410:. It is about 100–335μm long, 2–3.7 μm wide at the base. 2-12 (mostly 3-5) branches can grow near apex with conidia. Macroconidia are also hyaline and in spindle-shape (truncate at the base and narrow down at the basal end). It is usually constructed by 2-5 septate, and approximately 27.5–57.5 × 7.5–12.5μm (mostly 35 × 9μm) in size. No
440:
The adhesive knob contains membrane-bound vesicles, 0.2-0.5μm in diameter, with various electron densities. The electron-dense vesicles are rarely seen in stalk cells' cytoplasm. When sticky knob adheres a nematode, electron-dense vesicles migrate toward nematode and discard the enzymatic contents to
536:
compared the population of nematode-trapping fungi in conventional and organic systems. A conventional system was soil plots that were fertilized by inorganic matters and grown with cover crop every four year. The organic system was soil plots that were treated with manure and grown with cover crop
502:
adheres, the transcriptional pattern changes significantly as well. The initial transcriptional responses begin after one hour of attachment. Approximately 40% of nematodes were paralyzed after four hours, and 372 gene clusters are upregulated only during this stage of infection. Among the 372 gene
417:
The spindle spores can develop into adhesive knob in the presence of nematodes. The adhesive knob is a globose adhesive cell locates at the end of non-adhesive stalk which is composed by one to three cells. The adhesive knob contains membrane-bound vesicles which is approximately 0.2-0.5μm. The
432:
When nematodes thrust into non-constricting loops or adhesive knobs, the trapping structures wedge the nematodes by the sticky surface. Nematodes struggle and sometimes become more tightly wedged because they contact other loops or knobs. In some cases, the struggle may be so violent that the
860:
Fekete, Csaba; Tholander, Margareta; Rajashekar, Balaji; Ahrén, Dag; Friman, Eva; Johansson, Tomas; Tunlid, Anders (February 2008). "Paralysis of nematodes: shifts in the transcriptome of the nematode-trapping fungus
Monacrosporium haptotylum during infection of Caenorhabditis elegans".
510:
On the other hand, 26 CFEM-containing proteins and 28 GLEYA-containing proteins are identified as adhesive molecules on knobs and loops. CFEM-containing proteins function as adhesion molecules or cell-surface receptors. GLEYA-containing proteins bind to lectin-like ligand domain.
441:
degrade the cuticle. The sub-cuticle swells and infection bulbs permeate the body. The infection bulb is separated from the sticky knob with septum. It can take about 36 hours to degrade a nematode, and a new trap will form afterward.
612:
Li, Yan; Hyde, Kevin D.; Jeewon, Rajesh; Cai, Lei; Vijaykrishna, Dhanasekaran; Zhang, Keqin (1 September 2005). "Phylogenetics and evolution of nematode-trapping fungi (Orbiliales) estimated from nuclear and protein coding genes".
433:
nematode can escape and detach the knobs or loops from stalks. The detached knobs or loops stay on the nematode's body and travel along. Eventually, the fungus will paralyze and digest the nematode. Evolutionary, this assist the
541:
is more populated in conventional plots. Yet, the cause of impact in population was unclear. Also, number of the fungus increased when water content was higher in soil. In general, nematode-trapping fungi prefer to colonize on
469:
Based on a cDNA microarray study, 23.3% of the studied gene pool are differentially expressed in mycelium and knobs. Some of those genes are responsible for cell polarity regulation. For example,
937:
Zhao, Yong; Su, Hao; Zhou, Jing; Feng, Huihua; Zhang, Ke-Qin; Yang, Jinkui (August 2015). "The APSES family proteins in fungi: Characterizations, evolution and functions".
1042:
418:
other trapping structure, non-constricting loop, is constructed by three cells which elongate from stalk and fuse back to base. The inner area of the loop is sticky.
1141:
454:
Although the nematode-attractant has not been identified, a common hypothesis is the nematode-trapping fungus are able to release pheromones to attract nematodes.
