-17
2398:
2394:
2390:
2380:on 2008-04-26
2379:
2375:
2370:
2360:on 2006-08-26
2359:
2355:
2350:
2349:
2345:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2280:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2204:
2199:
2198:
2190:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2164:
2160:
2155:
2152:
2147:
2145:9781351416238
2141:
2138:. Routledge.
2137:
2136:
2128:
2125:
2120:
2118:9781627887335
2114:
2110:
2109:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2072:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2055:public domain
2042:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2026:
2021:
2015:
2011:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1955:
1947:
1944:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1918:
1905:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1868:
1865:
1854:
1850:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1795:
1787:
1784:
1773:
1766:
1763:
1757:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1698:
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1690:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1664:
1659:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1624:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1563:
1559:Image gallery
1558:
1556:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1541:
1535:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1478:birefringence
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1444:Dan Shechtman
1441:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1393:quasicrystals
1390:
1387:The material
1385:
1379:Quasicrystals
1378:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1290:
1285:
1281:
1280:telluric iron
1276:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1129:
1125:
1117:
1114:
1113:Bottom right:
1110:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1018:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
977:
975:
971:
967:
959:
954:
949:
945:
937:
935:
933:
929:
928:Polyamorphism
925:
923:
919:
915:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
889:
887:
883:
875:
874:amorphous ice
871:
866:
864:
863:
858:
855:
851:
844:
837:
833:
827:
823:
815:
813:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
771:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
719:
717:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
690:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
643:igneous rocks
640:
636:
632:
627:
625:
621:
617:
609:
604:
600:
597:
593:
586:
582:
575:
573:
571:
567:
562:
558:
556:
552:
548:
543:
541:
537:
532:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
505:
503:
499:
495:
493:
485:
481:
477:
472:
465:
463:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
436:
431:
429:
425:
420:
418:
414:
410:
409:
405:, are called
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
367:
361:
359:
355:
354:Quasicrystals
351:
345:
331:
322:
318:
314:
310:
303:
286:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
261:
259:
255:
250:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
203:
200:
199:
187:
183:
178:
177:
165:
164:Ancient Greek
161:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
69:
63:
60:
55:
51:
47:
40:
33:
19:
2770:
2751:
2737:
2703:
2650:
2629:Chaos theory
2552:Tessellation
2435:. Retrieved
2416:. Retrieved
2401:. Retrieved
2397:the original
2382:. Retrieved
2378:the original
2362:. Retrieved
2358:the original
2333:. Retrieved
2323:
2296:
2292:
2282:
2255:
2251:
2241:
2233:
2229:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2196:
2189:
2181:the original
2176:
2166:
2158:
2154:
2134:
2127:
2107:
2100:
2084:
2079:
2068:
2041:
2033:
2028:
2009:
2003:
1992:
1988:
1953:
1946:
1934:. Retrieved
1929:
1920:
1908:. Retrieved
1904:the original
1897:
1887:
1872:
1867:
1856:. Retrieved
1852:
1843:
1835:
1827:
1819:
1816:Robert Scott
1803:
1792:
1786:
1775:. Retrieved
1765:
1751:Time crystal
1668:Needle-like
1538:
1537:
1506:polycrystals
1499:
1466:polycrystals
1459:
1437:
1426:
1419:
1411:quasicrystal
1408:
1405:Quasicrystal
1341:
1323:
1293:
1269:
1246:
1231:
1221:
1202:
1155:
1143:dislocations
1132:
1123:
1121:
1112:
1105:
1067:
1061:
1042:
1036:, or simply
1015:
1013:
978:
963:
926:
922:heat treated
890:
882:fused silica
867:
860:
854:rhombohedral
832:Polymorphism
829:
776:Many living
775:
724:Water-based
723:
691:
687:metamorphism
663:mica-schists
628:
613:
563:
559:
546:
545:A crystal's
544:
533:
525:Miller index
506:
496:
491:
489:
432:
423:
421:
406:
374:
371:crystallites
364:
362:
347:
262:
257:
251:
219:polycrystals
204:
197:
186:rock crystal
175:
159:
157:
104:
100:
98:
85:crystallites
57:Crystals of
50:
2747:Alan Turing
2705:Liber Abaci
2624:Mathematics
2530:in crystals
2520:Soap bubble
2515:Phyllotaxis
1936:14 November
1930:WitchesLore
1910:14 November
1721:Anticrystal
1680:; from the
1510:anisotropic
1435:diagram").
