103:
381:. He noted that without specification in a constitutional text, judges are free to input their own values while interpreting a constitution. Bork proposed one principled method to avoid this: for judges to "take from the document rather specific values that text or history show the framers actually to have intended and which are capable of being translated into principled rules." By following the original meaning, an originalist Supreme Court would therefore "need make no fundamental value choices," and its rulings would be restrained.
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667:, wrote that "We must never forget that it is a Constitution for the United States of America that we are expounding. . . . Where there is not first a settled consensus among our own people, the views of other nations, however enlightened the Justices of this Court may think them to be, cannot be imposed upon Americans through the Constitution."
521:
638:
described originalism as "arrogance cloaked as humility" during a 1985 speech at
Georgetown University. In this speech, he also stated “It is arrogant to pretend that from our vantage we can gauge accurately the intent of the framers", and that politicians that claim to do so are motivated purely by
555:
A faithful judge resists the temptation to conflate the meaning of the
Constitution with the judge’s own political preference; judges who give into that temptation exceed the limits of their power by holding a statute unconstitutional when it is not. That was the heart of the originalist critique of
477:
in 1986 with the 1990s seeing originalism becoming a broadly endorsed view in the conservative legal movement. The
Department of Justice under the Ronald Reagan administration played an important role in lending legitimacy to originalism in the 1980s.
1125:
433:
During the 1980s, liberal members of the legal academy criticized the original intent formulated by Bork, Berger, and Meese. Serious opposition, beginning in law schools, evolved from debates in singular law review articles to books. In 1980,
470:. Brest and Powell suggested versions of originalism that sought higher purposes than a specific framer's intent, leading to a shift in the dominant form of originalism from original intent to the original public understanding.
2127:
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argues that originalism is remarkably unpopular outside the United States (including Canada, South Africa, India, Israel, and most of Europe), where minimalism or textualism are the recommended responses to judicial activism.
2458:
693:
means). Scalia averred that he was "not a strict constructionist, and no-one ought to be"; he goes further, calling strict constructionism "a degraded form of textualism that brings the whole philosophy into disrepute".
564:, who has been described as a protege of Scalia's, said at her confirmation hearing that she interprets the Constitution "as text, and I understand it to have the meaning that it had at the time people ratified it."
1251:"How 'History and Tradition' Rulings Are Changing American Law - A new legal standard is gaining traction among conservative judges — one that might turn back the clock on drag shows, gun restrictions and more"
346:
Contemporary originalism emerged during the 1980s and greatly influenced
American legal culture, practice, and academia. Over time, originalism became more popular and gained mainstream acceptance by 2020.
1395:
646:
argues at length that the
Supreme Court Justices who claim to be Originalists actually apply Originalism in a highly selective manner "which typically abets substantively conservative decisionmaking."
606:, a frequent critic of conservative originalism, argues that some aspects of the constitution were intentionally broad and vague to allow for future generations to interpret them along with the times.
446:
was nonexistent and attempting to do so would be extremely difficult. He also posited that historical changes between the time of adoption to the present made originalism inapplicable in areas such as
107:
442:, published "The Misconceived Quest for the Original Understanding," an article whose criticism of originalism proved formative and influential. Brest argued that a collective intent among the
2625:
1993:
2813:
536:
Original public understanding originalism bases the meaning of a constitutional provision on how the public which ratified it would have generally understood it to mean.
422:, a jurisprudence that "would produce defensible principles of government that would not be tainted by ideological predilection." A few months after the speech, Justice
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Proponents of originalism argue that originalism was the primary method of legal interpretation in
America from the time of its founding until the time of the
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339:, which asserts that a constitution should evolve and be interpreted based on the context of current times. Originalism should not be confused with
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once remarked that Black's record was evidence that "jurisprudence of original intention is not some recent conservative ideological creation".
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427:
269:
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102:
1333:"CRS Legal Sidebar Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress Legal Sidebar The Modes of Constitutional Analysis: Original Meaning"
681:
Antonin Scalia differentiated the two by pointing out that, unlike an originalist, a strict constructionist would not acknowledge that
486:
In May 2024, conservative justices on the
Supreme Court are reported to be considering new alternative interpretations of originalism.
2252:
2149:
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1958:
1852:
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1643:
1515:(First Simon & Schuster hardcover ed.). New York London ; Toronto ; Sydney ; New Delhi: Simon & Schuster.
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in the
Constitution and saw nothing wrong with delegations as a matter of legal theory, contrary to the claims of some originalists.