1167:
1089:
274:
can germinate into sticky knobs or non-constricting loops. The fungus traps nematodes with sticky knobs and non-constricting loops, then breakdown the
1128:
757:
Meerupati, Tejashwari; Andersson, Karl-Magnus; Friman, Eva; Kumar, Dharmendra; Tunlid, Anders; Ahrén, Dag; Richardson, Paul M. (14 November 2013).
596:
1026:
701:
666:
Scholler, Markus; Hagedorn, Gregor; Rubner, A. (1999). "A reevaluation of predatory orbiliaceous fungi.II. A new generic concept".
1223:
898:"Molecular Mechanisms of Nematode-Nematophagous Microbe Interactions: Basis for Biological Control of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes"
896:
Li, Juan; Zou, Chenggang; Xu, Jianping; Ji, Xinglai; Niu, Xuemei; Yang, Jinkui; Huang, Xiaowei; Zhang, Ke-Qin (4 August 2015).
722:
Saikawa, Masatoshi; Kaneko, Makoto (April 1994). "Electron microscopy of infection of nematodes by
Dactylaria haptotyla".
813:"Comparison of gene expression in trap cells and vegetative hyphae of the nematophagous fungus Monacrosporium haptotylum"
403:(unpigmented) to whitish or faintly pink colour. Colony diameter can expand by 4 cm at 25 °C within 10 days.
321:. The classification was ambiguous because the fungus does not form non-constricting loops all the time. For example,
1172:
562:
as bio-control agent in agricultural industry has been explored. However, the application has not been proven yet.
283:
1228:
1218:
1057:
498:
493:. Particularly, peptide sequences of some defense and stress response protein are significantly similar.
399:
can be isolated on corn meal agar. After fifteen days of incubation, the colour of colonies changes from
477:
are downregulated in knobs. Moreover, the transcription pattern of sticky knobs shows similarities with
134:
1182:
1120:
358:
1036:
842:
739:
483:
448:
287:
160:
31:
1146:
1190:
1102:
1022:
999:
954:
919:
878:
834:
790:
697:
648:
640:
592:
489:
151:
1195:
989:
946:
909:
870:
824:
780:
770:
731:
630:
622:
302:
759:"Genomic Mechanisms Accounting for the Adaptation to Parasitism in Nematode-Trapping Fungi"
914:
897:
1115:
785:
758:
364:
78:
66:
278:, and penetrates the body of nematodes to obtain nutrients. For its predatory nature,
1212:
1094:
874:
444:
411:
345:
743:
1107:
846:
376:
353:
114:
349:
1080:
775:
994:
977:
626:
478:
102:
301:
belongs to the family
Orbiliaceae. Before nematode-trapping fungi were studied
950:
370:
344:
In 1999, the carnivorous fungi of
Orbiliaceae has been reclassified based on
309:
had been classified with more than five synonyms, and it is commonly known as
90:
54:
644:
973:
543:
533:
1003:
958:
923:
882:
838:
794:
652:
829:
1154:
1074:
537:
every year. Different nematode-trapping fungi prefers different systems.
470:
267:
1133:
735:
635:
474:
407:
400:
275:
978:"Nematode-Trapping Fungi in Organic and Conventional Cropping Systems"
812:
337:
only form adhesive knobs. Yet, these four species are all synonyms of
1159:
547:
380:) which correspond to their nematode-trapping structures. Therefore,
271:
263:
1051:
388:
because of its non-constricting loops and sticky knobs structure.
42:
213:
1055:
1017:
Blackwell, C.J. Alexopoulos ; C.W. Mims ; M. (1996).
406:
Conidiophores are hyaline branches that are constructed by 5-7
429:
traps nematodes by adhesive knobs and non-constricting loops.
466:
is estimated as 40.4Mb with 271 genes/Mb and 3.3 exons/gene.
329:
form stalk adhesive knobs and non-constricting rings, while
352:
datasets. Nematode-trapping fungi can be grouped into four
514:
APES protein with unknown function was also identified in
447:, has been identified in the mycelial extracts. It is an
696:(Aufl. 2014 ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.
