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shellfish species. Rockfish, Atka mackerel, walleye pollock, Pacific cod, Pacific halibut, sablefish, flatfish, crabs, and other economically important species in the North
Pacific inhabit these areas. Eighty-three percent of the rockfish found in one study were associated with red tree coral. Flatfish, walleye pollock and Pacific cod appear to be more commonly caught around soft corals. Dense schools of female redfish heavy with young have been observed on Lophelia reefs off Norway, suggesting the reefs are breeding or nursery areas for some species. Oculina reefs are important spawning habitat for several grouper species, as well as other fishes.
574:, approximately 185 kilometres (115 mi) northwest of the northwest tip of Scotland. Named after the research vessel Charles Darwin, the Darwin Mounds have been extensively mapped using low-frequency side-scan sonar. They cover an area of approximately 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) and consist of two main fields—the Darwin Mounds East, with about 75 mounds, and the Darwin Mounds West, with about 150 mounds. Other mounds are scattered in adjacent areas. Each mound is about 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter and 5 metres (16 ft) high.
761:. In asexual reproduction (budding) a polyp divides in two genetically identical pieces. Sexual reproduction requires that a sperm fertilize an egg which grows into a larva. Currents then disperse the larvae. Growth begins when the larvae attach to a solid substrate. Old/dead coral provides an excellent substrate for this growth, creating ever higher mounds of coral. As new growth surrounds the original, the new coral intercepts both water flow and accompanying nutrients, weakening and eventually killing the older organisms.
394:
300:
786:
247:
100:, massifs, thickets or groves. These aggregations are often referred to as "reefs," but differ structurally and functionally. Deep sea reefs are sometimes referred to as "mounds," which more accurately describes the large calcium carbonate skeleton that is left behind as a reef grows and corals below die off, rather than the living habitat and refuge that deep sea corals provide for fish and invertebrates. Mounds may or may not contain living deep sea reefs.
126:. They were first discovered by fishermen about 250 years ago, which garnered interest from scientists. Early scientists were unsure how the reefs sustained life in the seemingly barren and dark conditions of the northerly latitudes. It was not until modern times, when crewed mini-submarines first reached sufficient depth, that scientists began to understand these organisms. Pioneering work by Wilson (1979) shed light on a colony on the
212:
943:
31:
689:
2048:
233:
In June 2009, Living Oceans
Society led the Finding Coral Expedition on Canada’s Pacific coast in search of deep sea corals. Using one person submarines, a team of international scientists made 30 dives to depths of over 500 metres (1,600 ft) and saw giant coral forests, darting schools of fish,
874:
was completely closed to bottom fishing. In 1996, the SAFMC prohibited fishing vessels from dropping anchors, grapples, or attached chains there. In 1998, the council also designated the reserve as an
Essential Fish Habitat. In 2000, the deep-water Oculina Marine Protected Area was extended to 1,029
805:
reefs can host up to 1,300 species of fish and invertebrates. Various fish aggregate on deep sea reefs. Deep sea corals, sponges and other habitat-forming animals provide protection from currents and predators, nurseries for young fish, and feeding, breeding and spawning areas for numerous fish and
238:. During this expedition, scientists identified 16 species of corals. This research was the culmination of five years of work to secure protection from the Canadian Government for these slow-growing and long-lived animals, which provide critical habitat for fish and other marine creatures.
1887:
Etnoyer, P. J., Wickes, L. N., Silva, M., Dubick, J. D., Balthis, L., Salgado, E., & Macdonald, I. R. (2015). Decline in condition of gorgonian octocorals on mesophotic reefs in the northern Gulf of Mexico: Before and after the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Coral Reefs, 35(1), 77–90.
310:
Deep-water corals are widely distributed in Earth’s oceans, with large reefs/beds in the far North and far South
Atlantic, as well as in areas with warmer water such as along the Florida coast. In the north Atlantic, the principal coral species that contribute to reef formation are
930:
area, in August 2003, followed by a permanent closure to bottom trawling in March 2004. The
European Commission designated the area as a Site of Community Importance in December 2009, and was designated a Special Area of Conservation by the UK Government in December 2015.