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1982:
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87:
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the Warren and Burger Courts. At the same time, fidelity will inevitably require a court to hold some statutes unconstitutional.
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455:
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1950:
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827:"Common-Law Courts in a Civil-Law System: The Role of United States Federal Courts in Interpreting the Constitution and Laws"
796:
411:
1721:
Kersch, Ken I. "Beyond originalism: Conservative declarationism and constitutional redemption." Md. L. Rev. 71 (2011): 229.
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500:
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relied entirely on historical evidence of the views of
Madison and Jefferson and the appropriateness of interpreting the
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interpretation of text on the original understanding at the time of its adoption. Proponents of the theory object to
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2007:
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190:
1027:
Paul Brest, The
Misconceived Quest for the Original Understanding, 60 Boston University Law Review 204–238 (1980).
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but over the years important differences have developed among originalist scholars. Amy Coney Barrett explains:
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Originalism consists of a family of different theories of constitutional interpretation and can refer to
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1972:
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663:(with an exception for British law before 1791). Justice Scalia, echoing Chief Justice John Marshall in
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377:
186:
1386:"Amy Coney Barrett, a disciple of Justice Scalia, is poised to push the Supreme Court further right"
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463:
451:
336:
313:
214:
182:
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The originalism debate has divided the American public since the school desegregation decision in
371:
is credited with proposing the first modern theory of originalism in his 1971 law review article,
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2474:
2371:
2082:
1936:
Maltz, Earl (2000). "Brown v. Board of Education and "Originalism"". In George, Robert P. (ed.).
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and that constructionism is only appropriate when deriving the original intent proves difficult.
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1978:
1954:
1927:
Levinson, Sanford (1988). "Law as Literature". In Mailloux, Steven; Levinson, Sanford (eds.).
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199:
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730:
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418:, advanced a constitutional jurisprudence based on original intent in a speech before the
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31:
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2015:
1968:
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1126:"Transformative Bureaucracy: Reagan's Lawyers and the Dynamics of Political Investment"
726:
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467:
335:
or original meaning. Critics of originalism often turn to the competing concept of the
2787:
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2520:
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1753:
698:
415:
240:
161:
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comparing and contrasting originalism from the "living constitution" approach (2005)
2055:
Constitutional Interpretation: Textual Meaning, Original Intent, and Judicial Review
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627:
591:
544:
399:
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612:
argues that originalism is a new concept, and not one espoused by the founders.
462:. Other scholars of the period adopted and expanded Brest's critiques, including
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603:
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describe themselves as originalists in scholarly writings and public speeches.
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political reasons, as they “have no familiarity with the historical record."
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document and so that natural law has a place within American jurisprudence.
430:
was indiscernible, and that text could only be understood in present terms.
2435:
2141:
2108:
2031:
1487:"Justice Jackson Joins the Supreme Court, and the Debate Over Originalism"
1180:
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2185:
2129:
Originalism's Promise: A Natural Law Account of the American Constitution
356:
1802:
1779:
1235:
1203:
2415:
2195:
The Challenge of Originalism: Theories of Constitutional Interpretation
2172:"What is Originalism? The Evolution of Contemporary Originalist Theory"
1974:
Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution
1384:; Barnes, Robert; Boburg, Sahwn; Merimow, Ann E. (September 26, 2020).
2313:
1904:"The Interpretive Force of the Constitution's Secret Drafting History"
2656:
2340:
2277:
Trumping Precedent with Original Meaning: Not as Radical as It Sounds
1362:
Barrett, Amy Coney (2017). "Countering the Majoritarian Difficulty".
2459:
Right America: Feeling Wronged – Some Voices from the Campaign Trail
2276:
402:
Courts were illegitimate, as they deviated from the Constitution's
2159:
1947:
Originalism in American Law and Politics: A Constitutional History
2316:
at the Center for the Study of Constitutional Originalism at the
1787:
Baude, William (2017). "Originalism as a Constraint on Judges".
812:"Two Views of the Constitution: Originalism vs. Non-Originalism"
763:"Originalism Bolsters the Democratic Process by Checking Judges"
426:
rejected Meese's view, claiming that the original intent of the
359:, when competing theories of interpretation grew in prominence.
2344:
1880:
Fontana, David (February 1, 2011). "Comparative Originalism".
