976:, data are put into context, which leads to information instead of data. The next step, which is enabled by service-oriented web-based infrastructures (but not yet operationally used), is the use of models and simulations for decision support. Simulation systems are the prototype for procedural knowledge, which is the basis for knowledge quality. Finally, using intelligent software agents to continually observe the battle sphere, apply models and simulations to analyse what is going on, to monitor the execution of a plan, and to do all the tasks necessary to make the decision maker aware of what is going on, command and control systems could even support situational awareness, the level in the value chain traditionally limited to pure cognitive methods.
902:
31:
934:
987:, a philosopher based in Germany, argues that data is an abstraction, information refers to "the act of communicating meaning", and knowledge "is the event of meaning selection of a (psychic/social) system from its 'world' on the basis of communication". As such, any impression of a logical hierarchy between these concepts "is a fairytale".
688:), and also "know-who" and "know-when", each gained through "practical experience". "Knowledge ... brings forth from the background of experience a coherent and self-consistent set of coordinated actions.". Further, implicitly holding information as descriptive, Zeleny declares that "Knowledge is action, not a description of action."
849:
795:"), and the like. Note that knowledge is the content of a thought in the individual's mind, which is characterized by the individual's justifiable belief that it is true, while "knowing" is a state of mind which is characterized by the three conditions: (1) the individual believe that it is true, (2) S/he can
1071:
Knowledge and Wisdom (which are human endeavours). This suggests that the DIKW pyramid is too simplistic in representing how these concepts interact. "...Knowledge is not determined by information, for it is the knowing process that first decides which information is relevant, and how it is to be used."
834:
Zeleny described wisdom as "know-why", but later refined his definitions, so as to differentiate "why do" (wisdom) from "why is" (information), and expanding his definition to include a form of know-what ("what to do, act or carry out"). According to Nikhil Sharma, Zeleny has argued for a tier to the
731:
Knowledge is sometimes described as "belief structuring" and "internalization with reference to cognitive frameworks". One definition given by
Boulding for knowledge was "the subjective 'perception of the world and one's place in it'", while Zeleny's said that knowledge "should refer to an observer's
316:
The DIKW model "is often quoted, or used implicitly, in definitions of data, information and knowledge in the information management, information systems and knowledge management literatures, but there has been limited direct discussion of the hierarchy". Reviews of textbooks and a survey of scholars
1070:
argues that although the DIKW pyramid appears to be a logical and straight-forward progression, this is incorrect. "What looks like a logical progression is actually a desperate cry for help." He points out there is a discontinuity between Data and
Information (which are stored in computers), versus
601:
Zeleny formerly described information as "know-what", but has since refined this to differentiate between "what to have or to possess" (information) and "what to do, act or carry out" (wisdom). To this conceptualization of information, he also adds "why is", as distinct from "why do" (another aspect
568:
In his formulation of the hierarchy, Henry defined information as "data that changes us", this being a functional, rather than structural, distinction between data and information. Meanwhile, Cleveland, who did not refer to a data level in his version of DIKW, described information as "the sum total
380:
Rowley, following her study of DIKW definitions given in textbooks, characterizes data "as being discrete, objective facts or observations, which are unorganized and unprocessed and therefore have no meaning or value because of lack of context and interpretation." In Henry's early formulation of the
644:
Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, expert insight and grounded intuition that provides an environment and framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the minds of knowers. In organizations it
420:
In the subjective domain, data are conceived of as "sensory stimuli, which we perceive through our senses", or "signal readings", including "sensor and/or sensory readings of light, sound, smell, taste, and touch". Others have argued that what Zins calls subjective data actually count as a "signal"
830:
Cleveland described wisdom simply as "integrated knowledge—information made super-useful". Other authors have characterized wisdom as "knowing the right things to do" and "the ability to make sound judgments and decisions apparently without thought". Wisdom involves using knowledge for the greater
1012:
philosophy aside, "the three fundamental concepts of data, information, and knowledge and the relations among them, as they are perceived by leading scholars in the information science academic community", have meanings open to distinct definitions. Rowley echoes this point in arguing that, where
564:
Rowley, following her review of how DIKW is presented in textbooks, describes information as "organized or structured data, which has been processed in such a way that the information now has relevance for a specific purpose or context, and is therefore meaningful, valuable, useful and relevant."
118:
The presentation of the relationships among data, information, knowledge, and sometimes wisdom in a hierarchical arrangement has been part of the language of information science for many years. Although it is uncertain when and by whom those relationships were first presented, the ubiquity of the
1040:
is either made up of or synonymous with physical information. It is unclear, however, whether information as it is conceived in the DIKW model would be considered derivative from physical-information/data or synonymous with physical information. In the former case, the DIKW model is open to the
589:
American information scientist
Anthony Debons's characterization of information as representing "a state of awareness (consciousness) and the physical manifestations they form", such that "nformation, as a phenomenon, represents both a process and a product; a cognitive/affective state, and the
381:
hierarchy, data was simply defined as "merely raw facts", while two recent texts define data as "chunks of facts about the state of the world" and "material facts", respectively. Cleveland does not include an explicit data tier, but defines information as "the sum total of ... facts and ideas".