464:
on the mid-Norwegian Shelf, at 200–300 metres (660–980 ft). It is 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) long, 700 metres (2,300 ft) wide, and up to 700 metres (2,300 ft) high, an area one-tenth the size of the 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi) Røst Reef.
145:
craters near the reef. Since then, hundreds of large deep-water coral reefs have been mapped and studied. About 60 percent of the reefs occur next to or inside seabed pockmarks. Because these craters are formed by the expulsion of liquids and gases (including
869:
scientists, such as John Reed, called for protective measures. In 1984, the South
Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) designated a 315 square kilometres (122 sq mi) area as a Habitat Area of Particular Concern. In 1994, an area called the
910:, prohibiting bottom trawling. Subsequently, in 2000, an additional area covering roughly 600 square kilometers (230 sq mi) was closed off. Then, in 2002, an area of approximately 300 square kilometers (120 sq mi) surrounding the
480:. It rests at a depth of 90–120 meters (300–390 feet) and spans an area of approximately 2 by 0.2 kilometers (1.24 mi × 0.12 mi). It is estimated to be 8600–8700 years old. The Tisler Reef contains the world’s only known yellow
452:
archipelago, in Norway, inside the Arctic Circle. Discovered during a routine survey in May 2002, the reef is still largely intact. It is approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) long by 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) wide.
578:
corals and coral rubble cover the mound tops, attracting other marine life. The mounds look like 'sand volcanoes', each with a 'tail', up to several hundred meters long, all oriented downstream. Large congregations of
589:) which are giant unicellular organisms that can grow up to 25 centimetres (9.8 in) in diameter characterize the tails and mounds. Scientists are uncertain why these organisms congregate here. The Darwin Mounds
96:
While there are nearly as many species of deep-water corals as shallow-water species, only a few deep-water species develop traditional reefs. Instead, they form aggregations called patches, banks,
773:
Deep-water coral colonies range in size from small and solitary to large, branching tree-like structures. Larger colonies support many life forms, while nearby areas have much less. The gorgonian,
1916:
836:
Deep-water corals have a slow growth rate, resulting in a much longer recovery period compared to shallow waters where nutrients and food-providing zooxanthellae are more abundant.
892:
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colonies on oil installations in the North Sea. Using coral age-dating methods, scientists have estimated that some living deep-water corals date back at least 10,000 years.
706:
highs such as seamounts, ridges, pinnacles and mounds, on hard surfaces. Corals are sedentary, so they must live near nutrient-rich water currents. Deep-water corals feed on
843:
in the
Atlantic off Canada. This study found that the corals were often broken in unnatural ways, and the ocean floor displayed scars and overturned boulders from trawling.
382:
contribute to the framework of deep-water coral banks found at depths of 600 to 800 metres (2,000–2,600 ft) in the
Straits of Florida (Cairns and Stanley, 1982).
378:
occurs as deep as 2,020 metres (6,630 ft) and is one of a dozen species that occur globally and in all oceans, including the
Subantarctic (Cairns, 1982). Colonies of
291:. Hexacorals include sea anemones and hard bodied corals. Octocorals contain eight body extensions while Hexacorals have six. Most deep-water corals are stony corals.
2284:
899:’s main scientific advisor on fisheries and environmental issues in the northeast Atlantic, recommend mapping and closing Europe’s deep corals to fishing trawlers.
2150:
1842:
621:, exist in 50–100 metres (160–330 ft) of water along the continental shelf edge about 42–80 km (26–50 miles) off of Florida's central east coast. The
134:
surveyed a 15 metres (49 ft) tall and 50 metres (160 ft) wide reef perched at 280 metres (920 ft) water depth near Fugløy Island, north of the
570:. They discovered two areas of hundreds of sand and deep-water coral mounds at depths of about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in the northeast corner of the
1776:; Vanreusel, Ann; Gooday, Andrew J.; Levin, Lisa A.; Priede, Imants G.; Buhl-Mortensen, Pål; Gheerardyn, Hendrik; King, Nicola J.; Raes, Maarten (2010).