1586:"Justice Brennan Calls Criticism of Court Disguised Arrogance"
36:
108:
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States
52:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
2434:
1739:
Restoring the Lost Constitution: The Presumption of Liberty
1461:"Chemerinsky: Originalism has taken over the Supreme Court"
902:
The Constitution in Congress: Democrats and Whigs 1829–1861
713:
Declarationism is a legal philosophy that incorporates the
2193:
Huscroft, Grant; Miller, Bradley W., eds. (October 2011).
1165:"Principle and Politics in the New History of Originalism"
2286:
Barrett, Amy Coney; Nagle, John Copeland (October 2016).
2097:
A Debt Against the Living: An Introduction to Originalism
1418:"AP Explains: Originalism, Barrett's judicial philosophy"
733:
have been cited as proponents of this school of thought.
1840:
Worse Than Nothing: The Dangerous Fallacy of Originalism
1513:
The supermajority: how the Supreme Court divided America
1095:
1093:
927:
925:
320:
argue for democratic modifications of laws through the
61:
1760:(August 2019). "Originalism and the Law of the Past".
1929:
Interpreting Law and Literature: A Hermeneutic Reader
1741:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
543:
The conservative originalist movement spearheaded by
373:
Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems
2695:
2634:
2483:
2445:
2378:
1613:"Selective Originalism and Judicial Role Morality"
1536:Mortenson, Julian Davis; Bagley, Nicholas (2021).
2058:. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
1994:"Method and Dialogue in History and Originalism"
30:"Originalist" redirects here. For the play, see
1636:Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts
797:"The Holmes Lectures: The Living Constitution"
689:(because, strictly speaking, this is not what
659:Many Originalists reject any consideration of
475:failed Supreme Court nomination of Robert Bork
2356:
270:
50:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
1949:. The Johns Hopkins Constitutional Thought.
1902:Kesavan, Vasan and Paulsen, Michael Stokes.
1298:sfn error: no target: CITEREFYarbrough2008 (
717:into the body of case law on level with the
2453:Electoral history of the Tea Party movement
1699:The Original Meaning of the Commerce Clause
1446:
875:
2363:
2349:
2341:
1634:Scalia, Antonin; Garner, Bryan A. (2011).
540:was one of its most prominent theorists.
277:
263:
117:
2814:Theories of constitutional interpretation
1293:
1130:Studies in American Political Development
743:Unconstitutional constitutional amendment
715:United States Declaration of Independence
619:, the Founding Fathers did not include a
394:(1977), positing that the rulings by the
88:Learn how and when to remove this message
1945:O'Neill, Jonathan (September 17, 2007).
1917:"On Reading Recipes — and Constitutions"
1816:Originalism: A Quarter-Century of Debate
1281:
701:asserts that originalism is a theory of
519:
101:
1398:from the original on September 27, 2020
753:
312:and other interpretations related to a
174:
148:
127:
120:
2245:American Dialogue: The Founders and Us
2078:"Originalism: A Critical Introduction"
1588:. Associated Press. October 13, 1985.
1204:"Originalism and the Academy in Exile"
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27:Constitutional interpretation doctrine
2318:University of San Diego School of Law
1716:
1714:
1434:
1349:
1111:
721:. It holds that the Declaration is a
532:) was a firm believer in originalism.
473:The debate grew more heated with the
444:Founding Fathers of the United States
428:Founding Fathers of the United States
7:
1819:. Washington, DC: Regnery Pub. Inc.
1790:The University of Chicago Law Review
1611:Fallon, Richard H. (December 2023).
1315:"Scalia's Contradictory Originalism"
1263:from the original on April 29, 2024
810:Vloet, Katie (September 22, 2015).
795:Ackerman, Bruce (January 1, 2017).
2794:Supreme Court of the United States
1772:American Society for Legal History
1592:from the original on March 7, 2016
626:Columbia Law School legal scholar
175:General theories of interpretation
25:
2799:Conservatism in the United States
2298:(1). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania:
2226:Mr. Justice Black and his critics
1938:Great Cases in Constitutional Law
1873:Church, State and Original Intent
1864:The Failed Promise of Originalism
1687:, Amy Guttman ed. 1997, at p. 23.
1485:Liptak, Adam (October 10, 2022).
1339:. Congressional Research Service.
1249:Bazelon, Emily (April 29, 2024).
1169:American Journal of Legal History
761:Alt, Robert (November 15, 2022).
655:International Law and Originalism
642:Harvard Law School legal scholar
615:According to a 2021 paper in the
494:The historical arguments made by
2804:United States constitutional law
2765:
1992:Sawyer, Logan E. (August 2019).
