1056:
space, as exhaled gas in narrow ducting will not necessarily mix well with fresh gas from inhalation ducting, but exhaled gas beyond the exhaust non-return valves can reasonably be assumed to not mix with fresh gas if the valves function correctly. The total effective dead space can be minimized by keeping the volume of this external dead space as small as possible, but this should not unduly increase the work of breathing, which can become critical in breathing apparatus used at high ambient pressure.
2307:
2331:
2319:
458:(450-500 mL). In Fowler's original study, the anatomic dead space was 156 ± 28 mL (n=45 males) or 26% of their tidal volume. Despite the flexibility of the trachea and smaller conducting airways, their overall volume (i.e. the anatomic dead space) changes little with bronchoconstriction or when breathing hard during exercise.
419:. Although one end of the snorkel is open to the air, when the wearer breathes in, they inhale a significant quantity of air that remained in the snorkel from the previous exhalation. Therefore, a snorkel increases the person's dead space by adding even more airway that does not participate in gas exchange.
1092:
Dead space reduces the amount of fresh breathing gas which reaches the alveoli during each breath. This reduces the oxygen available for gas exchange, and the amount of carbon dioxide that can be removed. The buildup of carbon dioxide is usually the more noticeable effect unless the breathing gas is
1019:
using a mandatory mode, the patient breathes at a rate and tidal volume that is dictated by the machine. Because of dead space, taking deep breaths more slowly (e.g. ten 500 ml breaths per minute) is more effective than taking shallow breaths quickly (e.g. twenty 250 ml breaths per minute). Although
1002:
A different maneuver is employed in measuring anatomic dead space: the test subject breathes all the way out, inhales deeply from a 0% nitrogen gas mixture (usually 100% oxygen) and then breathes out into equipment that measures nitrogen and gas volume. This final exhalation occurs in three phases.
1055:
Using separate intake and exhaust passages with one-way valves placed in each passage, usually between each passage and the mouthpiece. This limits the dead space to between the non return valves and the user's mouth or nose. Not all of the volume between the non-return valves is necessarily dead
470:
Alveolar dead space is defined as the difference between the physiologic dead space and the anatomic dead space. It is contributed to by all the terminal respiratory units that are over-ventilated relative to their perfusion. Therefore it includes, firstly those units that are ventilated but not
461:
As birds have a longer and wider trachea than mammals the same size, they have a disproportionately large anatomic dead space, reducing the airway resistance. This adaptation does not impact gas exchange because birds flow air through their lungs - they do not breathe in and out like mammals.
972:
1080:
In a few models of full face mask a mouthpiece like those used on diving regulators is fitted, which has the same function as an orinasal mask, but can further reduce the volume of the external dead space, at the cost of forcing mouth-breathing (and acting like a gag, preventing clear
1043:
flows in both directions as the user breathes in and out, causing the last exhaled gas to be immediately inhaled on the next breath, increasing the necessary tidal volume and respiratory effort to get the same amount of usable air or breathing gas, and increasing the accumulation of
1003:
The first phase (phase 1) has no nitrogen as that is gas that is 100% oxygen in the anatomic dead space. The nitrogen concentration then rapidly increases during the brief second phase (phase 2) and finally reaches a plateau in the third phase (phase 3). The
633:
290:
Symbol relating the hydrogen ion concentration or activity of a solution to that of a standard solution; approximately equal to the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. pH is an indicator of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a
821:
exhaled from the healthy alveoli is diluted by the air in the conducting airways (anatomic dead space) and by gas from alveoli that are over-ventilated in relation to their perfusion. This dilution factor can be calculated once the mixed expired
982:
The alveolar dead space is determined as the difference between the physiological dead space (measured using the
Enghoff modification of the Bohr equation) and the anatomic dead space (measured using Fowler's single breath technique).