424:
American information scientist Glynn Harmon defined data as "one or more kinds of energy waves or particles (light, heat, sound, force, electromagnetic) selected by a conscious organism or intelligent agent on the basis of a preexisting frame or inferential mechanism in the organism or agent."
498:", including "words (text and/or verbal), numbers, diagrams, and images (still and/or video), which are the building blocks of communication", the purpose of which "is to record activities or situations, to attempt to capture the true picture or real event," such that "all data are
898:, attempts to show the progression transforming data to information then knowledge and finally wisdom to enable effective decisions, as well as the activities involved to ultimately create shared understanding throughout the organization and managing decision risk.
747:). Zeleny has rejected the idea of explicit knowledge (as in Zins' universal knowledge), arguing that once made symbolic, knowledge becomes information. Boiko appears to echo this sentiment, in his claim that "knowledge and wisdom can be information".
329:(what Zins terms, "universal" or "collective") or both. In Zins' usage, subjective and objective "are not related to arbitrariness and truthfulness, which are usually attached to the concepts of subjective knowledge and objective knowledge".
990:
One objection offered by Zins is that, while knowledge may be an exclusively cognitive phenomenon, the difficulty in pointing to a given fact as being distinctively information or knowledge, but not both, makes the DIKW model unworkable.
803:
The distinction here between subjective knowledge and subjective information is that subjective knowledge is characterized by justifiable belief, where subjective information is a type of knowledge concerning the meaning of data.
872:, in that each level of the hierarchy is argued to be an essential precursor to the levels above. Unlike Maslow's hierarchy, which describes relationships of priority (lower levels are focused on first), DIKW describes purported
308:' extensive analysis of the conceptualizations of data, information, and knowledge, in his 2007 research study, makes no explicit commentary on wisdom, although some of the citations included by Zins do make mention of the term.
961:
deals with procedural knowledge and information embedded in the command and control system such as templates for adversary forces, assumptions about entities such as ranges and weapons, and doctrinal assumptions, often coded as
528:"are characterized as phenomena in the universal domain". "Apparently," clarifies Zins, "it is more useful to relate to the data, information, and knowledge as sets of signs rather than as meaning and its building blocks".
826:
is posited as a discrete layer between knowledge and wisdom. Adler had previously also included an understanding tier, while other authors have depicted understanding as a dimension in relation to which DIKW is plotted.
622:. The DIKW view is that "knowledge is defined with reference to information." Definitions may refer to information having been processed, organized or structured in some way, or else as being applied or put into action.
552:, "who", "what", "where", "how many", "when"), thereby making the data useful for "decisions and/or action". "Classically," states a 2007 text, "information is defined as data that are endowed with meaning and purpose."
317:
in relevant fields indicate that there is not a consensus as to definitions used in the model, and even less "in the description of the processes that transform elements lower in the hierarchy into those above them".
584:
Information may be conceived of in DIKW models as: universal, existing as symbols and signs; subjective, the meaning to which symbols attach; or both. Examples of information as both symbol and meaning include:
320:
This has led Zins to suggest that the data–information–knowledge components of DIKW refer to a class of no less than five models, as a function of whether data, information, and knowledge are each conceived of as
880:
relationships (lower levels comprise the material of higher levels). Both Zeleny and Ackoff have been credited with originating the pyramid representation, although neither used a pyramid to present their ideas.
303:
noted in 2007 that there was "little reference to wisdom" in discussion of the DIKW in recently published college textbooks, and does not include wisdom in her own definitions following that research. Meanwhile,
89:
Not all versions of the DIKW model reference all four components (earlier versions not including data, later versions omitting or downplaying wisdom) and some include additional components. In addition to a
248:, published in 1989. Subsequent authors and textbooks cite Ackoff's as the "original articulation" of the hierarchy or otherwise credit Ackoff with its proposal. Ackoff's version of the model includes an
995:
s Albert
Einstein's famous equation "E = mc" (which is printed on my computer screen, and is definitely separated from any human mind) information or knowledge? Is "2 + 2 = 4" information or knowledge?
819:
Although commonly included as a level in DIKW, "there is limited reference to wisdom" in discussions of the model. Boiko appears to have dismissed wisdom, characterizing it as "non-material".
1052:
Educator Martin Frické has published an article critiquing the DIKW hierarchy, in which he argues that the model is based on "dated and unsatisfactory philosophical positions of
474:
Whether Zins' alternate definition would hold would be a function of whether "the running of a car engine" is understood as an objective fact or as a contextual interpretation.
565:
Note that this definition contrasts with Rowley's characterization of Ackoff's definitions, wherein "he difference between data and information is structural, not functional."
