1045:
space, as exhaled gas in narrow ducting will not necessarily mix well with fresh gas from inhalation ducting, but exhaled gas beyond the exhaust non-return valves can reasonably be assumed to not mix with fresh gas if the valves function correctly. The total effective dead space can be minimized by keeping the volume of this external dead space as small as possible, but this should not unduly increase the work of breathing, which can become critical in breathing apparatus used at high ambient pressure.
2296:
2320:
2308:
447:(450-500 mL). In Fowler's original study, the anatomic dead space was 156 ± 28 mL (n=45 males) or 26% of their tidal volume. Despite the flexibility of the trachea and smaller conducting airways, their overall volume (i.e. the anatomic dead space) changes little with bronchoconstriction or when breathing hard during exercise.
408:. Although one end of the snorkel is open to the air, when the wearer breathes in, they inhale a significant quantity of air that remained in the snorkel from the previous exhalation. Therefore, a snorkel increases the person's dead space by adding even more airway that does not participate in gas exchange.
1081:
Dead space reduces the amount of fresh breathing gas which reaches the alveoli during each breath. This reduces the oxygen available for gas exchange, and the amount of carbon dioxide that can be removed. The buildup of carbon dioxide is usually the more noticeable effect unless the breathing gas is
1008:
using a mandatory mode, the patient breathes at a rate and tidal volume that is dictated by the machine. Because of dead space, taking deep breaths more slowly (e.g. ten 500 ml breaths per minute) is more effective than taking shallow breaths quickly (e.g. twenty 250 ml breaths per minute). Although
991:
A different maneuver is employed in measuring anatomic dead space: the test subject breathes all the way out, inhales deeply from a 0% nitrogen gas mixture (usually 100% oxygen) and then breathes out into equipment that measures nitrogen and gas volume. This final exhalation occurs in three phases.
1044:
Using separate intake and exhaust passages with one-way valves placed in each passage, usually between each passage and the mouthpiece. This limits the dead space to between the non return valves and the user's mouth or nose. Not all of the volume between the non-return valves is necessarily dead
459:
Alveolar dead space is defined as the difference between the physiologic dead space and the anatomic dead space. It is contributed to by all the terminal respiratory units that are over-ventilated relative to their perfusion. Therefore it includes, firstly those units that are ventilated but not
450:
As birds have a longer and wider trachea than mammals the same size, they have a disproportionately large anatomic dead space, reducing the airway resistance. This adaptation does not impact gas exchange because birds flow air through their lungs - they do not breathe in and out like mammals.
961:
1069:
In a few models of full face mask a mouthpiece like those used on diving regulators is fitted, which has the same function as an orinasal mask, but can further reduce the volume of the external dead space, at the cost of forcing mouth-breathing (and acting like a gag, preventing clear
1032:
flows in both directions as the user breathes in and out, causing the last exhaled gas to be immediately inhaled on the next breath, increasing the necessary tidal volume and respiratory effort to get the same amount of usable air or breathing gas, and increasing the accumulation of
992:
The first phase (phase 1) has no nitrogen as that is gas that is 100% oxygen in the anatomic dead space. The nitrogen concentration then rapidly increases during the brief second phase (phase 2) and finally reaches a plateau in the third phase (phase 3). The
622:
279:
Symbol relating the hydrogen ion concentration or activity of a solution to that of a standard solution; approximately equal to the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. pH is an indicator of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a
810:
exhaled from the healthy alveoli is diluted by the air in the conducting airways (anatomic dead space) and by gas from alveoli that are over-ventilated in relation to their perfusion. This dilution factor can be calculated once the mixed expired
971:
The alveolar dead space is determined as the difference between the physiological dead space (measured using the
Enghoff modification of the Bohr equation) and the anatomic dead space (measured using Fowler's single breath technique).