1931:. Northwestern University Press.
41:
1564:"On the Origins of Originalism"
149:General rules of interpretation
2224:Yarbrough, Tinsley E. (1988).
1951:Johns Hopkins University Press
412:United States Attorney General
1:
2667:National Tea Party Federation
2626:List of Tea Party politicians
2335:Center for Individual Freedom
2292:Journal of Constitutional Law
2262:Why Originalism Is So Popular
1977:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
1940:. Princeton University Press.
1875:. Cambridge University Press.
814:. University of Michigan Law.
799:. Yale University Law School.
516:Original public understanding
501:Everson v. Board of Education
236:Common good constitutionalism
136:Constitutional interpretation
2465:Taxpayer March on Washington
2095:Wurman, Ilan (August 2017).
1871:Drakeman, Donald L. (2010).
1866:. Stanford University Press.
1638:. St. Paul, MN: West Group.
1538:"Delegation at the Founding"
547:in the 1980s was a call for
2288:"Congressional Originalism"
906:University of Chicago Press
575:Brown v. Board of Education
440:dean of Stanford Law School
64:, discuss the issue on the
2830:
2300:University of Pennsylvania
2199:Cambridge University Press
2134:Cambridge University Press
2101:Cambridge University Press
2024:Cambridge University Press
2008:Cambridge University Press
1677:A Matter of Interpretation
1202:Baumgardner, Paul (2019).
719:United States Constitution
674:
388:expanded on the theory in
29:
2759:
2672:Senate Conservatives Fund
2432:
2391:Popular constitutionalism
1704:October 19, 2020, at the
1511:Waldman, Michael (2023).
1364:Constitutional Commentary
1220:10.1017/S0738248019000336
1163:Sawyer, Logan E. (2017).
1142:10.1017/S0898588X09000030
1124:Teles, Steven M. (2009).
900:Currie, David P. (2005).
2647:Americans for Tax Reform
2642:Americans for Prosperity
2228:. Duke University Press.
2207:10.1017/CBO9781139003926
1313:Purdy, Jedediah (2016).
508:based on that evidence.
420:American Bar Association
326:constitutional amendment
141:Statutory interpretation
2772:Conservatism portal
2723:Second Amendment Caucus
2386:American exceptionalism
2126:Strang, Lee J. (2019).
438:, who later became the
391:Government by Judiciary
122:Judicial interpretation
113:Howard Chandler Christy
2713:Libertarian Republican
2439:
2426:Opposition to taxation
2264:(January 13, 2011) by
2177:Georgetown Law Journal
1999:Law and History Review
1921:Georgetown Law Journal
1908:Georgetown Law Journal
1763:Law and History Review
1660:Smith v. United States
1208:Law and History Review
677:Strict constructionism
671:Strict constructionism
636:William J. Brennan Jr.
634:Supreme Court Justice
621:nondelegation doctrine
602:Supreme Court Justice
558:
533:
524:Supreme Court Justice
341:strict constructionism
221:Strict constructionism
115:
2470:Restoring Honor rally
2438:
2396:Contract from America
2331:Woodrow Wilson Center
2142:10.1017/9781108688093
2109:10.1017/9781108304221
2074:Whittington, Keith E.
2050:Whittington, Keith E.
2032:10.1017/9781108105316
1862:Cross, Frank (2013).
1845:Yale University Press
1600:– via LA Times.
845:on September 11, 2006
644:Richard H. Fallon Jr.
553:
523:
460:gender discrimination
105:
2314:The Originalism Blog
2186:10.2139/ssrn.1825543
2020:Originalism as Faith
1811:Calabresi, Steven G.
687:he walks with a cane
506:Establishment Clause
378:The Yale Law Journal
316:framework. Instead,
70:create a new article
62:improve this article
2746:(founded by Kremer)
2733:Tea Party Community
1542:Columbia Law Review
1424:. October 14, 2020.
1391:The Washington Post
1181:10.1093/ajlh/njx002
617:Columbia Law Review
464:H. Jefferson Powell
452:freedom of religion
337:Living Constitution
314:living constitution
215:legislative history
183:Living Constitution
2682:Tea Party Patriots
2475:Tea Party protests
2440:
2372:Tea Party movement
2168:Solum, Lawrence B.
2083:Fordham Law Review
1835:Chemerinsky, Erwin
1491:The New York Times
1459:Journal, A. B. A.