1097:, and is only effective when the ratio of dead space to tidal volume is reduced sufficiently to compensate for the additional carbon dioxide load due to the increased work of breathing. Continued buildup of carbon dioxide will lead to
798:) in alveoli is required to use the equation but this is not a single value as the ventilation-perfusion ratio is different in different lung units both in health and in disease. In practice, the arterial partial pressure of CO
313:
490:
Just as dead space wastes a fraction of the inhaled breath, dead space dilutes alveolar air during exhalation. By quantifying this dilution, it is possible to measure physiological dead space, employing the concept of
836:
806:, a modification introduced by Henrik Enghoff in 1938 (Enghoff H. Volumen inefficax. Bemerkungen zur Frage des schadlichen Raumes. Upsala Läkarefören Forhandl., 44:191-218, 1938). In effect, the single arterial pCO
826:
in the exhaled breath is determined (either by electronically monitoring the exhaled breath or by collecting the exhaled breath in a gas impermeant bag (a
Douglas bag) and then measuring the pCO
1128:
External dead space for a given breathing apparatus is usually fixed, and this volume must be added to tidal volume to provide equivalent effective ventilation at any given level of exertion.
306:
299:
1204:
Williams R, Rankin, N, Smith, T, Galler, D, Seakins, P (November 1996). "Relationship between the humidity and temperature of inspired gas and the function of the airway mucosa".
781:
736:
507:
2369:
691:
664:
830:
of the mixed expired gas in the collection bag). Algebraically, this dilution factor will give us the physiological dead space as calculated by the Bohr equation:
329:
is the volume of air that is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange, because it either remains in the conducting airways or reaches alveoli that are
1666:
1015:
The depth and frequency of our breathing is determined by chemoreceptors and the brainstem, as modified by a number of subjective sensations. When mechanically
1020:
the amount of gas per minute is the same (5 L/min), a large proportion of the shallow breaths is dead space, which does not help oxygen to get into the blood.
2335:
2735:
1149:
967:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{\ce {physiological\,dead\,space}}}{V_{t}}}={\frac {P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}-P_{\ce {mixed\,expired\,CO2}}}{P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}}}}
454:
The normal value for dead space volume (in mL) is approximately the lean mass of the body (in pounds), and averages about a third of the resting
349:
breathe in and out of their lungs, wasting that part of the inhalation which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur.
1185:
1093:
hypoxic as occurs at high altitude. The body can compensate to some extent by increasing the volume of inspired gas, but this also increases
2362:
1300:
Heller H, Könen-Bergmann M, Schuster K (1999). "An algebraic solution to dead space determination according to Fowler's graphical method".
2854:
2179:
1902:
1523:
Mitchell S, Cronje F, Meintjies W, Britz H (2007). "Fatal respiratory failure during a technical rebreather dive at extreme pressure".
2806:
2661:
1776:
1711:
1618:
1468:"External dead space explains sex-differences in the ventilatory response to submaximal exercise in children with and without obesity"
1007:
is equal to the volume exhaled during the first phase plus the volume up to the mid-point of the transition from phase 1 to phase 3.
2069:
1781:
1688:
1659:
1335:
Burke TV, KĂĽng, M, Burki, NK (1989). "Pulmonary gas exchange during histamine-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatic subjects".
2229:
2214:
1803:
2844:
2355:
2725:
2038:
1965:
1858:
1788:
479:
2323:
2452:
1853:
2859:
2849:
2574:
2311:
1699:
1652:
2744:
2693:
2544:
2224:
2209:
1881:
1846:
1841:
1750:
330:
986:
A clinical index of the size of the alveolar dead space is the difference between the arterial partial pressure of CO
794:
The Bohr equation is used to measure physiological dead space. Unfortunately, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO
1077:
inside the main mask or helmet, which separates the external respiratory passage from the rest of the mask interior.