1273:
528:
reefs are also found along the U.S. East Coast at depths of 500–850 metres (1,640–2,790 ft) along the base of the Florida-Hatteras slope. South of
777:, may grow beyond three meters. However, little is known of their basic biology, including how they feed or their methods and timing of reproduction.
702:
Most corals must attach to a hard surface in order to begin growing but sea fans can also live on soft sediments. They are often found growing along
544:
communities lie in unprotected areas of potential oil and gas exploration and cable-laying operations, rendering them vulnerable to future threats.
1585:
Avent, R.M.; King, M.E. & Gore, R.M. (1977). "Topographic and faunal studies of shelf-edge prominences off the central eastern Florida coast".
1017:
866:
648:
Banks host a wide array of macroinvertebrates and fishes. They are significant spawning grounds for commercially important food species including
111:
846:
Apart from managed pressures such as deep-water trawling and oil exploration, deep-water coral reefs are susceptible to unmanaged pressures like
2229:
1402:
2381:
871:
150:), several scientists hypothesize that there may be a link between the existence of the deep-water coral reefs and nutrients seepage (light
727:, may exceed 10–20 cm/yr. Reef structure growth estimates are about 1 millimetre (0.039 in) per year. Scientists have also found
1434:
Colonisation and bioerosion of experimental substrates by benthic foraminiferans from euphotic to aphotic depths (Kosterfjord, SW Sweden).
566:. Atlantic Frontier Environmental Network (AFEN) discovered them in 1998 while conducting large-scale regional sea floor surveys north of
69:, beyond 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) where water temperatures may be as cold as 4 °C (39 °F). Deep-water corals belong to the
2304:
613:
is a branching ivory coral that forms giant but slow-growing, bushy thickets on pinnacles up to 30 metres (98 ft) in height. The
2319:
1672:
1113:
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has a linear polyp extension of about 10 millimetres (0.39 in) per year. By contrast, branching shallow-water corals, such as
550:
exist around the Bay of Biscay, the Canary Islands, Portugal, Madeira, the Azores, and the western basin of the Mediterranean Sea.
850:. To safeguard these habitats in the long term, methods evaluating the relative risks of different pressures are being advocated.
122:
Deep-water corals are enigmatic because they construct their reefs in deep, dark, cool waters at high latitudes, such as Norway's
2424:
2264:
1954:
825:
Oil and gas exploration also cause damage to deep-water coral. A 2015 study revealed that observed injury in populations in the
2355:
1451:
903:
628:
Discovered in 1975 by scientists from the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution conducting surveys of the continental shelf,
1466:
833:. The injury rates increased from 4 to 9 percent before the spill to 38 to 50 percent after the spill (Etnoyer et al., 2015).
1488:
103:
2279:
1272:
McKenna, S.A.; Lash, J.; Morgan, L.; Reuscher, M.; Shirley, T.; Workman, G.; Driscoll, J.; Robb, C.; Hangaard, D. (2009).
529:
205:
2204:
1008:
2309:
2269:
1927:
1759:
830:
1850:
1912:
Lophelia.org, a website devoted to the cold-water coral habitats from Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland
818:
drag nets across the ocean floor, disturbing sediments, breaking, and destroying deep-water corals. Additionally,
2396:
2161:
585:
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growths. The coral mounds and ridges here rise as much as 150 metres (490 ft) from the plateau plain. These
2406:
2259:
2224:
989:
1280:
1181:
89:(sea fans). Like tropical corals, they provide habitat to other species, but deep-water corals do not require
1129:
Mortensen, P.B.; Hovland, M.T.; Fosså, J.H. & Furevik, D.M. (2001). "Distribution, abundance and size of
2249:
1556:
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implemented a closure on an expanse of 1,000 square kilometers (390 sq mi), which encompassed the expansive
433:
installations. However, oil and gas production may introduce harmful substances into the local environment.
345:
1061:
Wilson, J.B. (1979). "Biogenic carbonate sediments on the Scottish continental shelf and on Rockall Bank".