888:
or as one or more flow diagrams. In such cases, the relationships between the elements may be presented as less hierarchical, with feedback loops and control relationships.
241:
482:
Whether the DIKW definition of data is deemed to include Zins's subjective data (with or without meaning), data is consistently defined to include "symbols", or "sets of
941:
The following example describes a military decision support system, but the architecture and underlying conceptual idea are transferable to other application domains:
593:
Danish information scientist Hanne
Albrechtsen's description of information as "related to meaning or human intention", either as "the contents of databases, the web,
333:, Zins argues, studies data and information, but not knowledge, as knowledge is an internal (subjective) rather than an external (universal–collective) phenomenon.
1013:
definitions of knowledge may disagree, "hese various perspectives all take as their point of departure the relationship between data, information and knowledge."
968:
measures the degree of using the information and knowledge embedded within the command and control system. Awareness is explicitly placed in the cognitive domain.
119:
notion of a hierarchy is embedded in the use of the acronym DIKW as a shorthand representation for the data-to-information-to-knowledge-to-wisdom transformation.
353:
or signals, that are "of no use until ... in a usable (that is, relevant) form". Zeleny characterized this non-usable characteristic of data as "know-nothing".
2561:
2123:
922:
by introducing new technologies and methods from the domain of modeling and simulation in general, and in particular from the domain of intelligent
668:
One of
Boulding's definitions for knowledge had been "a mental structure" and Cleveland described knowledge as "the result of somebody applying the
1030:, argued that "knowledge" was "a vague word", and presented a complex alternative to DIKW including some nineteen "terminological guide-posts".
672:'s fire to , selecting and organizing what is useful to somebody". A 2007 text describes knowledge as "information connected in relationships".
597:" (italics added) or "the meaning of statements as they are intended by the speaker/writer and understood/misunderstood by the listener/reader."
451:. Still, there is another alternative as to how to define these two concepts—which seems even better. Data are sense stimuli, or their meaning (
831:
good. Because of this, wisdom is deeper and more uniquely human. It requires a sense of good and bad, right and wrong, ethical and unethical.
2462:
2325:
2214:
2170:
2018:
1984:
1943:
1908:
1768:
1569:
1539:
1439:
1407:
1331:
178:, information, and knowledge". However, "he first author to distinguish among data, information, and knowledge and to also employ the term '
894:
Throughout the years many adaptations of the DIKW pyramid have been produced. One evolving adaptation, in use by knowledge managers in the
356:
In some cases, data is understood to refer not only to symbols, but also to signals or stimuli referred to by said symbols—what Zins terms
1269:"Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom (DIKW): A Semiotic Theoretical and Empirical Exploration of the Hierarchy and its Quality Dimension"
691:
Ackoff, likewise, described knowledge as the "application of data and information", which "answers 'how' questions", that is, "know-how".
1122:, a metaphor used by journalists and writers to prioritise and structure the most newsworthy info and important details over general info
895:
640:"One of the most frequently quoted definitions" of knowledge captures some of the various ways in which it has been defined by others:
2053:
368:" (italics in original), subjective data are the observations. This distinction is often obscured in definitions of data in terms of "
237:. Zeleny "has frequently been credited with proposing the ... although he actually made no reference to any such graphical model."
86:. It claims that deep understanding of a subject emerges through four qualitative stages: data, information, knowledge, and wisdom
645:
often becomes embedded not only in documents and repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices and norms.
1104:
955:
tracks the completeness, correctness, currency, consistency and precision of the data items and information statements available.
111:
260:. Although Ackoff did not present the hierarchy graphically, he has also been credited with its representation as a pyramid.
34:
DIKW pyramid: Each step up the pyramid creates value based on the initial data, and can be used to answer high-level questions
2480:
544:"), and is differentiated from data in that it is "useful". "Information is inferred from data", in the process of answering
190:
Other early versions (prior to 1982) of the hierarchy that refer to a data tier include those of
Chinese-American geographer
1110:
869:
494:", of "a property of an object, an event or of their environment". Data, in this sense, are "recorded (captured or stored)
2601:
2313:
1119:
1033:
2606:
2596:
1651:
1586:
796:
614:
The knowledge component of DIKW is generally agreed to be an elusive concept which is difficult to define. The DIKW
1935:
1431:
1394:
Chisholm, James; Warman, Greg (2007). "Experiential
Learning in Change Management". In Silberman, Melvin L. (ed.).