2698:
2194:
2120:
372:
2606:
2537:
2518:
2256:
1951:
2549:
2682:
2513:
2407:
1960:
1934:
2715:
2271:
2239:
2091:
2007:
1771:
1704:
202:
2532:
2479:
2469:
2378:
1823:
1552:"Physiological dead space during exercise in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction"
1125:, as anatomic dead space does not change much and alveolar dead space should be negligible or very small.
628:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{d}}{V_{t}}}={\frac {P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}-P_{e\,{\ce {CO2}}}}{P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}}}}
1631:
2720:
2656:
2101:
2079:
2064:
394:
743:
698:
393:
Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways, allowing its removal by
2775:
2630:
2594:
2429:
2424:
2189:
2084:
1102:
2457:
2276:
2219:
1987:
1970:
1946:
1892:
1675:
1036:
474:
Alveolar dead space is negligible in healthy individuals, but it can increase dramatically in some
2785:
2780:
2760:
2618:
2494:
2234:
2074:
2049:
1810:
1155:
1016:
440:
436:
416:
444:
415:
Dead space can be increased (and better envisioned) by breathing through a long tube, such as a
471:
perfused, and secondly those units which have a ventilation-perfusion ratio greater than one.
2823:
2739:
2705:
2507:
2462:
2444:
2288:
2283:
2266:
2059:
1980:
1764:
1614:
1581:
1532:
1505:
1487:
1445:
1401:
1352:
1317:
1282:
1221:
1181:
1094:
1550:
Balmain BN, Tomlinson AR, MacNamara JP, Sarma S, Levine BD, Hynan LS, Babb TG (28 Feb 2022).
1048:
from shallow breaths. It is in effect an external extension of the physiological dead space.
2640:
2589:
2499:
2414:
2012:
1571:
1563:
1495:
1479:
1437:
1391:
1383:
1344:
1309:
1274:
1213:
367:
Benefits do accrue to a seemingly wasteful design for ventilation that includes dead space.
2818:
2666:
2635:
1606:
Vol 1. Wallace O. Fenn and
Hermann Rahn (eds). Washington: American Physiological Society.
669:
642:
443:
but no gas exchange occurs here. In healthy lungs where the alveolar dead space is small,
1454:
1239:
2764:
2754:
2611:
2569:
2434:
2134:
1941:
1912:
1793:
1576:
1551:
1500:
1467:
1396:
1371:
1180:(9th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
1143:
1060:
1045:
342:
1372:"Comparative physiology of the pulmonary blood-gas barrier: the unique avian solution"
1140: – Equation describing the amount of physiological dead space in a person's lungs
17:
2838:
2770:
2526:
2439:
2174:
2144:
2054:
1975:
1441:
1278:
1217:
1137:
1121:
at rest and decreases with exercise to about one-fifth mainly due to an increase in V
1074:
1064:
1040:
496:
1567:
2710:
2579:
2561:
2419:
2244:
2096:
2017:
1907:
492:
475:
455:
1376:
American
Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
2749:
2261:
2204:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1917:
1897:
1098:
1483:
1387:
2811:
2730:
2625:
2402:
2397:
2251:
1924:
1818:
1741:
379:
1491:
1265:
Fowler W.S. (1948). "Lung
Function studies. II. The respiratory dead space".
783:
is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the mixed expired (exhaled) air.
2687:
2199:
2139:
1929:
1798:
1585:
1536:
1509:
1449:
1405:
1348:
1321:
1313:
1286:
1418:
Bohr, C. (1891). Ăśber die
Lungenathmung. Skand. Arch. Physiol. 2: 236-268.
1356:
1225:
814:
values in the different alveoli, and so makes the Bohr equation useable.
2347:
1759:
448:
427:
Anatomical dead space is the volume of the conducting airways (from the
378:
Inspired air is brought to body temperature, increasing the affinity of
364:) is the sum of the anatomical dead space and the alveolar dead space.