1064:
437:to migrate to new sites and explore food sources.
270:as nutrient source. In the presence of nematodes,
205:(Drechsler) Xing Z. Liu & K.Q. Zhang (1994)
154:) M. Scholler, Hagedorn & A. Rubner (1999)
717:
715:
713:
8:
1041:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
591:. Guelph: Canadian Biological Publications.
582:
580:
578:
576:
574:
806:
804:
687:
685:
683:
681:
240:K.Q. Zhang, Xing Z. Liu & L. Cao (1996)
1052:
692:Ke-Qin Zhang; Kevin D. Hyde, eds. (2014).
20:
993:
913:
828:
784:
774:
634:
197:(Drechsler) de Hoog & Oorschot (1985)
570:
503:clusters, 79% of genes are specific to
451:that is antibacterial and nematocidal.
1034:
550:substrates with low nitrogen content.
7:
1183:414a79d6-a284-4cdb-a593-845120a0f046
266:that develops structures to capture
915:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080614-120336
529:is distributed in soil worldwide.
507:or other closely related species.
14:
1021:(4. ed.). New York : Wiley.
875:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2007.01457.x
414:have been observed in cultures.
902:Annual Review of Phytopathology
481:of plant pathogenic fungi like
1:
589:The nematode-destroying fungi
384:has been classified as genus
776:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003909
532:In 1998, Jaffee, Ferris and
995:10.1094/PHYTO.1998.88.4.344
972:Jaffee, B. A.; Ferris, H.;
939:Fungal Genetics and Biology
627:10.3852/mycologia.97.5.1034
1245:
863:Environmental Microbiology
811:Ahren, D. (1 March 2005).
422:Nematode-trapping features
951:10.1016/j.fgb.2014.12.003
462:The total genome size of
237:Monacrosporium yunnanense
202:Monacrosporium haptotylum
166:
159:
140:
133:
32:Scientific classification
30:
23:
315:Monacrosporium haptotyla
284:nematode-trapping fungus
262:is a common soil-living
189:(Drechsler) Rifai (1968)
181:(Drechsler) Mekht (1967)
1224:Fungi described in 1817
694:Nematode-trapping fungi
186:Candelabrella haptotyla
1066:Dactylellina haptotyla
560:Dactylellina haptotyla
539:Dactylellina haptotyla
527:Dactylellina haptotyla
516:Dactylellina haptotyla
505:Dactylellina haptotyla
499:Caenorhabditis elegans
464:Dactylellina haptotyla
435:Dactylellina haptotyla
427:Dactyllelina haptotyla
397:Dactylellina haptotyla
382:Dactylellina haptotyla
339:Dactylellina haptotyla
307:Dactylellina haptotyla
299:Dactylellina haptotyla
282:is also considered as
280:Dactylellina haptotyla
259:Dactylellina haptotyla
229:Golovinia capitulopaga
221:Dactylaria sclerohypha
170:Arthrobotrys haptotyla
144:Dactylellina haptotyla
25:Dactylellina haptotyla
1019:Introductory mycology
830:10.1099/mic.0.27485-0
587:Barron, G.L. (1977).
392:Growth and morphology
245:Dactylellina candidum
319:Dactylella haptotyla
311:Arthrobotrys candida
248:(Nees) Yan Li (2006)
194:Dactylella haptotyla
522:Habitat and ecology
178:Golovinia haptotyla
736:10.1007/BF02268534
484:Magnaporthe grisea
449:aliphatic compound
288:carnivorous fungus
210:Dactylium candidum
1206:
1205:
1191:Open Tree of Life
1058:Taxon identifiers
490:Blumeria graminis
255:
254:
249:
241:
233:
225:
217:
206:
198:
190:
182:
174:
127:D. haptotyla
16:Species of fungus
1236:
1199:
1198:
1186:
1185:
1176:
1175:
1163:
1162:
1150:
1149:
1137:
1136:
1124:
1123:
1111:
1110:
1098:
1097:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1040:
1032:
1014:
1008:
1007:
997:
969:
963:
962:
934:
928:
927:
917:
893:
887:
886:
857:
851:
850:
832:
808:
799:
798:
788:
778:
769:(11): e1003909.