973:
467:, in that it is based on direct experience of stimuli. However, unlike knowledge by acquaintance, as described by
2568:
654:
Mirroring the description of information as "organized or structured data", knowledge is sometimes described as:
464:
1363:
915:
537:
393:
123:
Many authors think that the idea of the DIKW relationship originated from two lines in the poem "Choruses", by
1060:", that information and knowledge are both weak knowledge, and that wisdom is the "possession and use of wide
822:
Ackoff refers to understanding as an "appreciation of 'why'", and wisdom as "evaluated understanding", where
1702:
633:
terms, while Zeleny has asserted that to capture knowledge in symbolic form is to make it into information,
615:
409:
277:
1748:
625:
Zins has suggested that knowledge, being subjective rather than universal, is not the subject of study in
199:
155:
1086:
1026:
350:
272:
2396:
Tolk, Andreas (2005). "An agent-based
Decision Support System Architecture for the Military Domain".
2367:
2202:
1649:
Henry, Nicholas L. (May–June 1974). "Knowledge
Management: A New Concern for Public Administration".
1005:
927:
685:
300:
290:
179:
2414:
1268:
984:
282:
2303:
1531:
1098:
1080:
626:
397:
330:
937:
Using advanced distributed simulation to support information, knowledge, and wisdom representation
723:
Businessmen James Chisholm and Greg Warman characterize knowledge simply as "doing things right".
569:
of all the facts and ideas that are available to be known by somebody at a given moment in time".
2507:
1976:
1966:
1900:
1668:
1177:
1092:
744:
743:), and sometimes also as signs that represent such beliefs (universal/collective domain, akin to
694:
Meanwhile, textbooks discussing DIKW have been found to describe knowledge variously in terms of
603:
294:
151:
99:
2045:
2035:
305:
2206:
2196:
773:. It can be empirical and non-empirical, as in the case of logical and mathematical knowledge (
2458:
2448:
2321:
2317:
2307:
2210:
2166:
2049:
2014:
1980:
1972:
1939:
1904:
1764:
1565:
1535:
1435:
1403:
1327:
1021:
2497:
2489:
2368:"US Army Techniques Publication (ATP) 6-01.1, Techniques for Effective Knowledge Management"
1811:
1697:
1660:
1622:
1347:
1323:
1280:
1242:
1169:
1067:
1036:
theory argues that the physical world is made of information itself. Under this definition,
572:
American educator Bob Boiko is more obscure, defining information only as "matter-of-fact".
483:
468:
346:
167:
1603:"Knowledge, Intelligence and Wisdom: an Address to the Staff of Dow, Jones & Co", 1927.
1760:
919:
791:
740:
285:
and colleagues introduced an extended hierarchy, with "events", "symbols", and "rules and
268:
128:
2529:
1160:
Rowley, Jennifer (2007). "The wisdom hierarchy: representations of the DIKW hierarchy".
2452:
2252:
1962:
1927:
1842:
1753:
1227:
1053:
1046:
923:
877:
661:"organization and processing to convey understanding, experience accumulated learning"
606:, but rather that knowledge, once made explicit in symbolic form, becomes information.
245:
67:
891:
Debons and colleagues may have been the first to "present the hierarchy graphically".
2590:
1727:
1559:
630:
545:
401:
1351:
1181:
2557:
2511:
1799:
1315:
1042:
857:
619:
286:
218:
2478:
Frické, Martin (2009). "The Knowledge Pyramid: A Critique of the DIKW Hierarchy".
1045:. In the latter, the data tier of the DIKW model is preempted by an assertion of
509:
Boulding's version of DIKW explicitly named the level below the information tier
455:, the empirical perception). Accordingly, in the example above, the loud noises,
182:' may have been American educator Nicholas L. Henry", in a 1974 journal article.
2256:
1399:
1057:
901:
736:
503:
491:
405:
195:
124:
75:
1802:(1987). "Management Support Systems: Towards Integrated Knowledge Management".
517:
tier. Debons and colleagues reverse this relationship, identifying an explicit
2444:
2162:
2010:
1114:
1113: – Theory of developmental psychology, a similar graphic in the field of
1017:
1009:
873:
782:
695:
499:
203:
191:
63:
2493:
1173:
949:
describing the information within the underlying command and control systems.
799:
it, and (3) It is true, or it to be true. (Italics added. Bold in original.)
2041:
1061:
808:
703:
487:
264:
91:
79:
17:
1285:
439:, the empirical perception). For example, the noises that I hear are data.
2119:"Understanding Data, Information, Knowledge And Their Inter-Relationships"
1815:
428:
The meaning of sensory stimuli may also be thought of as subjective data:
281:. In the same year as Ackoff presented his address, information scientist
30:
1001:
207:
175:
2502:
1564:. Internet Archive. New York : St. Martin's Press. pp. 20–21.
713:"a mix of contextual information, expert opinion, skills and experience"
471:
and others, the subjective domain is "not related to ... truthfulness".
2562:"The Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom chain: the metaphorical link"
1897:
Organizing Knowledge: An Introduction to Managing Access to Information
1320:
Human Systems Management: Integrating Knowledge, Management and Systems
933:
811:
and justification, when he defined knowledge as "a matter of dispute".