1644:
2392:
802:
is used as an estimate of the average alveolar partial pressure of CO
383:
346:
338:
334:
143:
Alveolar-arterial oxygen tension difference. The term formerly used (
738:
is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood, and
404:
In humans, about a third of every resting breath has no change in O
447:
accurately measures the anatomic dead space using a single breath
432:
400:
Inspired air is humidified, improving the quality of airway mucus.
2789:
2488:
1158: – Biological system in animals and plants for gas exchange
428:
2351:
2163:
2118:
2036:
1879:
1728:
1686:
1648:
1428:
Klocke R (2006). "Dead space: simplicity to complexity".
956:
930:
898:
767:
722:
617:
590:
561:
412:
levels. In adults, it is usually in the range of 150 mL.
439:
to the terminal bronchioles). These conduct gas to the
839:
746:
701:
672:
645:
510:
248:
Oxygen saturation of the hemoglobin of arterial blood
1466:
Balmain BN, Wilhite DP, Bhammar DM, Babb TG (2020).
1146: – Danish physician and professor of physiology
101:
Alveolar carbon dioxide tension, or partial pressure
84:
Arterial carbon dioxide tension, or partial pressure
2799:
2675:
2649:
2560:
2478:
2385:
1834:
1748:
286:
269:
252:
235:
210:
157:
122:
105:
88:
71:
54:
37:
1613:Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Ninth edition.
1602:Arend Bouhuys. 1964. "Respiratory dead space." in
966:
775:
730:
685:
658:
627:
1604:Handbook of Physiology. Section 3: Respiration.
265:Oxygen saturation as measured by pulse oximetry
1199:
1197:
2363:
1660:
307:
8:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1178:Respiratory physiology : the essentials
67:Alveolar oxygen tension, or partial pressure
50:Arterial oxygen tension, or partial pressure
33:Blood gas, acid-base, and gas exchange terms
32:
2370:
2356:
2348:
2330:
2160:
2115:
2033:
1876:
1736:
1725:
1683:
1667:
1653:
1645:
314:
300:
1636:page on Johns Hopkins School of Medicine
1575:
1499:
1472:Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology
1395:
955:
950:
945:
944:
940:
929:
924:
919:
915:
911:
897:
892:
887:
886:
882:
875:
864:
854:
850:
846:
840:
838:
766:
761:
756:
755:
751:
745:
721:
716:
711:
710:
706:
700:
677:
671:
650:
644:
616:
611:
606:
605:
601:
589:
584:
579:
578:
574:
560:
555:
550:
549:
545:
538:
527:
517:
511:
509:
1150:Multiple inert gas elimination technique
990:and the end-tidal partial pressure of CO
333:. It means that not all the air in each
148:
1611:Respiratory Physiology: The Essentials.
1168:
231:Arteriovenous oxygen content difference
31:
371:Carbon dioxide is retained, making a
7:
2736:oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve
2318:
810:value averages out the different pCO
118:Oxygen tension of mixed venous blood
27:Inhaled air not part of gas exchange
2180:Breathing performance of regulators
1903:Continuous positive airway pressure
2662:hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
1777:Self-contained breathing apparatus
1712:Mountaineering breathing apparatus
1638:Interactive Respiratory Physiology
776:{\displaystyle P_{e\,{\ce {CO2}}}}
731:{\displaystyle P_{a\,{\ce {CO2}}}}
25:
2070:Surface-supplied diving equipment
1782:Self-contained self-rescue device
1689:High altitude breathing apparatus
337:is available for the exchange of
178:Alveolar-arterial tension ratio;
2329:
2317:
2306:
2305:
2230:Respiratory protective equipment
2215:Open circuit breathing apparatus
1804:Powered air-purifying respirator
1730:Occupational breathing apparatus
1442:10.1152/classicessays.00037.2005
1279:10.1152/ajplegacy.1948.154.3.405
1218:10.1097/00003246-199611000-00025
1035:is volume in the passages of a
375:blood and interstitium possible.