1256:The New York Times
835:University of Utah
665:Marbury v. Madison
549:judicial restraint
534:
231:Purposive approach
211:legislative intent
157:Plain meaning rule
116:
2781:
2780:
2677:Tea Party Express
2406:Paleoconservatism
1826:978-1-59698-050-1
1758:Sachs, Stephen E.
1735:Barnett, Randy E.
1685:978-0-691-00400-6
1562:(November 2009).
1522:978-1-6680-0606-1
1055:, p. 66–67;
908:. pp. xiii.
825:Scalia, Antonin.
661:International law
650:Related positions
584:Amy Coney Barrett
562:Amy Coney Barrett
310:judicial activism
287:
286:
191:Living instrument
98:
97:
90:
72:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
2821:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2747:
2728:Tea Party Caucus
2687:Tea Party Nation
2501:Michele Bachmann
2365:
2358:
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2303:
2279:(4 May 2005) by
2271:The New Republic
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2011:
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1883:Texas Law Review
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1797:(3): 2213–2229.
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1568:Texas Law Review
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1447:Chemerinsky 2022
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1422:Associated Press
1414:
1408:
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1382:Kranish, Michael
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879:
878:, p. 10–12.
876:Chemerinsky 2022
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838:. Archived from
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414:under President
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2652:Club for Growth
2630:
2479:
2441:
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2310:
2285:
2255:
2241:Joseph J. Ellis
2239:
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2234:Further reading
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2152:
2125:
2119:
2094:
2072:
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2048:
2042:
2016:Segall, Eric J.
2014:
1991:
1985:
1969:Rakove, Jack N.
1967:
1961:
1944:
1935:
1926:
1914:Lawson, Gary S.
1879:
1870:
1861:
1855:
1833:
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1706:Wayback Machine
1695:
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1617:Texas Law Revue
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966:
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950:
942:
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930:
923:
916:
899:
898:
894:
890:, p. 9–42.
886:
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862:
858:
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842:
829:
824:
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819:
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739:
731:Clarence Thomas
711:
679:
673:
657:
652:
610:Michael Waldman
600:
588:Clarence Thomas
570:
518:
492:
490:Original intent
484:
424:William Brennan
404:original intent
375:, published in
365:
353:
333:original intent
283:
251:Legal formalism
208:
206:Original intent
94:
83:
77:
74:
59:
46:
42:
35:
32:The Originalist
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2718:Liberty Caucus
2715:
2710:
2708:Freedom Caucus
2705:
2703:Breitbart News
2699:
2697:
2696:Related topics
2693:
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2327:Antonin Scalia
2320:
2309:
2308:External links
2306:
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2266:Eric A. Posner
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2254:978-0385353427
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2012:
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1911:
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1854:978-0300259902
1853:
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1813:, ed. (2007).
1807:
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1754:Baude, William
1750:
1747:978-0691115856
1730:
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1645:978-0314275554
1644:
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1577:
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1528:
1521:
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1477:
1451:
1439:
1437:, p. 141.
1427:
1409:
1373:
1354:
1342:
1324:
1319:The New Yorker
1305:
1296:, p. 263.
1294:Yarbrough 2008
1286:
1284:, p. 107.
1274:
1241:
1214:(3): 787–807.
1194:
1175:(2): 198–222.
1155:
1116:
1114:, p. 142.
1104:
1089:
1083:, p. 16;
1073:
1061:
1045:
1039:, p. 66;
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727:Harry V. Jaffa
710:
709:Declarationism
707:
703:interpretation
697:Legal scholar
691:he uses a cane
683:he uses a cane
675:Main article:
672:
669:
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580:Antonin Scalia
569:
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526:Antonin Scalia
517:
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468:Ronald Dworkin
384:Law professor
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2609:
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2281:Randy Barnett
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2093:
2090:(2): 375–409.
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2065:0-7006-0969-5
2061:
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2013:
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1560:Greene, Jamal
1555:
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1514:
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1492:
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1455:
1452:
1449:, p. 12.
1448:
1443:
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1431:
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1419:
1413:
1410:
1402:September 27,
1397:
1393:
1392:
1387:
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1377:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1355:
1352:, p. 11.
1351:
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1320:
1316:
1309:
1306:
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1282:Drakeman 2010
1278:
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1127:
1120:
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1108:
1105:
1102:, p. 16.
1101:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1074:
1071:, p. 67.
1070:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1046:
1043:, p. 16.
1042:
1038:
1033:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1018:, p. 66.
1017:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1000:
997:
994:, p. 15.