130:, off Ireland. The first ever live video of a large deep-water coral reef was obtained in July, 1982, when
2391:
2244:
801:
Deep sea corals together with other habitat-forming organisms host a rich fauna of associated organisms.
717:
Deep-water corals grow more slowly than tropical corals because there are no zooxanthellae to feed them.
2386:
2350:
2314:
2156:
2144:
2122:
961:
858:
Bottom trawling and natural causes like bioerosion and episodic die-offs have reduced much of Florida's
1778:"Biological structures as a source of habitat heterogeneity and biodiversity on the deep ocean margins"
1376:
2552:
2496:
2434:
2239:
1947:
1789:
1527:
1332:
1070:
1043:
758:
532:, NC, rising from the flat sea bed of the Blake Plateau, is a band of ridges capped with thickets of
162:) through the seafloor. This hypothesis is called the 'hydraulic theory' for deep-water coral reefs.
677:
2414:
2209:
2184:
1922:
1773:
1406:
923:
896:
847:
754:
208:
in 2000. The symposium considered all aspects of deep-water corals, including protection methods.
2360:
2345:
2294:
2234:
1725:
1653:
1634:
Reed, J.K. (2002). "Comparison of deep-water coral reefs and lithoherms off southeastern U.S.A".
1358:
1150:
826:
694:
505:
142:
36:
1105:
299:
2557:
2365:
2214:
1447:
1350:
1185:
1109:
325:
252:
123:
47:
30:
1818:"The deep-water coral Lophelia pertusa in Norwegian waters: Distribution and fishery impacts"
1518:(Linnaeus 1758) and other deep-water reef-forming corals and impacts from human activities".
2501:
2074:
1998:
1889:
1797:
1717:
1645:
1594:
1535:
1340:
1227:
1177:
1142:
1097:
1078:
819:
766:
637:
609:
461:
445:
406:
372:) constitute most deep-water coral banks at depths of 400–700 metres (1,300–2,300 ft).
319:
313:
226:
221:
1218:
Hovland, M.; Thomsen, E. (1997). "Deep-water corals – are they hydrocarbon seep related?".
862:
to rubble, drastically reducing a once-substantial fishery by destroying spawning grounds.
496:
and the Northeast Atlantic Ocean. At depths from 200 to 500 metres (660 to 1,640 ft),
2521:
2491:
2340:
2194:
2139:
1940:
1297:
Cairns, S.; G. Stanley (1982). "Ahermatypic coral banks: Living and fossil counterparts".
888:
170:
107:
1680:
1612:
Reed, J.K. (1981). W.J. Richards (ed.). "In situ growth rates of the scleractinian coral
1793:
1531:
1336:
1074:
211:
110:
tend to break corals apart and destroy reefs. The deep-water habitat is designated as a
2506:
2274:
2219:
2023:
711:
665:
580:
571:
559:
509:
411:
257:
246:
127:
42:
1231:
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2546:
2459:
2179:
2129:
2018:
1993:
1817:
1802:
1777:
1708:
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1098:
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927:
790:
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Banks stretch along 170 kilometers (106 miles) reaching from Fort Pierce to Daytona.
563:
493:
489:
430:
338:
90:
1729:
1657:
1154:
2472:
2289:
2064:
2056:
2008:
1975:
1362:
942:
887:
Scientists estimate that trawling has damaged or destroyed 30 to 50 percent of the
859:
501:
351:
331:
235:
182:
135:
78:
74:
66:
1864:
1492:
911:
785:
688:
441:
1598:
2465:
2254:
2189:
2003:
1988:
1983:
743:
739:
735:
707:
673:
657:
649:
633:
151:
141:
During their survey of the Fugløy reef, Hovland and Mortensen also found seabed
2047:
875:
square kilometres (397 sq mi). Scientists recently deployed concrete
2531:
2516:
2439:
2429:
2419:
2171:
2134:
2112:
2094:
2079:
2069:
1967:
1893:
1721:
1649:
1168:
LEWIS H KING; BRIAN MacLEAN (October 1970). "Pockmarks on the Scotian Shelf".