758:
669:
495:
171:
2347:
Web Work: Information Seeking and Knowledge Work on the World Wide Web
2342:
2118:
1672:
1428:
Web Work: Information Seeking and Knowledge Work on the World Wide Web
1246:
1235:
Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology
1228:"Conceptual Approaches for Defining Data, Information, and Knowledge"
766:
342:
83:
848:
2398:
Intelligent Decision Support Systems in Agent-Mediated Environments
1664:
1101: – Metaphorical model of cognition and action by Chris Argyris
463:
Subjective data, if understood in this way, would be comparable to
2530:"The Problem with the Data-Information-Knowledge-Wisdom Hierarchy"
932:
900:
885:
847:
770:
699:
389:
95:
29:
1728:"The Origin of the "Data Information Knowledge Wisdom" Hierarchy"
602:
of wisdom). Zeleny further argues that there is no such thing as
590:
physical counterpart (product of) the cognitive/affective state."
762:
385:
369:
71:
664:"a mix of contextual information, values, experience and rules"
421:
tier (as had Boulding), which precedes data in the DIKW chain.
94:
and a pyramid, the DIKW model has also been characterized as a
1528:
Knowledge Management: Historical and Cross-Disciplinary Themes
114:, explained that the origin of the DIKW pyramid is uncertain:
536:
In the context of DIKW, information meets the definition for
719:"perception, skills, training, common sense and experience".
2309:
Working Knowledge: How Organizations Manage What They Know
1968:
A Guidebook To Learning For The Lifelong Pursuit Of Wisdom
1000:
Alternatively, information and knowledge might be seen as
777:, "every triangle has three sides"), religious knowledge (
739:
terms, as justifiable beliefs (subjective domain, akin to
765:, which is characterized by the individual's justifiable
221:
mapped the elements of the hierarchy to knowledge forms:
716:"information combined with understanding and capability"
658:"synthesis of multiple sources of information over time"
158:
on the hierarchy: "Knowledge, Intelligence and Wisdom".
1107: – Framework for scoring how complex a behavior is
807:
Boiko implied that knowledge was both open to rational
1755:
Architect or Bee?: The Human / Technology Relationship
212:
Architect or Bee?: The Human / Technology Relationship
170:
presented a variation on the hierarchy consisting of "
1095: – Stages of intelligence information processing
735:
Zins, likewise, found that knowledge is described in
408:
data from the DIKW model, such that the principle of
240:
The hierarchy appears again in a 1988 address to the
62:, refers to a class of models representing purported
884:
DIKW has also been represented as a two-dimensional
252:
tier (as Adler had, before him), interposed between
140:
Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?
1561:
Silicon dreams : information, man, and machine
1004:. In answer to these criticisms, Zins argues that,
2523:
2521:
1752:
524:Zins determined that, for most of those surveyed,
242:International Society for General Systems Research
217:Thereafter, in 1987, Czechoslovakia-born educator
1932:The Time of Our Lives: The Ethics of Common Sense
1089: – Concept in education and education reform
502:, unless used for illustrative purposes, such as
457:as well as the perception of a running car engine
166:In 1955, English-American economist and educator
1162:Journal of Information and Communication Science
341:In the context of DIKW, data is conceived of as
1426:Choo, Chun Wei; Don Turnbull (September 2006).
521:tier as one of several levels underlying data.
138:Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge?
2159:Knowledge Management: A State of the Art Guide
1700:(December 1982). "Information as a Resource".
459:, are data. (Italics added. Bold in original.)
202:invoked the same hierarchy in his critique of
27:Data, information, knowledge, wisdom hierarchy
868:at its apex. In this regard it is similar to
835:model beyond wisdom, termed "enlightenment".
732:distinction of 'objects' (wholes, unities)".
388:have as a fundamental property that they are
8:
2457:. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 58, 72–74.
2247:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2239:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1625:(1955). "Notes on the Information Concept".
2068:Dodig-Crnković, Gordana, as cited in Zins,
1890:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1273:Australasian Journal of Information Systems
2343:"The Data-Information-Knowledge Continuum"
2257:"Data, Information, Knowledge, and Wisdom"
2000:
1998:
1996:
1895:Rowley, Jennifer; Richard Hartley (2006).
1878:
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1083: – Classification system in education
56:information hierarchy, information pyramid
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1284:
1155:
435:is the meaning of these sensory stimuli (
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2157:Gamble, Paul R.; John Blackwell (2002).
2124:Journal of Knowledge Management Practice
1957:
1955:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1267:Baskarada, Sasa; Koronios, Andy (2013).
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
860:model often depicted as a pyramid, with
680:Zeleny defines knowledge as "know-how" (
2391:
2389:
2387:
2255:; Durval Castro; Anthony Mills (2004).
2112:
2110:
2108:
2106:
2104:
2007:Information Science: An Integrated View
1221:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1131:
513:, distinguishing it from an underlying
412:would not be accounted for under DIKW.