993:
988:
985:
982:, p. 13.
981:
976:
973:
970:, p. 24.
969:
964:
961:
957:
952:
949:
945:
940:
937:
934:, p. 14.
933:
928:
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896:
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857:
841:
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828:
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818:
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798:
791:
788:
785:, p. 10.
784:
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741:
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736:
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732:
728:
724:
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699:Randy Barnett
695:
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416:Ronald Reagan
413:
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246:Legal process
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241:Legal realism
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162:Mischief rule
160:
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92:
89:
81:
78:November 2023
71:
67:
63:
57:
55:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
2763:
2751:9-12 Project
2662:FreedomWorks
2586:Mark Meckler
2561:Charles Koch
2551:Sean Hannity
2491:Justin Amash
2457:
2400:
2295:
2291:
2269:
2244:
2225:
2194:
2175:
2128:
2096:
2087:
2081:
2054:
2019:
2003:
1997:
1973:
1946:
1937:
1928:
1923:1823 (1997).
1920:
1910:1113 (2003).
1907:
1887:
1881:
1872:
1863:
1839:
1815:
1794:
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1692:
1676:
1671:
1664:508 U.S. 223
1659:
1654:
1635:
1629:
1620:
1616:
1606:
1594:. Retrieved
1580:
1571:
1567:
1554:
1545:
1541:
1531:
1512:
1506:
1496:November 22,
1494:. Retrieved
1490:
1480:
1468:. Retrieved
1464:
1454:
1442:
1430:
1421:
1412:
1400:. Retrieved
1389:
1376:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1345:
1337:congress.gov
1336:
1327:
1318:
1308:
1289:
1277:
1265:. Retrieved
1254:
1244:
1211:
1207:
1197:
1172:
1168:
1158:
1136:(1): 61–83.
1133:
1129:
1119:
1107:
1076:
1064:
1048:
1032:
1023:
1011:
999:
987:
975:
963:
951:
939:
901:
895:
883:
871:
866:, p. 9.
859:
847:. Retrieved
840:the original
833:
820:
805:
790:
778:
766:. Retrieved
756:
712:
702:
696:
690:
686:
682:
680:
658:
641:
633:
628:Jamal Greene
625:
616:
614:
608:
601:
592:Neil Gorsuch
573:
571:
559:
554:
545:Raoul Berger
542:
535:
529:
499:
493:
485:
472:
432:
389:
386:Raoul Berger
383:
376:
372:
366:
354:
345:
330:
318:originalists
317:
294:legal theory
289:
288:
195:
106:
99:
84:
75:
51:
2596:Dan Patrick
2591:Sarah Palin
2516:Herman Cain
2411:Free market
2401:Originalism
1890:: 189–199.
1774:: 809–820.
1675:A. Scalia,
1465:ABA Journal
1100:Wurman 2017
1085:Segall 2018
1081:Wurman 2017
1069:Segall 2018
1057:Wurman 2017
1053:Segall 2018
1041:Wurman 2017
1037:Segall 2018
1016:Segall 2018
1004:Segall 2018
992:Wurman 2017
980:Wurman 2017
968:Strang 2019
956:Strang 2019
944:Wurman 2017
932:Wurman 2017
904:. Chicago:
888:Strang 2019
864:Strang 2019
783:Strang 2019
723:natural law
604:Elena Kagan
578:. Justices
510:Edwin Meese
448:free speech
408:Edwin Meese
406:. In 1985,
369:Robert Bork
324:or through
322:legislature
296:that bases
290:Originalism
196:Originalism
187:Living tree
167:Golden rule
2788:Categories
2621:Allen West
2576:Mark Levin
2571:Amy Kremer
2566:David Koch
2556:Matt Kibbe
2546:Trey Gowdy
2541:Matt Gaetz
2531:Jim DeMint
2511:Matt Bevin
2506:Glenn Beck
2496:Dick Armey
2160:2019000042
2010:: 847–860.
1729:References
1574:(1): 1–89.
1435:Maltz 2000
1350:Cross 2013
1112:Maltz 2000
749:References
496:Hugo Black
456:federalism
436:Paul Brest
226:Textualism
2809:Intention
2616:Joe Walsh
2601:Rand Paul
2247:. Knopf.
1696:Barnett,
1267:April 29,
1228:0738-2480
1189:0002-9319
1150:1469-8692
306:statutory
66:talk page
2738:TheBlaze
2606:Ron Paul
2526:Ted Cruz
2243:(2018).
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