1146:
956:
938:
876:
703:
280:
198:
190:
178:
82:
17:
1702:
Fossa, J.H.; P.B. Mortensen & D.M. Furevic (2002). "The deep-water coral
1189:
1022:
2511:
907:
669:
469:
457:
304:
284:
86:
1843:"Future-proofing marine protected area networks for cold water coral reefs"
1539:
1354:
1299:
Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila (1981)
814:
The primary human impact on deep-water corals is from deep-water trawling.
444:. It lies between 300 and 400 metres (980 and 1,310 ft) deep, west of
1421:
Temperature shocks and ecological implications at a cold-water coral reef.
516:
structures. One of them, the Therese Mound, is particularly noted for its
508:, the southern end of the Rockall Bank, and the shelf to the northwest of
2199:
2037:
2013:
1932:
1865:"Darwin Mounds MPA | JNCC – Adviser to Government on Nature Conservation"
1205:
Seabed Fluid Flow. Impact on Geology, Biology, and the Marine Environment
815:
723:
567:
276:
272:
216:
194:
186:
70:
2299:
2084:
468:
Discovered and mapped in 2002, Norway's Tisler Reef is situated in the
449:
288:
174:
159:
147:
131:
97:
1905:
1616:
occurring with zooxanthellae on 6-m reefs and without on 80-m banks".
204:
The first international symposium for deep-water corals took place in
2324:
2031:
477:
473:
419:
415:
269:
265:
166:
155:
993:
2102:
1963:
1345:
1320:
1133:
coral reefs in mid-Norway in relation to seabed characteristics".
784:
747:
687:
392:
298:
245:
210:
62:
29:
1564:
839:
Another study conducted during 2001 to 2003 focused on a reef of
632:
thickets grow on a series of pinnacles and ridges extending from
1936:
593:
grow on sand rather than hard substrate, unique to this area.
2107:
1254:
714:
to bring food. The currents also aid in cleaning the corals.
201:, fish, and many other vertebrate and invertebrate species.
1928:
Deep-sea Corals at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
1911:
738:
on their tentacles to stun prey. Deep-water corals feed on
165:
Lophelia communities support diverse marine life, such as
1182:
10.1130/0016-7606(1970)81[3141:POTSS]2.0.CO;2
1104:. Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing (Springer). pp.
1923:
Deep-Sea Corals at the NOAA Habitat Conservation Program
1917:
Deep Sea Corals: Out of Sight, But No Longer Out of Mind
1706:
in Norwegian waters: distribution and fishery impacts".
1454:: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme.
558:
Among the most researched deep-water coral areas in the
504:
and on the shelf break north and west of Scotland. The
456:
Some 500 kilometres (310 mi) further south is the
46:
fish at a depth of 1,255 m (4,117 ft) on the
1919:
report on deep sea corals around the world from Oceana
1618:
Proceedings of Marine Recreational Fisheries Symposium
1135:
Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK
1021:. Joint Nature Conservation Committee. Archived from
879:
in an attempt to provide habitat for fish and coral.
829:
in the Gulf of Mexico surged significantly after the
61:, extends to deeper, darker parts of the oceans than
1100:
Deep-water coral reefs: Unique Biodiversity hotspots
893:
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
2484:
2452:
2405:
2374:
2333:
2170:
2093:
2055:
1974:
1677:
Research Reserve off the Atlantic Coast of Florida"
287:(Zoantharia). Octocorals are soft corals such as
1274:"Cruise Report for the Finding Coral Expedition"
1176:(10). Geological Society of America: 3141–3148.
1419:Guihen, D., White, M., and Lundälv, T. (2012).
617:Banks, so named because they consist mostly of
279:. Anthozoa is broken down into two subclasses
2151:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
1948:
770:colonies are entirely either female or male.
8:
1671:C. Koenig; J. Reid; K. Scanlon; F. Coleman.
425:Aside from ocean bottoms, scientists found
2402:
1955:
1941:
1933:
926:introduced an interim trawling ban in the
698:) at 1257 meters water depth (California).