275:" in the form of a pyramid in his book
2289:Albrechtsen, Hanne, as cited in Zins,
1421:
1419:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1191:
244:, by American organizational theorist
2528:Weinberger, David (2 February 2010).
2005:Debons, Anthony; Ester Horne (1988).
1633:. Toronto: 103–112. CP IV, pp. 21–32.
1396:The Handbook of Experiential Learning
7:
1553:
1551:
852:A flow diagram of the DIKW hierarchy
186:Data, information, knowledge, wisdom
127:, that appeared in the pageant play
2276:Debons, Anthony, as cited in Zins,
1847:Journal of Applied Systems Analysis
896:United States Department of Defense
293:presented the DIKW hierarchy in an
146:Knowledge, intelligence, and wisdom
2094:Wormell, Irene, as cited in Zins,
1726:Sharma, Nikhil (4 February 2008).
1352:"Data information knowledge chain"
629:, and that it is often defined in
400:, such definitions would preclude
25:
2430:Poli, Roberto, as cited in Zins,
2229:Harmon, Glynn, as cited by Zins,
637:, that "All knowledge is tacit".
110:Danny P. Wallace, a professor of
2081:Ess, Charles, as cited in Zins,
1105:Model of hierarchical complexity
364:, for Zins, are "the product of
198:.. In 1980, Irish-born engineer
2341:Choo, Chun Wei (May 10, 2000).
1845:(1989). "From Data to Wisdom".
1226:Zins, Chaim (22 January 2007).
289:" tiers ahead of data. In 1994
112:library and information science
2481:Journal of Information Science
2201:(2nd ed.). Indianapolis:
540:("information is contained in
42:, also known variously as the
1:
2314:Harvard Business School Press
1120:Inverted pyramid (journalism)
785:"), philosophical knowledge (
396:reality, or otherwise can be
1652:Public Administration Review
1587:"Choruses from " The Rock ""
945:The value chain starts with
910:Computational representation
905:DoD DIKW evolving adaptation
162:Data, information, knowledge
2306:; Laurence Prusack (1998).
2117:Liew, Anthony (June 2007).
1111:Maslow's hierarchy of needs
870:Maslow's hierarchy of needs
441:The meaning of these noises
271:wrote about the four-tier "
154:addressed his employees at
2623:
1936:Holt, Rinehart and Winston
1526:Wallace, Danny P. (2007).
1432:Kluwer Academic Publishers
974:common operational picture
750:In the subjective domain:
727:Knowledge as propositional
618:differs from that used by
194:and sociologist-historian
972:By the introduction of a
465:knowledge by acquaintance
2494:10.1177/0165551508094050
2198:Content Management Bible
2034:Jackson, Robert (1999).
1804:Human Systems Management
1364:British Computer Society
1174:10.1177/0165551506070706
916:decision support systems
844:Graphical representation
538:knowledge by description
447:, a running car engine)
2534:Harvard Business Review
676:Knowledge as procedural
616:definition of knowledge
410:garbage in, garbage out
156:Dow Jones & Company
1963:Adler, Mortimer Jerome
1928:Adler, Mortimer Jerome
1356:Health Informatics Now
1286:10.3127/ajis.v18i1.748
1034:Information processing
1016:American philosophers
998:
938:
918:are trying to improve
906:
853:
801:
710:"study and experience"
650:Knowledge as processed
647:
461:
143:
121:
70:relationships between
35:
2454:Knowing and the Known
1903:, Ltd. pp. 5–6.
1816:10.3233/HSM-1987-7108
1558:Lucky, R. W. (1989).
1087:Higher-order thinking
1027:Knowing and the Known
1024:, in their 1949 book
993:
936:
904:
851:
752:
642:
430:
273:information hierarchy
135:
116:
33:
2602:Knowledge management
2417:, as cited in Zins,
2304:Davenport, Thomas H.
928:agent-based modeling
761:in the individual's
686:procedural knowledge
180:knowledge management
2607:Information systems
2597:Information science
2195:Boiko, Bob (2005).
1532:Libraries Unlimited
1402:. pp. 321–40.
1099:Ladder of inference
953:Information quality
926:in the contexts of
627:information science
404:, meaningless, and
331:Information science
52:knowledge hierarchy
2574:on 2 December 2007
2037:Information Design
1901:Ashgate Publishing
1434:. pp. 29–48.
1362:(1). Swindon: The
1350:(September 2006).
1326:. pp. 15–16.
1093:Intelligence cycle
939:
907:
854:
745:explicit knowledge
604:explicit knowledge
295:information design
152:Clarence W. Barron
36:
2560:(December 2004).
2464:978-0-8371-8498-2
2449:Arthur F. Bentley
2327:978-0-585-05656-2
2216:978-0-7645-4862-8
2172:978-0-7494-3649-0
2020:978-0-8161-1857-1
1986:978-0-02-500340-8
1973:Collier Macmillan
1945:978-0-03-081836-3
1910:978-0-7546-4431-6
1770:978-0-89608-131-4
1698:Cleveland, Harlan
1623:Boulding, Kenneth
1571:978-0-312-02960-9
1541:978-1-59158-502-2
1534:. pp. 1–14.