282:Oxygen content of arterial blood
1568:10.1152/japplphysiol.00786.2021
1070:Keeping the inside volume small
331:not perfused or poorly perfused
2039:Underwater breathing apparatus
1966:Respiratory gas humidification
480:ventilation-perfusion mismatch
1:
1556:Journal of Applied Physiology
666:is the dead space volume and
1700:Aviation breathing apparatus
2694:Ventilation/perfusion ratio
2545:pulmonary stretch receptors
2225:Positive pressure breathing
2210:Negative pressure breathing
1882:Medical breathing apparatus
2876:
2855:Pulmonary function testing
2726:alveolar–arterial gradient
2195:Escape breathing apparatus
2121:User respiratory interface
1859:GB2626 (China), and others
1484:10.1016/j.resp.2020.103472
1388:10.1152/ajpregu.00459.2009
2607:respiratory minute volume
2519:ventral respiratory group
2301:
2257:Closed circuit rebreather
2170:
2159:
2127:
2114:
2045:
2032:
1952:Built-in breathing system
1888:
1875:
1854:EN 149/14683/143 (Europe)
1842:42 CFR 84 (United States)
1739:
1735:
1724:
1695:
1682:
1152: – Medical technique
295:
2514:dorsal respiratory group
2408:obligate nasal breathing
1961:Positive airway pressure
1935:Non-invasive ventilation
1073:Having a small internal
790:Physiological dead space
362:physiological dead space
2716:pulmonary gas pressures
2272:Carbon dioxide scrubber
2240:Constant flow regulator
2092:Atmospheric diving suit
2008:Partial rebreather mask
1772:Supplied-air respirator
1705:Emergency oxygen system
1525:Aviat Space Environ Med
1117:is about one-third of V
2845:Respiratory physiology
2470:mechanical ventilation
2379:Respiratory physiology
1824:Elastomeric respirator
1789:Particulate respirator
1349:10.1378/chest.96.4.752
1314:10.1006/cbmr.1998.1504
1206:Critical Care Medicine
1051:It can be reduced by:
968:
777:
732:
687:
660:
629:
495:, as expressed by the
18:Dead space ventilation
2721:alveolar gas equation
2657:pulmonary circulation
2102:Helium reclaim system
2080:Helicopter escape set
2065:Full-face diving mask
1109:Changes with exercise
1029:Mechanical dead space
1024:Mechanical dead space
969:
778:
733:
693:is the tidal volume;
688:
686:{\displaystyle V_{t}}
661:
659:{\displaystyle V_{d}}
630:
423:Anatomical dead space
395:mucociliary transport
206:describes this ratio.
203:oxygen exchange index
2776:respiratory quotient
2631:body plethysmography
2550:Hering–Breuer reflex
2425:pulmonary surfactant
2190:Emergency gas supply
2085:Submarine escape set
1609:John B. West. 2011.
1240:"Wasted Ventilation"
1113:In healthy people, V
1103:respiratory distress
1065:demand diving helmet
837:
744:
699:
670:
643:
508:
373:bicarbonate-buffered
2860:Medical terminology
2850:Respiratory therapy
2619:Lung function tests
2453:hyperresponsiveness
2277:Semi-closed circuit
2220:Oxygen concentrator
1988:Non-rebreather mask
1971:Supplemental oxygen
1947:Hyperbaric medicine
1893:Anaesthetic machine
1676:Breathing apparatus
1037:breathing apparatus
1033:external dead space
1005:anatomic dead space
998:Anatomic dead space
978:Alveolar dead space
958:
932:
900:
769:
724:
619:
592:
563:
466:Alveolar dead space
451:washout technique.