754:
748:
747:
719:
708:
707:
689:
676:
675:
663:
657:
656:
638:
621:(5): 1034–1046.
609:
603:
602:
584:
303:phylogenetically
247:
239:
231:
224:Drechsler (1950)
223:
212:
204:
196:
188:
180:
173:Drechsler (1977)
172:
146:
21:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1194:
1189:
1181:
1179:
1171:
1166:
1158:
1153:
1145:
1140:
1132:
1127:
1119:
1114:
1106:
1101:
1093:
1088:
1079:
1078:
1073:
1060:
1050:
1033:
1029:
1016:
1015:
1011:
971:
970:
966:
936:
935:
931:
895:
894:
890:
859:
858:
854:
810:
809:
802:
756:
755:
751:
721:
720:
711:
704:
691:
690:
679:
665:
664:
660:
611:
610:
606:
599:
586:
585:
572:
568:
556:
524:
460:
424:
394:
296:
155:
148:
142:
129:
117:
105:
93:
81:
69:
57:
45:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1242:
1240:
1232:
1231:
1229:Fungus species
1226:
1221:
1219:Pezizomycotina
1211:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1200:
1187:
1177:
1164:
1151:
1138:
1125:
1112:
1099:
1086:
1070:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1056:
1049:
1048:
1027:
1009:
988:(4): 344–350.
982:Phytopathology
976:(April 1998).
964:
929:
888:
869:(2): 364–375.
852:
823:(3): 789–803.
800:
749:
709:
702:
677:
658:
604:
598:978-0920370001
597:
569:
567:
564:
555:
554:Industrial use
552:
523:
520:
459:
456:
423:
420:
412:chlamydospores
393:
390:
365:Monacrosporium
331:M. sclerohypha
295:
292:
253:
252:
251:
250:
242:
234:
226:
218:
207:
199:
191:
183:
175:
164:
163:
157:
156:
149:
138:
137:
131:
130:
125:
123:
119:
118:
113:
111:
107:
106:
101:
99:
95:
94:
89:
87:
83:
82:
79:Orbiliomycetes
77:
75:
71:
70:
67:Pezizomycotina
65:
63:
59:
58:
53:
51:
47:
46:
41:
39:
35:
34:
28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1241:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1076:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1044:
1038:
1030:
1028:9780471522294
1024:
1020:
1013:
1010:
1005:
1001:
996:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
968:
965:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
933:
930:
925:
921:
916:
911:
907:
903:
899:
892:
889:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
856:
853:
848:
844:
840:
836:
831:
826:
822:
818:
814:
807:
805:
801:
796:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
768:
764:
763:PLOS Genetics
760:
753:
750:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
718:
716:
714:
710:
705:
703:9789401787307
699:
695:
688:
686:
684:
682:
678:
673:
669:
662:
659:
654:
650:
646:
642:
637:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
608:
605:
600:
594:
590:
583:
581:
579:
577:
575:
571:
565:
563:
561:
553:
551:
549:
545:
540:
535:
530:
528:
521:
519:
517:
512:
508:
506:
501:
500:
494:
492:
491:
486:
485:
480:
476:
472:
467:
465:
457:
455:
452:
450:
446:
445:Linoleic acid
442:
438:
436:
430:
428:
421:
419:
415:
413:
409:
404:
402:
398:
391:
389:
387:
383:
379:
378:
373:
372:
367:
366:
361:
360:
355:
351:
347:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
293:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
260:
246:
243:
238:
235:
232:Mekht. (1979)
230:
227:
222:
219:
215:
211:
208:
203:
200:
195:
192:
187:
184:
179:
176:
171:
168:
167:
165:
162:
158:
153:
147:
145:
139:
136:
135:Binomial name
132:
128:
124:
121:
120:
116:
112:
109:
108:
104:
100:
97:
96:
92:
88:
85:
84:
80:
76:
73:
72:
68:
64:
62:Subdivision:
61:
60:
56:
52:
49:
48:
44:
40:
37:
36:
33:
29:
26:
22:
19:
1065:
1018:
1012:
985:
981:
967:
942:
938:
932:
908:(1): 67–95.