1086:, and is only effective when the ratio of dead space to tidal volume is reduced sufficiently to compensate for the additional carbon dioxide load due to the increased work of breathing. Continued buildup of carbon dioxide will lead to
787:) in alveoli is required to use the equation but this is not a single value as the ventilation-perfusion ratio is different in different lung units both in health and in disease. In practice, the arterial partial pressure of CO
302:
479:
Just as dead space wastes a fraction of the inhaled breath, dead space dilutes alveolar air during exhalation. By quantifying this dilution, it is possible to measure physiological dead space, employing the concept of
825:
795:, a modification introduced by Henrik Enghoff in 1938 (Enghoff H. Volumen inefficax. Bemerkungen zur Frage des schadlichen Raumes. Upsala Läkarefören Forhandl., 44:191-218, 1938). In effect, the single arterial pCO
815:
in the exhaled breath is determined (either by electronically monitoring the exhaled breath or by collecting the exhaled breath in a gas impermeant bag (a
Douglas bag) and then measuring the pCO
1117:
External dead space for a given breathing apparatus is usually fixed, and this volume must be added to tidal volume to provide equivalent effective ventilation at any given level of exertion.
295:
288:
1193:
Williams R, Rankin, N, Smith, T, Galler, D, Seakins, P (November 1996). "Relationship between the humidity and temperature of inspired gas and the function of the airway mucosa".
770:
725:
496:
2358:
680:
653:
819:
of the mixed expired gas in the collection bag). Algebraically, this dilution factor will give us the physiological dead space as calculated by the Bohr equation:
318:
is the volume of air that is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange, because it either remains in the conducting airways or reaches alveoli that are
1655:
1004:
The depth and frequency of our breathing is determined by chemoreceptors and the brainstem, as modified by a number of subjective sensations. When mechanically
1009:
the amount of gas per minute is the same (5 L/min), a large proportion of the shallow breaths is dead space, which does not help oxygen to get into the blood.
2324:
2724:
1138:
956:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{\ce {physiological\,dead\,space}}}{V_{t}}}={\frac {P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}-P_{\ce {mixed\,expired\,CO2}}}{P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}}}}
443:
The normal value for dead space volume (in mL) is approximately the lean mass of the body (in pounds), and averages about a third of the resting
338:
breathe in and out of their lungs, wasting that part of the inhalation which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur.
1174:
1082:
hypoxic as occurs at high altitude. The body can compensate to some extent by increasing the volume of inspired gas, but this also increases
2351:
1289:
Heller H, Könen-Bergmann M, Schuster K (1999). "An algebraic solution to dead space determination according to Fowler's graphical method".
2843:
2168:
1891:
1512:
Mitchell S, Cronje F, Meintjies W, Britz H (2007). "Fatal respiratory failure during a technical rebreather dive at extreme pressure".
2795:
2650:
1765:
1700:
1607:
1457:"External dead space explains sex-differences in the ventilatory response to submaximal exercise in children with and without obesity"
996:
is equal to the volume exhaled during the first phase plus the volume up to the mid-point of the transition from phase 1 to phase 3.
2058:
1770:
1677:
1648:
1324:
Burke TV, KĂĽng, M, Burki, NK (1989). "Pulmonary gas exchange during histamine-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatic subjects".
2218:
2203:
1792:
2833:
2344:
2714:
2027:
1954:
1847:
1777:
468:
2312:
2441:
1842:
2848:
2838:
2563:
2300:
1688:
1641:
2733:
2682:
2533:
2213:
2198:
1870:
1835:
1830:
1739:
319:
975:
A clinical index of the size of the alveolar dead space is the difference between the arterial partial pressure of CO
783:
The Bohr equation is used to measure physiological dead space. Unfortunately, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO
1066:
inside the main mask or helmet, which separates the external respiratory passage from the rest of the mask interior.