34:
2786:diffusion capacity
2781:arterial blood gas
2761:carbonic anhydrase
2495:pneumotaxic center
2235:Pressure regulator
2050:Open-circuit scuba
1811:Chemical cartridge
1242:. Ccmtutorials.com
1156:Respiratory system
1011:Ventilated patient
964:
946:
920:
888:
817:The quantity of CO
773:
757:
728:
712:
683:
656:
625:
607:
580:
551:
2832:
2831:
2740:Oxygen saturation
2706:zones of the lung
2445:airway resistance
2345:
2344:
2297:
2296:
2289:Escape respirator
2284:Work of breathing
2267:Oxygen rebreather
2155:
2154:
2110:
2109:
2060:Diving rebreather
2028:
2027:
1981:Reservoir cannula
1871:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1720:
1719:
1302:Comput Biomed Res
1187:978-1-60913-640-6
1095:work of breathing
962:
949:
923:
918:
914:
891:
870:
857:
853:
849:
760:
715:
623:
610:
583:
554:
533:
324:
323:
153:) is discouraged.
16:(Redirected from
2867:
2641:nitrogen washout
2500:apneustic center
2415:respiratory rate
2372:
2365:
2358:
2349:
2333:
2332:
2321:
2320:
2309:
2308:
2161:
2116:
2034:
2013:Simple face mask
1877:
1737:
1726:
1684:
1669:
1662:
1655:
1646:
1590:
1589:
1579:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1503:
1463:
1457:
1453:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1399:
1370:West JB (2009).
1367:
1361:
1360:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1297:
1291:
1290:
1262:
1251:
1250:
1248:
1247:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1201:
1192:
1191:
1176:West JB (2011).
1173:
973:
971:
970:
965:
963:
961:
960:
959:
957:
954:
947:
935:
934:
933:
931:
928:
921:
916:
912:
903:
902:
901:
899:
896:
889:
876:
871:
869:
868:
859:
858:
855:
851:
847:
841:
782:
780:
779:
774:
772:
771:
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768:
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758:
737:
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734:
729:
727:
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725:
723:
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713:
692:
690:
689:
684:
682:
681:
665:
663:
662:
657:
655:
654:
634:
632:
631:
626:
624:
622:
621:
620:
618:
615:
608:
596:
595:
594:
593:
591:
588:
581:
566:
565:
564:
562:
559:
552:
539:
534:
532:
531:
522:
521:
512:
358:Total dead space
316:
309:
302:
152:
151:
35:
21:
2875:
2874:
2870:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2819:oxygen toxicity
2795:
2683:ventilation (V)
2671:
2667:pulmonary shunt
2645:
2636:peak flow meter
2556:
2474:
2381:
2376:
2346:
2341:
2293:
2166:
2151:
2131:Breathing mask
2123:
2106:
2041:
2024:
1884:
1863:
1847:ANSI K13.1-1973
1830:
1744:
1731:
1716:
1691:
1678:
1673:
1628:
1599:
1597:Further reading
1594:
1593:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1382:(6): R1625-34.
1369:
1368:
1364:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1264:
1263:
1254:
1245:
1243:
1238:
1237:
1233:
1203:
1202:
1195:
1188:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1134:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1090:
1026:
1013:
1000:
993:
989:
980:
936:
907:
878:
877:
860:
842:
835:
834:
829:
825:
820:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
792:
747:
742:
741:
702:
697:
696:
673:
668:
667:
646:
641:
640:
597:
570:
541:
540:
523:
513:
506:
505:
488:
468:
445:Fowler's method
425:
411:
407:
389:
360:(also known as
355:
320:
279:
275:
274:
262:
258:
257:
245:
241:
240:
228:
224:
199:
194:
188:
183:
175:
171:
150:
146:
144:
140:
136:
115:
111:
110:
98:
94:
93:
81:
77:
76:
64:
60:
59:
47:
43:
42:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2873:
2871:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2837:
2836:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2803:
2801:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2765:chloride shift
2758:
2755:Haldane effect
2752:
2747:
2742:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2702:
2701:
2696:
2685:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2612:FEV1/FVC ratio
2609:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2566:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2542:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2527:chemoreceptors
2523:
2522:
2521:
2516:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2484:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2435:elastic recoil
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2367:
2360:
2352:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2339:
2327:
2315:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2249:
2248:
2247:
2242:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2164:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2135:Full facepiece
2128:
2125:
2124:
2119:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2037:
2030:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1942:Oxygen therapy
1939:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1913:Bag valve mask
1905:
1900:
1895:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1880:
1873:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1862:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1813:
1808:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1794:N95 respirator
1786:
1785:
1784:
1774:
1769:
1768:
1767:
1756:
1754:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1722:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1707:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1687:
1680:
1679:
1674:
1672:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1627:
1626:External links
1624:
1623:
1622:
1619:978-1609136406
1607:
1598:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1562:(3): 632–640.