905:
901:
891:
866:
862:
855:
820:
817:Microbiology
816:
766:
762:
752:
730:(1): 89–94.
727:
723:
693:
674:(1): 89–113.
671:
667:
661:
618:
614:
607:
588:
559:
557:
538:
531:
526:
525:
515:
513:
509:
504:
497:
495:
488:
482:
468:
463:
461:
453:
443:
439:
434:
431:
426:
425:
416:
405:
396:
395:
386:Dactylellina
385:
381:
377:Dactylellina
375:
369:
363:
359:Arhtrobotrys
357:
354:monophyletic
343:
338:
335:M.haptotylum
334:
330:
327:M.yunnanense
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
298:
297:
279:
258:
257:
256:
244:
236:
228:
220:
209:
201:
193:
185:
177:
169:
143:
141:
126:
115:Dactylellina
24:
18:
974:Scow, K. M.
945:: 271–280.
724:Mycoscience
636:10722/53351
558:The use of
479:appressoria
323:M. candidum
103:Orbiliaceae
1213:Categories
566:References
371:Dactylella
91:Orbiliales
55:Ascomycota
50:Division:
1081:Q28407457
1037:cite book
645:0027-5514
615:Mycologia
544:cellulose
350:β-tubulin
268:nematodes
152:Drechsler
122:Species:
38:Kingdom:
1155:MycoBank
1147:10895755
1116:Fungorum
1095:60019987
1090:AusFungi
1075:Wikidata
1004:18944958
959:25534868
924:25938277
883:18028414
839:15758225
795:24244185
744:84235224
653:16596955
471:profilin
458:Genomics
294:Taxonomy
161:Synonyms
98:Family:
1134:2587257
847:9191426
786:3828140
668:Sydowia
475:cofilin
408:septate
401:hyaline
356:clade (
276:cuticle
110:Genus:
86:Order:
74:Class:
1196:889021
1180:NZOR:
1173:430498
1160:459738
1121:459738
1025:
1002:
957:
922:
881:
845:
837:
793:
783:
742:
700:
651:
643:
595:
548:lignin
272:spores
264:fungus
216:(1817)
1142:IRMNG
1108:33TZQ
843:S2CID
740:S2CID
496:When
43:Fungi
1168:NCBI
1129:GBIF
1043:link
1023:ISBN
1000:PMID
955:PMID
920:PMID
879:PMID
835:PMID
791:PMID
698:ISBN
649:PMID
641:ISSN
593:ISBN
546:and
534:Scow
487:and
473:and
374:and
348:and
346:rDNA
333:and
325:and
317:and
214:Nees
1103:CoL
990:doi
947:doi
910:doi
871:doi
825:doi
821:151
781:PMC
771:doi
732:doi
631:hdl
623:doi
286:or
1215::
1193::
1170::
1157::
1144::
1131::
1118::
1105::
1092::
1077::
1039:}}
1035:{{
998:.
986:88
984:.
980:.
953:.
943:81
941:.
918:.
906:53
904:.
900:.
877:.
867:10
865:.
841:.
833:.
819:.
815:.
803:^
789:.
779:.
765:.
761:.
738:.
728:35
726:.
712:^
680:^
672:51
670:.
647:.
639:.
629:.
619:97
617:.
573:^
518:.
368:,
362:,
341:.
313:,
305:,
290:.
1045:)
1031:.
1006:.
992::
961:.
949::
926:.
912::
885:.
873::
849:.
827::
797:.
773::
767:9
746:.
734::
706:.
655:.
633::
625::
601:.
150:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.