2687:
2183:
2109:
361:
2595:
2526:
2507:
2245:
1940:
2538:
2671:
2502:
2396:
1949:
1923:
2704:
2260:
2228:
2080:
1996:
1760:
1693:
191:
2521:
2468:
2458:
2367:
1812:
1541:"Physiological dead space during exercise in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction"
1114:, as anatomic dead space does not change much and alveolar dead space should be negligible or very small.
617:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{d}}{V_{t}}}={\frac {P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}-P_{e\,{\ce {CO2}}}}{P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}}}}
1620:
2709:
2645:
2090:
2068:
2053:
383:
732:
687:
382:
Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways, allowing its removal by
2764:
2619:
2583:
2418:
2413:
2178:
2073:
1091:
2446:
2265:
2208:
1976:
1959:
1935:
1881:
1664:
1025:
463:
Alveolar dead space is negligible in healthy individuals, but it can increase dramatically in some
2774:
2769:
2749:
2607:
2483:
2223:
2063:
2038:
1799:
1144:
1005:
429:
425:
405:
433:
404:
Dead space can be increased (and better envisioned) by breathing through a long tube, such as a
460:
perfused, and secondly those units which have a ventilation-perfusion ratio greater than one.
2812:
2728:
2694:
2496:
2451:
2433:
2277:
2272:
2255:
2048:
1969:
1753:
1603:
1570:
1521:
1494:
1476:
1434:
1390:
1341:
1306:
1271:
1210:
1170:
1083:
1539:
Balmain BN, Tomlinson AR, MacNamara JP, Sarma S, Levine BD, Hynan LS, Babb TG (28 Feb 2022).
1037:
from shallow breaths. It is in effect an external extension of the physiological dead space.
2629:
2578:
2488:
2403:
2001:
1560:
1552:
1484:
1468:
1426:
1380:
1372:
1333:
1298:
1263:
1202:
356:
Benefits do accrue to a seemingly wasteful design for ventilation that includes dead space.
2807:
2655:
2624:
1595:
Vol 1. Wallace O. Fenn and
Hermann Rahn (eds). Washington: American Physiological Society.
658:
631:
432:
but no gas exchange occurs here. In healthy lungs where the alveolar dead space is small,
1443:
1228:
2753:
2743:
2600:
2558:
2423:
2123:
1930:
1901:
1782:
1565:
1540:
1489:
1456:
1385:
1360:
1169:(9th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
1132:
1049:
1034:
331:
1361:"Comparative physiology of the pulmonary blood-gas barrier: the unique avian solution"
1129: – Equation describing the amount of physiological dead space in a person's lungs
2827:
2759:
2515:
2428:
2163:
2133:
2043:
1964:
1430:
1267:
1206:
1126:
1110:
at rest and decreases with exercise to about one-fifth mainly due to an increase in V
1063:
1053:
1029:
485:
1556:
2699:
2568:
2550:
2408:
2233:
2085:
2006:
1896:
481:
464:
444:
1365:
American
Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
2738:
2250:
2193:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1906:
1886:
1087:
1472:
1376:
2800:
2719:
2614:
2391:
2386:
2240:
1913:
1807:
1730:
368:
1480:
1254:
Fowler W.S. (1948). "Lung
Function studies. II. The respiratory dead space".
772:
is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the mixed expired (exhaled) air.
2676:
2188:
2128:
1918:
1787:
1574:
1525:
1498:
1438:
1394:
1337:
1310:
1302:
1275:
1407:
Bohr, C. (1891). Ăśber die
Lungenathmung. Skand. Arch. Physiol. 2: 236-268.
1345:
1214:
803:
values in the different alveoli, and so makes the Bohr equation useable.
2336:
1748:
437:
416:
Anatomical dead space is the volume of the conducting airways (from the
367:
Inspired air is brought to body temperature, increasing the affinity of
353:) is the sum of the anatomical dead space and the alveolar dead space.