1441:978-0-7923-6460-3
1409:978-0-7879-8258-4
1348:Lievesley, Denise
1333:978-981-02-4913-7
1247:10.1002/asi.20508
966:Awareness quality
959:Knowledge quality
98:, framework, and
16:(Redirected from
2614:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2573:
2567:. Archived from
2566:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2525:
2516:
2515:
2505:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2441:
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2422:
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2378:
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2364:
2358:
2357:
2355:
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2338:
2332:
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2300:
2294:
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2274:
2268:
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2249:
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2227:
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2220:
2192:
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2176:
2154:
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2114:
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2092:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2066:
2060:
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2031:
2025:
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2002:
1991:
1990:
1959:
1950:
1949:
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1915:
1914:
1892:
1855:
1854:
1839:
1820:
1819:
1796:
1775:
1774:
1758:
1745:
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1708:
1707:
1694:
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1604:
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1582:
1576:
1575:
1555:
1546:
1545:
1523:
1446:
1445:
1423:
1414:
1413:
1391:
1376:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1324:World Scientific
1312:
1291:
1290:
1288:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1232:
1223:
1186:
1185:
1157:
1081:Bloom's taxonomy
1068:David Weinberger
864:at its base and
469:Bertrand Russell
168:Kenneth Boulding
48:wisdom hierarchy
21:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2612:
2611:
2587:
2586:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2564:
2556:
2553:
2551:Further reading
2548:
2538:
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2527:
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2519:
2477:
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2465:
2443:
2442:
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2395:
2394:
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2374:
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2340:
2339:
2335:
2328:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2288:
2284:
2275:
2271:
2261:
2259:
2253:Bellinger, Gene
2251:
2250:
2237:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2194:
2193:
2180:
2173:
2156:
2155:
2144:
2134:
2132:
2116:
2115:
2102:
2093:
2089:
2085:, at p. 482-83.
2080:
2076:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2033:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2004:
2003:
1994:
1987:
1961:
1960:
1953:
1946:
1938:. p. 206.
1926:
1925:
1918:
1911:
1894:
1893:
1858:
1843:Ackoff, Russell
1841:
1840:
1823:
1798:
1797:
1778:
1771:
1761:South End Press
1747:
1746:
1742:
1732:
1730:
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1724:
1711:
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1442:
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1424:
1417:
1410:
1393:
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1379:
1369:
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1346:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1314:
1313:
1294:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1251:
1249:
1230:
1225:
1224:
1189:
1159:
1158:
1133:
1129:
1077:
982:
924:software agents
920:decision making
912:
846:
841:
839:Representations
817:
792:Cogito ergo sum
741:tacit knowledge
729:
706:or capability:
678:
652:
612:
582:
562:
534:
486:that represent
480:
418:
378:
358:subjective data
349:, representing
339:
314:
301:Jennifer Rowley
291:Nathan Shedroff
269:Robert W. Lucky
208:computerization
188:
164:
148:
142:
139:
108:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2620:
2618:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2589:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2546:
2517:
2488:(2): 131–142.
2470:
2463:
2436:
2423:
2415:Rafael Capurro
2407:
2383:
2359:
2333:
2326:
2295:
2282:
2269:
2235:
2222:
2215:
2178:
2171:
2165:. p. 43.
2142:
2100:
2087:
2074:
2061:
2055:978-0262100694
2054:
2026:
2019:
1992:
1985:
1951:
1944:
1916:
1909:
1856:
1821:
1776:
1769:
1740:
1709:
1678:
1665:10.2307/974902
1659:(3): 189–196.
1636:
1605:
1596:
1577:
1570:
1547:
1540:
1447:
1440:
1415:
1408:
1377:
1339:
1332:
1292:
1259:
1241:(4): 479–493.
1187:
1168:(2): 163–180.
1130:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1123:
1117:
1108:
1102:
1096:
1090:
1084:
1076:
1073:
1054:operationalism
1047:neutral monism
1022:Arthur Bentley
985:Rafael Capurro
981:
978:
970:
969:
963:
956:
950:
911:
908:
845:
842:
840:
837:
816:
813:
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677:
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665:
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659:
651:
648:
611:
608:
599:
598:
591:
581:
574:
561:
554:
533:
530:
479:
478:Data as symbol
476:
449:is information
417:
416:Data as signal
414:
377:
374:
362:universal data
338:
335:
313:
310:
283:Anthony Debons
278:Silicon Dreams
246:Russell Ackoff
210:, in his book
187:
184:
163:
160:
147:
144:
136:
107:
104:
44:DIKW hierarchy
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2619:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2570:
2563:
2559:
2558:Hey, Jonathan
2555:
2554:
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2531:
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2153:
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2149:
2147:
2143:
2130:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2084:
2078:
2075:
2072:, at pp. 482.