1542:
1515:
1458:
1430:J Appl Physiol
1420:
1411:
1362:
1327:
1292:
1273:(3): 405–416.
1267:Am. J. Physiol
1252:
1231:
1212:(11): 1920–9.
1193:
1186:
1167:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1153:
1147:
1144:Christian Bohr
1141:
1133:
1130:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1061:full face mask
1057:
1046:carbon dioxide
1025:
1022:
1012:
1009:
999:
996:
991:
987:
979:
976:
975:
974:
953:
943:
939:
927:
910:
906:
895:
885:
881:
874:
867:
863:
845:
827:
823:
818:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
788:
787:
786:
785:
784:
764:
754:
750:
739:
719:
709:
705:
680:
676:
653:
649:
637:
636:
635:
614:
604:
600:
587:
577:
573:
569:
558:
548:
544:
537:
530:
526:
520:
516:
487:
484:
467:
464:
424:
421:
409:
405:
402:
401:
398:
391:
387:
376:
354:
351:
343:carbon dioxide
322:
321:
319:
318:
311:
304:
296:
293:
292:
288:
284:
283:
280:
277:
272:
270:
267:
266:
263:
260:
255:
253:
250:
249:
246:
243:
238:
236:
233:
232:
229:
226:
214:
208:
207:
197:
192:
186:
181:
176:
173:
161:
155:
154:
141:
138:
126:
120:
119:
116:
113:
108:
106:
103:
102:
99:
96:
91:
89:
86:
85:
82:
79:
74:
72:
69:
68:
65:
62:
57:
55:
52:
51:
48:
45:
40:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2872:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2807:high altitude
2805:
2804:
2802:
2800:Insufficiency
2798:
2791:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2771:oxyhemoglobin
2769:
2766:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2674:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2543:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2481:
2477:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2440:hysteresivity
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2368:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2354:
2353:
2350:
2338:
2337:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2304:
2303:
2300:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2175:Breathing gas
2173:
2172:
2169:
2162:
2158:
2146:
2145:orinasal mask
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2055:Diving helmet
2053:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1976:Nasal cannula
1974:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1758:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1749:Regulated by
1747:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1665:
1663:
1658:
1656:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1596:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1459:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1363:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1328:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1241:
1235:
1232:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1169:
1162:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1138:Bohr equation
1136:
1135:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1087:
1079:
1076:
1075:orinasal mask
1072:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1042:
1041:breathing gas
1039:in which the
1038:
1034:
1030:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1010:
1008:
1006:
997:
995:
984:
977:
951:
941:
937:
925:
908:
904:
893:
883:
879:
872:
865:
861:
848:physiological
843:
833:
832:
831:
815:
789:
762:
752:
748:
740:
717:
707:
703:
695:
694:
678:
674:
651:
647:
638:
612:
602:
598:
585:
575:
571:
567:
556:
546:
542:
535:
528:
524:
518:
514:
504:
503:
502:
501:
500:
498:
497:Bohr equation
494:
485:
483:
481:
477:
476:lung diseases
472:
465:
463:
459:
457:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
422:
420:
418:
413:
399:
396:
392:
386:, improving O
385:
381:
377:
374:
370:
369:
368:
365:
363:
359:
352:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
317:
312:
310:
305:
303:
298:
297:
294:
289:
285:
281:
268:
264:
251:
247:
234:
230:
222:
218:
213:
209:
205:
204:
195:
184:
177:
169:
165:
160:
156:
142:
134:
130:
125:
121:
117:
104:
100:
87:
83:
70:
66:
53:
49:
36:
30:
19:
2711:gas exchange
2676:Interactions
2601:calculations
2584:
2562:Lung volumes
2525:
2506:
2487:
2458:constriction
2420:respirometer
2334:
2322:
2310:
2245:Demand valve
2184:
2097:Gas extender
2018:Venturi mask
1908:Resuscitator
1637:
1633:
1610:
1603:
1559:
1555:
1545:
1531:(2): 81–86.