1633:
2381:
791:
is used as an estimate of the average alveolar partial pressure of CO
372:
335:
327:
323:
132:
Alveolar-arterial oxygen tension difference. The term formerly used (
727:
is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood, and
393:
In humans, about a third of every resting breath has no change in O
436:
accurately measures the anatomic dead space using a single breath
421:
389:
Inspired air is humidified, improving the quality of airway mucus.
2778:
2477:
1147: – Biological system in animals and plants for gas exchange
417:
2340:
2152:
2107:
2025:
1868:
1717:
1675:
1637:
1417:
Klocke R (2006). "Dead space: simplicity to complexity".
945:
919:
887:
756:
711:
606:
579:
550:
401:
levels. In adults, it is usually in the range of 150 mL.
428:
to the terminal bronchioles). These conduct gas to the
828:
735:
690:
661:
634:
499:
237:
Oxygen saturation of the hemoglobin of arterial blood
1455:
Balmain BN, Wilhite DP, Bhammar DM, Babb TG (2020).
1135: – Danish physician and professor of physiology
90:
Alveolar carbon dioxide tension, or partial pressure
73:
Arterial carbon dioxide tension, or partial pressure
2788:
2664:
2638:
2549:
2467:
2374:
1823:
1737:
275:
258:
241:
224:
199:
146:
111:
94:
77:
60:
43:
26:
1602:Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Ninth edition.
1591:Arend Bouhuys. 1964. "Respiratory dead space." in
955:
764:
719:
674:
647:
616:
1593:Handbook of Physiology. Section 3: Respiration.
254:Oxygen saturation as measured by pulse oximetry
1188:
1186:
2352:
1649:
296:
8:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1167:Respiratory physiology : the essentials
56:Alveolar oxygen tension, or partial pressure
39:Arterial oxygen tension, or partial pressure
22:Blood gas, acid-base, and gas exchange terms
21:
2359:
2345:
2337:
2319:
2149:
2104:
2022:
1865:
1725:
1714:
1672:
1656:
1642:
1634:
303:
289:
1625:page on Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
1564:
1488:
1461:Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology
1384:
944:
939:
934:
933:
929:
918:
913:
908:
904:
900:
886:
881:
876:
875:
871:
864:
853:
843:
839:
835:
829:
827:
755:
750:
745:
744:
740:
734:
710:
705:
700:
699:
695:
689:
666:
660:
639:
633:
605:
600:
595:
594:
590:
578:
573:
568:
567:
563:
549:
544:
539:
538:
534:
527:
516:
506:
500:
498:
1139:Multiple inert gas elimination technique
979:and the end-tidal partial pressure of CO
322:. It means that not all the air in each
137:
1600:Respiratory Physiology: The Essentials.
1157:
220:Arteriovenous oxygen content difference
20:
360:Carbon dioxide is retained, making a
7:
2725:oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve
2307:
799:value averages out the different pCO
107:Oxygen tension of mixed venous blood
16:Inhaled air not part of gas exchange
2169:Breathing performance of regulators
1892:Continuous positive airway pressure
2651:hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
1766:Self-contained breathing apparatus
1701:Mountaineering breathing apparatus
1627:Interactive Respiratory Physiology
765:{\displaystyle P_{e\,{\ce {CO2}}}}
720:{\displaystyle P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}}
14:
2059:Surface-supplied diving equipment
1771:Self-contained self-rescue device
1678:High altitude breathing apparatus
326:is available for the exchange of
167:Alveolar-arterial tension ratio;
2318:
2306:
2295:
2294:
2219:Respiratory protective equipment
2204:Open circuit breathing apparatus
1793:Powered air-purifying respirator
1719:Occupational breathing apparatus
1431:10.1152/classicessays.00037.2005
1268:10.1152/ajplegacy.1948.154.3.405
1207:10.1097/00003246-199611000-00025
1024:is volume in the passages of a
364:blood and interstitium possible.