2071:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2040:. Cambridge:
2039:
2038:
2030:
2027:
2022:
2016:
2013:. p. 5.
2012:
2008:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1969:
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1958:
1956:
1952:
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1800:Zeleny, Milan
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1597:
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1585:Eliot, T. S.
1581:
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1316:Zeleny, Milan
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832:
828:
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824:understanding
820:
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788:
784:
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748:
746:
742:
738:
737:propositional
733:
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649:
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632:
631:propositional
628:
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579:
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555:
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551:
547:
546:interrogative
543:
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250:understanding
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97:
93:
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
32:
19:
2576:. Retrieved
2569:the original
2537:. Retrieved
2533:
2503:10150/105670
2485:
2479:
2473:
2453:
2439:
2434:, at p. 485.
2431:
2426:
2418:
2410:
2401:
2397:
2375:. Retrieved
2373:. March 2015
2362:
2350:. Retrieved
2346:
2336:
2308:
2298:
2293:, at p. 480.
2290:
2285:
2280:, at p. 482.
2277:
2272:
2260:. Retrieved
2233:, at p. 483.
2230:
2225:
2197:
2158:
2133:. Retrieved
2128:
2122:
2098:, at p. 486.
2095:
2090:
2082:
2077:
2069:
2064:
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1807:
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1743:
1731:. Retrieved
1703:The Futurist
1701:
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60:data pyramid
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40:DIKW pyramid
39:
37:
18:DIKW Pyramid
2445:Dewey, John
2421:, at p. 481
2316:. pp.
1627:Exploration
1591:Poetry Nook
1400:Jossey Bass
1064:knowledge.
1058:inductivism
1041:fallacy of
769:that it is
556:Structural
548:questions (
532:Information
504:forecasting
492:perceptions
490:stimuli or
433:Information
406:nonsensical
384:Insofar as
366:observation
312:Description
200:Mike Cooley
196:Daniel Bell
133:, in 1934:
125:T. S. Eliot
76:information
2591:Categories
2539:3 February
2404:: 187–205.
2377:2023-06-29
2312:. Boston:
2205:. p.
2163:Kogan Page
2161:. London:
2044:. p.
2011:G. K. Hall
2009:. Boston:
1975:. p.
1759:. Monroe:
1127:References
1115:psychology
1018:John Dewey
1010:empiricist
980:Criticisms
878:functional
874:structural
856:DIKW is a
783:God exists
696:experience
580:subjective
560:functional
500:historical
323:subjective
306:Chaim Zins
204:automation
192:Yi-Fu Tuan
68:functional
64:structural
58:, and the
2578:2 October
2352:9 January
2262:7 January
2135:7 January
2042:MIT Press
1733:7 January
1370:8 January
1252:7 January
1062:practical
809:discourse
755:Knowledge
704:expertise
610:Knowledge
578:vis-Ă -vis
576:Symbolic
558:vis-Ă -vis
488:empirical
394:objective
327:objective
297:context.
265:Bell Labs
263:In 1989,
254:knowledge
227:know-what
150:In 1927,
100:continuum
92:hierarchy
80:knowledge
2451:(1949).
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1930:(1970).
1751:(1980).
1706:: 34–39.
1318:(2005).
1279:: 5–24.
1182:17000089
1075:See also
1002:synonyms
398:verified
360:. Where
267:veteran
235:know-why
231:know-how
176:messages
130:The Rock
2512:2973966
797:justify
759:thought
670:refiner
511:message
496:symbols
392:, have
351:stimuli
343:symbols
172:signals
106:History
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866:wisdom
815:Wisdom
767:belief
519:symbol
515:signal
258:wisdom
233:, and
84:wisdom
82:, and
2572:(PDF)
2565:(PDF)
2508:S2CID
2371:(PDF)
2203:Wiley
1669:JSTOR
1231:(PDF)
1178:S2CID
886:chart
757:is a
700:skill
484:signs
402:false
386:facts
370:facts
347:signs
96:chain
2580:2016
2541:2020
2459:ISBN
2354:2009
2322:ISBN
2264:2009
2211:ISBN
2167:ISBN
2137:2009
2050:ISBN
2015:ISBN
1981:ISBN
1940:ISBN
1905:ISBN
1765:ISBN
1735:2009
1566:ISBN
1536:ISBN
1436:ISBN
1404:ISBN
1372:2008
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1328:ISBN
1254:2009
1056:and
1038:data
1020:and
1008:and
862:data
787:e.g.
779:e.g.
775:e.g.
771:true
763:mind
682:i.e.
635:i.e.
595:etc.
550:e.g.
526:data
453:i.e.
445:e.g.
437:i.e.
390:true
337:Data
256:and
206:and
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38:The
2498:hdl
2490:doi
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