1528:
1524:
1518:
1475:
1471:
1461:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1414:
1379:
1375:
1365:
1343:(4): 752–6.
1340:
1336:
1330:
1308:(2): 161–7.
1305:
1301:
1295:
1270:
1266:
1244:. Retrieved
1234:
1209:
1205:
1177:
1171:
1127:
1112:
1091:
1050:
1032:
1028:
1027:
1014:
1004:
1001:
985:
981:
816:
793:
493:mass balance
489:
473:
469:
460:
456:tidal volume
453:
426:
414:
403:
366:
361:
357:
356:
326:
325:
220:
216:
211:
201:
190:
179:
167:
163:
158:
132:
128:
123:
29:
2750:Bohr effect
2650:Circulation
2386:Respiration
2262:Counterlung
2205:Hazmat suit
2003:Oxygen tent
1998:Oxygen mask
1993:Oxygen hood
1918:Pocket mask
1898:Bubble CPAP
1835:Regulations
1815:Facepieces
1099:hypercapnia
486:Calculating
2839:Categories
2812:death zone
2731:hemoglobin
2626:spirometry
2585:dead space
2538:peripheral
2463:dilatation
2449:bronchial
2430:compliance
2403:exhalation
2398:inhalation
2252:Rebreather
2185:Dead space
1925:Ventilator
1819:Smoke hood
1753:and others
1742:Respirator
1634:Dead space
1436:(1): 1–2.
1246:2013-11-27
1163:References
1017:ventilated
380:hemoglobin
353:Components
327:Dead space
2688:Perfusion
2200:Facepiece
2140:Half mask
1930:Iron lung
1799:Dust mask
1492:1569-9048
1081:talking).
905:−
568:−
200:The term
2699:V/Q scan
2336:Glossary
2312:Category
1765:Canister
1760:Gas mask
1640:website.
1586:35112932
1537:17310877
1510:32512232
1450:16357075
1406:19793953
1322:10337497
1287:18101134
1132:See also
449:nitrogen
291:solution
2824:hypoxia
2745:2,3-BPG
2533:central
2508:medulla
2480:Control
2324:Commons
2165:General
2075:Snorkel
1577:8897014
1501:7384949
1455:article
1397:2803621
1357:2791669
1226:8917046
1088:Effects
1059:With a
917:expired
478:due to
441:alveoli
437:trachea
417:snorkel
390:uptake.
347:Mammals
2393:breath
1617:
1584:
1574:
1535:
1508:
1498:
1490:
1448:
1404:
1394:
1355:
1320:
1285:
1224:
1184:
639:where
408:and CO
384:oxygen
339:oxygen
335:breath
1751:NIOSH
1337:Chest
913:mixed
856:space
433:mouth
145:A-a D
2790:DLCO
2690:(Q)
2489:pons
1632:The
1615:ISBN
1582:PMID
1533:PMID
1506:PMID
1488:ISSN
1446:PMID
1402:PMID
1353:PMID
1318:PMID
1283:PMID
1222:PMID
1182:ISBN
1101:and
852:dead
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