271:Oxygen content of arterial blood
1557:10.1152/japplphysiol.00786.2021
1059:Keeping the inside volume small
320:not perfused or poorly perfused
2028:Underwater breathing apparatus
1955:Respiratory gas humidification
469:ventilation-perfusion mismatch
1:
1545:Journal of Applied Physiology
655:is the dead space volume and
1689:Aviation breathing apparatus
2683:Ventilation/perfusion ratio
2534:pulmonary stretch receptors
2214:Positive pressure breathing
2199:Negative pressure breathing
1871:Medical breathing apparatus
2865:
2844:Pulmonary function testing
2715:alveolar–arterial gradient
2184:Escape breathing apparatus
2110:User respiratory interface
1848:GB2626 (China), and others
1473:10.1016/j.resp.2020.103472
1377:10.1152/ajpregu.00459.2009
2596:respiratory minute volume
2508:ventral respiratory group
2290:
2246:Closed circuit rebreather
2159:
2148:
2116:
2103:
2034:
2021:
1941:Built-in breathing system
1877:
1864:
1843:EN 149/14683/143 (Europe)
1831:42 CFR 84 (United States)
1728:
1724:
1713:
1684:
1671:
1141: – Medical technique
284:
2503:dorsal respiratory group
2397:obligate nasal breathing
1950:Positive airway pressure
1924:Non-invasive ventilation
1062:Having a small internal
779:Physiological dead space
351:physiological dead space
2705:pulmonary gas pressures
2261:Carbon dioxide scrubber
2229:Constant flow regulator
2081:Atmospheric diving suit
1997:Partial rebreather mask
1761:Supplied-air respirator
1694:Emergency oxygen system
1514:Aviat Space Environ Med
1106:is about one-third of V
2834:Respiratory physiology
2459:mechanical ventilation
2368:Respiratory physiology
1813:Elastomeric respirator
1778:Particulate respirator
1338:10.1378/chest.96.4.752
1303:10.1006/cbmr.1998.1504
1195:Critical Care Medicine
1040:It can be reduced by:
957:
766:
721:
676:
649:
618:
484:, as expressed by the
2710:alveolar gas equation
2646:pulmonary circulation
2091:Helium reclaim system
2069:Helicopter escape set
2054:Full-face diving mask
1098:Changes with exercise
1018:Mechanical dead space
1013:Mechanical dead space
958:
767:
722:
682:is the tidal volume;
677:
675:{\displaystyle V_{t}}
650:
648:{\displaystyle V_{d}}
619:
412:Anatomical dead space
384:mucociliary transport
195:describes this ratio.
192:oxygen exchange index
2765:respiratory quotient
2620:body plethysmography
2539:Hering–Breuer reflex
2414:pulmonary surfactant
2179:Emergency gas supply
2074:Submarine escape set
1598:John B. West. 2011.
1229:"Wasted Ventilation"
1102:In healthy people, V
1092:respiratory distress
1054:demand diving helmet
826:
733:
688:
659:
632:
497:
362:bicarbonate-buffered
2849:Medical terminology
2839:Respiratory therapy
2608:Lung function tests
2442:hyperresponsiveness
2266:Semi-closed circuit
2209:Oxygen concentrator
1977:Non-rebreather mask
1960:Supplemental oxygen
1936:Hyperbaric medicine
1882:Anaesthetic machine
1665:Breathing apparatus
1026:breathing apparatus
1022:external dead space
994:anatomic dead space
987:Anatomic dead space
967:Alveolar dead space
947:
921:
889:
758:
713:
608:
581:
552:
455:Alveolar dead space
440:washout technique.