484:. Elsewhere in the northeastern Atlantic,
1801:
1629:
1627:
1344:
1908:overview on the Smithsonian Ocean Portal
1551:
1549:
536:. These are the northernmost East Coast
1482:
1480:
1314:
1312:
1018:United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan
972:
867:Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution
472:, marking the submarine border between
410:, lives in the Northeast and Northwest
112:United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan
65:, ranging from near the surface to the
2230:Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
1432:Wisshak, M. and Ruggeberg, A. (2006).
984:
982:
980:
978:
976:
597:corals exist in Irish waters as well.
2382:Environmental issues with coral reefs
1514:Rogers, A.D. (1999). "The biology of
1321:"Coral growing on North Sea oil rigs"
872:Experimental Oculina Research Reserve
460:, located on the Sula Ridge, west of
436:The world's largest known deep-water
7:
1520:International Review of Hydrobiology
1489:"Coral reefs in the North Atlantic?"
1423:Marine Biodiversity Records 5: 1–10.
1319:Bell, N.; J. Smith (December 1999).
914:was also designated as closed off.
256:coral, collected off the coast of
229:in Haida Gwaii, British Columbia.
25:
1403:"Coral reefs in Norwegian Waters"
2425:International Coral Reef Society
2265:Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System
2046:
1803:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2010.00359.x
1465:Sulak, K. & S. Ross (2001).
941:
404:One of the most common species,
2356:Stony coral tissue loss disease
1452:Marine Life Information Network
904:Norwegian Ministry of Fisheries
104:Submarine communications cables
1203:Judd, A.; Hovland, M. (2007).
822:poses another harmful method.
512:all exhibit large, mound-like
492:, an island group between the
1:
2285:Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
1673:"Studies in the Experimental
1232:10.1016/s0025-3227(96)00086-2
1207:. Cambridge University Press.
1599:10.1002/iroh.1977.3510620201
1377:"Korallrev: sakte og skjørt"
1083:10.1016/0025-3227(79)90076-8
106:and fishing methods such as
2310:Southeast Asian coral reefs
1401:Bellona Foundation (2001).
831:Deepwater Horizon oil spill
234:and a seafloor carpeted in
219:hides in a red tree coral (
2574:
2270:New Caledonia barrier reef
1446:Tyler-Walters, H. (2003).
1255:"Finding Coral Expedition"
2162:Spur and groove formation
2044:
1894:10.1007/s00338-015-1363-2
1147:10.1017/S002531540100426X
586:Syringammina fragilissima
2225:East African coral coast
1745:2000 Years Under the Sea
1096:Hovland, Martin (2008).
1048:Om Nogle Norske Coraller
1722:10.1023/a:1016504430684
1650:10.1023/A:1016588901551
684:Growth and reproduction
397:Global distribution of
346:Solenosmilia variabilis
138:, off northern Norway.
79:black and thorny corals
2392:Coral reef restoration
1540:10.1002/iroh.199900032
1244:Hovland and Risk, 2003
798:
734:Deep-water corals use
699:
401:
307:
261:
230:
50:
2387:Coral reef protection
2351:Skeletal eroding band
2157:Catlin Seaview Survey
2145:Census of Coral Reefs
2123:mesophotic coral reef
1450:. Plymouth, England:
1383:(in Norwegian Bokmål)
1044:Gunnerus, Johan Ernst
962:Mesophotic coral reef
788:
691:
440:coral complex is the
396:
302:
249:
214:
33:
2497:Aquaculture of coral
2280:Non-tropical regions
1774:Buhl-Mortensen, Lene
1758:Watling, L. (2001).
753:Coral can reproduce
488:is found around the
27:Marine invertebrates
2415:Coral Reef Alliance
2305:Solomon Archipelago
2210:Belize Barrier Reef
2185:African coral reefs
1794:2010MarEc..31...21B
1587:Revue ges.Hydrobiol
1532:1999IRH....84..315R
1409:on January 3, 2004.
1337:1999Natur.402..601B
1075:1979MGeol..33...85W
1007:Tasker, M. (2007).