1433:diffraction
1257:ionic bonds
1217:transistors
1034:sublimation
1009:temperature
1001:polycrystal
876:, while SiO
810:vertebrates
750:polycrystal
714:evaporation
635:metamorphic
519:: they are
245:, and many
81:polycrystal
2694:Empedocles
2689:Pythagoras
2607:Camouflage
2545:in biology
2540:in flowers
2510:Parastichy
2437:2010-01-08
2418:2016-12-03
2403:2008-04-20
2384:2008-04-20
2364:2008-04-20
2335:2011-12-29
2093:904812641X
2019:0442276249
1858:2023-06-17
1849:"crys·tal"
1808:κρύσταλλος
1777:2016-09-19
1758:References
1592:Hoar frost
1470:anisotropy
1454:See also:
1284:meteorites
1251:, such as
1215:, such as
1106:Top right:
702:Evaporites
667:quartzites
624:Madagascar
446:, such as
215:table salt
207:snowflakes
176:krustallos
169:κρύσταλλος
147:is called
2796:Emergence
2699:Fibonacci
2061:Petrology
1981:146060934
1899:About.com
1726:Cocrystal
1689:Wisconsin
1670:millerite
1575:crystals
1299:saltpeter
1233:Mosaicity
1188:crystal.
1096:Mosaicity
966:deposited
956:Vertical
914:Chocolate
893:allotropy
826:Allotropy
790:aragonite
778:organisms
766:dew point
742:snowflake
679:sandstone
671:limestone
492:necessary
424:unit cell
383:inorganic
277:spellwork
273:gemstones
225:, rocks,
158:The word
117:molecules
89:amorphous
2822:Crystals
2816:Category
2525:Symmetry
2483:Patterns
2034:Crystals
1709:See also
1682:Devonian
1678:zaratite
1494:graphite
1352:graphite
1223:Twinning
1195:Twinned
1186:corundum
1182:sapphire
1158:impurity
1088:Impurity
1045:selenite
1024:and the
907:, while
901:graphite
794:molluscs
746:ice cube
738:glaciers
704:such as
631:magmatic
605:crystals
587:crystals
513:euhedral
502:Anhedral
498:Euhedral
391:ceramics
317:chlorine
247:plastics
227:ceramics
211:diamonds
188:", from
77:periodic
59:amethyst
18:Crystals
2784:Related
2651:Crystal
2646:Physics
2634:Fractal
2612:Mimicry
2597:Biology
2505:Meander
2301:Bibcode
2273:1826680
2067:(ed.).
2057::
1674:calcite
1638:silicon
1607:Gallium
1573:Insulin
1514:working
1502:glasses
1373:Polymer
1369:dry ice
1333:diamond
1287:called
1162:diamond
1068:prevent
993:defects
970:epitaxy
897:diamond
786:calcite
758:ice fog
734:sea ice
700:veins.
659:marbles
647:granite
616:bedrock
603:calcite
511:) of a
428:stacked
184:" and "
160:crystal
101:crystal
2677:People
2585:Causes
2414:. 2004
2270:
2142:
2115:
2091:
2063:". In
2051:
2016:
1979:
1969:
1879:
1703:grew.
1634:Boules
1518:stress
1488:, and
1360:lipids
1337:quartz
1307:molten
1271:Metals
1209:dopant
1197:pyrite
1166:carbon
1094:, and
1017:boules
1007:, the
997:habits
995:, and
985:phases
934:form.
905:carbon
886:quartz
870:phases
862:phases
857:ice II
852:, the
736:, and
710:gypsum
706:halite
698:quartz
694:druses
683:molten
655:glassy
596:Fossil
551:galena
521:planes
509:facets
484:stable
476:halite
452:halite
413:glassy
387:metals
313:sodium
309:halite
281:Wiccan
229:, and
223:metals
213:, and
62:quartz
2684:Plato
2490:Crack
1977:S2CID
1832:κρύος
1462:glass
1342:Weak
1170:boron
1124:ideal
1064:above
1057:above
974:frost
918:steel
847:Ice I
840:Ice I
806:teeth
802:bones
754:Frost
748:is a
675:shale
620:beryl
610:Rocks
601:with
599:shell
474:As a
403:glass
399:rocks
358:below
239:glass
198:kruos
191:κρύος
166:word
137:faces
119:, or
113:atoms
109:solid
107:is a
93:glass
2562:Wave
2500:Foam
2495:Dune
2140:ISBN
2113:ISBN
2089:ISBN
2014:ISBN
1967:ISBN
1938:2016
1912:2016
1877:ISBN
1464:and
1427:The
1362:and
1356:fats
1335:and
1317:and
1315:ruby
1303:salt
1180:and
1178:ruby
972:and
946:and
899:and
824:and
804:and
788:and
730:snow
677:and
665:and
651:lava
639:rock
633:and
433:The
121:ions
2309:doi
2297:219
2268:PMC
2260:doi
1959:doi
1687:of
1636:of
1516:or
1512:by
1504:or
1424:).
1364:wax
1203:In
1122:An
976:.)
836:ice
808:in
796:or
726:ice
720:Ice
696:or
585:Ice
462:).
395:ice
375:not
360:).
279:in
258:not
243:wax
231:ice
182:ice
151:or
103:or
2818::
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1975:,
1965:,
1928:.
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1851:.
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1814:,
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2367:.
2338:.
2317:.
2311::
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2148:.
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2022:.
1961::
1940:.
1914:.
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48:.
41:.
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