23:
2775:diffusion capacity
2770:arterial blood gas
2750:carbonic anhydrase
2484:pneumotaxic center
2224:Pressure regulator
2039:Open-circuit scuba
1800:Chemical cartridge
1231:. Ccmtutorials.com
1145:Respiratory system
1000:Ventilated patient
953:
935:
909:
877:
806:The quantity of CO
762:
746:
717:
701:
672:
645:
614:
596:
569:
540:
2821:
2820:
2729:Oxygen saturation
2695:zones of the lung
2434:airway resistance
2334:
2333:
2286:
2285:
2278:Escape respirator
2273:Work of breathing
2256:Oxygen rebreather
2144:
2143:
2099:
2098:
2049:Diving rebreather
2017:
2016:
1970:Reservoir cannula
1860:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1709:
1708:
1291:Comput Biomed Res
1176:978-1-60913-640-6
1084:work of breathing
951:
938:
912:
907:
903:
880:
859:
846:
842:
838:
749:
704:
612:
599:
572:
543:
522:
313:
312:
142:) is discouraged.
2856:
2630:nitrogen washout
2489:apneustic center
2404:respiratory rate
2361:
2354:
2347:
2338:
2322:
2321:
2310:
2309:
2298:
2297:
2150:
2105:
2023:
2002:Simple face mask
1866:
1726:
1715:
1673:
1658:
1651:
1644:
1635:
1579:
1578:
1568:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1492:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1414:
1408:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1388:
1359:West JB (2009).
1356:
1350:
1349:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1251:
1240:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1190:
1181:
1180:
1165:West JB (2011).
1162:
962:
960:
959:
954:
952:
950:
949:
948:
946:
943:
936:
924:
923:
922:
920:
917:
910:
905:
901:
892:
891:
890:
888:
885:
878:
865:
860:
858:
857:
848:
847:
844:
840:
836:
830:
771:
769:
768:
763:
761:
760:
759:
757:
754:
747:
726:
724:
723:
718:
716:
715:
714:
712:
709:
702:
681:
679:
678:
673:
671:
670:
654:
652:
651:
646:
644:
643:
623:
621:
620:
615:
613:
611:
610:
609:
607:
604:
597:
585:
584:
583:
582:
580:
577:
570:
555:
554:
553:
551:
548:
541:
528:
523:
521:
520:
511:
510:
501:
347:Total dead space
305:
298:
291:
141:
140:
24:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2808:oxygen toxicity
2784:
2672:ventilation (V)
2660:
2656:pulmonary shunt
2634:
2625:peak flow meter
2545:
2463:
2370:
2365:
2335:
2330:
2282:
2155:
2140:
2120:Breathing mask
2112:
2095:
2030:
2013:
1873:
1852:
1836:ANSI K13.1-1973
1819:
1733:
1720:
1705:
1680:
1667:
1662:
1617:
1588:
1586:Further reading
1583:
1582:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1371:(6): R1625-34.
1358:
1357:
1353:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1253:
1252:
1243:
1234:
1232:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1192:
1191:
1184:
1177:
1164:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1123:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1079:
1015:
1002:
989:
982:
978:
969:
925:
896:
867:
866:
849:
831:
824:
823:
818:
814:
809:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
736:
731:
730:
691:
686:
685:
662:
657:
656:
635:
630:
629:
586:
559:
530:
529:
512:
502:
495:
494:
477:
457:
434:Fowler's method
414:
400:
396:
378:
349:(also known as
344:
309:
268:
264:
263:
251:
247:
246:
234:
230:
229:
217:
213:
188:
183:
177:
172:
164:
160:
139:
135:
133:
129:
125:
104:
100:
99:
87:
83:
82:
70:
66:
65:
53:
49:
48:
36:
32:
31:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2862:
2860:
2852:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2826:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2754:chloride shift
2747:
2744:Haldane effect
2741:
2736:
2731:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2674:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2601:FEV1/FVC ratio
2598:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2555:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2531:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2516:chemoreceptors
2512:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2473:
2471:
2465:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2424:elastic recoil
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2371:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2356:
2349:
2341:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2316:
2304:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2231:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2146:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2124:Full facepiece
2117:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2101:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2031:
2026:
2019:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1973:
1972:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1946:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1931:Oxygen therapy
1928:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1904:
1902:Bag valve mask
1894:
1889:
1884:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1839:
1838:
1827:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1802:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1783:N95 respirator
1775:
1774:
1773:
1763:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1745:
1743:
1735:
1734:
1729:
1722:
1721:
1718:
1711:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1704:
1703:
1698:
1697:
1696:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1676:
1669:
1668:
1663:
1661:
1660:
1653:
1646:
1638:
1632:
1631:
1616:
1615:External links
1613:
1612:
1611:
1608:978-1609136406
1596:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1551:(3): 632–640.
1531:
1504:
1447:
1419:J Appl Physiol
1409:
1400:
1351:
1316:
1281:
1262:(3): 405–416.
1256:Am. J. Physiol
1241:
1220:
1201:(11): 1920–9.
1182:
1175:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1133:Christian Bohr
1130:
1122:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1060:
1050:full face mask
1046:
1035:carbon dioxide
1014:
1011:
1001:
998:
988:
985:
980:
976:
968:
965:
964:
963:
942:
932:
928:
916:
899:
895:
884:
874:
870:
863:
856:
852:
834:
816:
812:
807:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
777:
776:
775:
774:
773:
753:
743:
739:
728:
708:
698:
694:
669:
665:
642:
638:
626:
625:
624:
603:
593:
589:
576:
566:
562:
558:
547:
537:
533:
526:
519:
515:
509:
505:
476:
473:
456:
453:
413:
410:
398:
394:
391:
390:
387:
380:
376:
365:
343:
340:
332:carbon dioxide
311:
310:
308:
307:
300:
293:
285:
282:
281:
277:
273:
272:
269:
266:
261:
259:
256:
255:
252:
249:
244:
242:
239:
238:
235:
232:
227:
225:
222:
221:
218:
215:
203:
197:
196:
186:
181:
175:
170:
165:
162:
150:
144:
143:
130:
127:
115:
109:
108:
105:
102:
97:
95:
92:
91:
88:
85:
80:
78:
75:
74:
71:
68:
63:
61:
58:
57:
54:
51:
46:
44:
41:
40:
37:
34:
29:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2861:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2796:high altitude
2794:
2793:
2791:
2789:Insufficiency
2787:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2760:oxyhemoglobin
2758:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2519:
2518:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2429:hysteresivity
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2357:
2355:
2350:
2348:
2343:
2342:
2339:
2327:
2326:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2305:
2303:
2302:
2293:
2292:
2289:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2164:Breathing gas
2162:
2161:
2158:
2151:
2147:
2135:
2134:orinasal mask
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2044:Diving helmet
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1965:Nasal cannula
1963:
1962:
1961:
1958:
1956:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1741:
1738:Regulated by
1736:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1654:
1652:
1647:
1645:
1640:
1639:
1636:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1590:
1589:
1585:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1535:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1413:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1285:
1282:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1230:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1158:
1151:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1127:Bohr equation
1125:
1124:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1076:
1068:
1065:
1064:orinasal mask
1061:
1058:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1030:breathing gas
1028:in which the
1027:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1010:
1007:
999:
997:
995:
986:
984:
973:
966:
940:
930:
926:
914:
897:
893:
882:
872:
868:
861:
854:
850:
837:physiological
832:
822:
821:
820:
804:
778:
751:
741:
737:
729:
706:
696:
692:
684:
683:
667:
663:
640:
636:
627:
601:
591:
587:
574:
564:
560:
556:
545:
535:
531:
524:
517:
513:
507:
503:
493:
492:
491:
490:
489:
487:
486:Bohr equation
483:
474:
472:
470:
466:
465:lung diseases
461:
454:
452:
448:
446:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
411:
409:
407:
402:
388:
385:
381:
375:, improving O
374:
370:
366:
363:
359:
358:
357:
354:
352:
348:
341:
339:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
306:
301:
299:
294:
292:
287:
286:
283:
278:
274:
270:
257:
253:
240:
236:
223:
219:
211:
207:
202:
198:
194:
193:
184:
173:
166:
158:
154:
149:
145:
131:
123:
119:
114:
110:
106:
93:
89:
76:
72:
59:
55:
42:
38:
25:
19:
2700:gas exchange
2665:Interactions
2590:calculations
2573:
2551:Lung volumes
2514:
2495:
2476:
2447:constriction
2409:respirometer
2323:
2311:
2299:
2234:Demand valve
2173:
2086:Gas extender
2007:Venturi mask
1897:Resuscitator
1626:
1622:
1599:
1592:
1548:
1544:
1534:
1520:(2): 81–86.
1517:
1513:
1507:
1464:
1460:
1450:
1422:
1418:
1412:
1403:
1368:
1364:
1354:
1332:(4): 752–6.
1329:
1325:
1319:
1297:(2): 161–7.
1294:
1290:
1284:
1259:
1255:
1233:. Retrieved
1223:
1198:
1194:
1166:
1160:
1116:
1101:
1080:
1039:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1003:
993:
990:
974:
970:
805:
782:
482:mass balance
478:
462:
458:
449:
445:tidal volume
442:
415:
403:
392:
355:
350:
346:
345:
315:
314:
209:
205:
200:
190:
179:
168:
156:
152:
147:
121:
117:
112:
18:
2739:Bohr effect
2639:Circulation
2375:Respiration
2251:Counterlung
2194:Hazmat suit
1992:Oxygen tent
1987:Oxygen mask
1982:Oxygen hood
1907:Pocket mask
1887:Bubble CPAP
1824:Regulations
1804:Facepieces
1088:hypercapnia
475:Calculating
2828:Categories
2801:death zone
2720:hemoglobin
2615:spirometry
2574:dead space
2527:peripheral
2452:dilatation
2438:bronchial
2419:compliance
2392:exhalation
2387:inhalation
2241:Rebreather
2174:Dead space
1914:Ventilator
1808:Smoke hood
1742:and others
1731:Respirator
1623:Dead space
1425:(1): 1–2.
1235:2013-11-27
1152:References
1006:ventilated
369:hemoglobin
342:Components
316:Dead space
2677:Perfusion
2189:Facepiece
2129:Half mask
1919:Iron lung
1788:Dust mask
1481:1569-9048
1070:talking).
894:−
557:−
189:The term
2688:V/Q scan
2325:Glossary
2301:Category
1754:Canister
1749:Gas mask
1629:website.
1575:35112932
1526:17310877
1499:32512232
1439:16357075
1395:19793953
1311:10337497
1276:18101134
1121:See also
438:nitrogen
280:solution
2813:hypoxia
2734:2,3-BPG
2522:central
2497:medulla
2469:Control
2313:Commons
2154:General
2064:Snorkel
1566:8897014
1490:7384949
1444:article
1386:2803621
1346:2791669
1215:8917046
1077:Effects
1048:With a
906:expired
467:due to
430:alveoli
426:trachea
406:snorkel
379:uptake.
336:Mammals
2382:breath
1606:
1573:
1563:
1524:
1497:
1487:
1479:
1437:
1393:
1383:
1344:
1309:
1274:
1213:
1173:
628:where
397:and CO
373:oxygen
328:oxygen
324:breath
1740:NIOSH
1326:Chest
902:mixed
845:space
422:mouth
134:A-a D
2779:DLCO
2679:(Q)
2478:pons
1621:The
1604:ISBN
1571:PMID
1522:PMID
1495:PMID
1477:ISSN
1435:PMID
1391:PMID
1342:PMID
1307:PMID
1272:PMID
1211:PMID
1171:ISBN
1090:and
841:dead
424:and
418:nose
371:for
330:and
2584:PEF
2564:FRC
1561:PMC
1553:doi
1549:132
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