990:"Deep Water Corals"
924:European Commission
897:European Commission
848:ocean acidification
154:, such as methane,
118:Discovery and study
77:, but also include
73:and are most often
2361:White band disease
2346:Black band disease
2315:Tuvalu Archipelago
2295:Raja Ampat Islands
2235:Great Barrier Reef
1847:oxfordjournals.org
1743:Mayer, T. (2001).
1495:on August 31, 2009
1487:Fosså, Jan Helge.
1467:"A profile of the
827:Mississippi Canyon
799:
775:Paragorgia arborea
700:
695:Paragorgia arborea
506:Porcupine Seabight
500:is chiefly on the
402:
308:
262:
231:
51:
37:Paragorgia arborea
2540:
2539:
2448:
2447:
2366:White pox disease
2215:Coral Sea Islands
1009:"Action plan for
820:long-line fishing
692:Bubblegum coral (
522:Madrepora oculata
376:Madrepora oculata
326:Madrepora oculata
283:(Alcyonaria) and
253:Madrepora oculata
124:Continental Shelf
59:cold-water corals
55:deep-water corals
48:Davidson Seamount
34:Deep-water coral
16:(Redirected from
2565:
2527:Deep-water coral
2502:Coral dermatitis
2403:
2118:Deep-water coral
2050:
1957:
1950:
1943:
1934:
1881:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1871:. 19 August 2021
1861:
1855:
1854:
1849:. Archived from
1838:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1770:
1764:
1763:
1760:"Deep sea coral"
1755:
1749:
1748:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1704:Lophelia pertusa
1699:
1693:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1679:. Archived from
1668:
1662:
1661:
1631:
1622:
1621:
1614:Oculina varicosa
1609:
1603:
1602:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1563:. Archived from
1553:
1544:
1543:
1516:Lophelia pertusa
1511:
1505:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1491:. Archived from
1484:
1475:
1474:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1448:"Lophelia reefs"
1443:
1437:
1436:Facies 52: 1–17.
1430:
1424:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1405:. Archived from
1398:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1388:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1348:
1316:
1307:
1306:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1279:. Archived from
1278:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1251:
1245:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1131:Lophelia pertusa
1126:
1120:
1119:
1103:
1093:
1087:
1086:
1069:(3–4): M85–M93.
1058:
1052:
1051:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1030:
1011:Lophelia pertusa
1004:
998:
997:
992:. Archived from
986:
951:
946:
945:
891:coral area. The
841:Lophelia pertusa
767:Lophelia pertusa
638:Daytona, Florida
619:Oculina varicosa
610:Oculina varicosa
602:Oculina varicosa
538:Lophelia pertusa
518:Lophelia pertusa
407:Lophelia pertusa
399:Lophelia pertusa
387:Lophelia pertusa
320:Oculina varicosa
314:Lophelia pertusa
227:Juan Perez Sound
222:Primnoa pacifica
171:polychaete worms
57:, also known as
21:
2573:
2572:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2543:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2522:Coralline algae
2492:Artificial reef
2480:
2453:Symbiotic algae
2444:
2401:
2397:Reef resilience
2370:
2341:Coral bleaching
2329:
2195:Andros, Bahamas
2166:
2140:Coral reef fish
2089:
2051:
2042:
1970:
1961:
1906:Deep-sea Corals
1902:
1884:
1874:
1872:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1841:E. L. Jackson.
1840:
1839:
1835:
1826:
1824:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1686:
1684:
1683:on July 6, 2008
1670:
1669:
1665:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1611:
1610:
1606:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1570:
1568:
1555:
1554:
1547:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1496:
1486:
1485:
1478:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1445:
1444:
1440:
1431:
1427:
1418:
1414:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1386:
1384:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1331:(6762): 601–2.
1318:
1317:
1310:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1276:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1253:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1217:
1216:
1212:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1116:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1060:
1059:
1055:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1028:
1026:
1006:
1005:
1001:
988:
987:
974:
970:
947:
940:
937:
920:
889:Norwegian shelf
885:
856:
812:
783:
686:
606:
556:
422:’s west coast.
391:
356:. Four genera (
297:
244:
206:Halifax, Canada
120:
108:bottom trawling
71:Phylum Cnidaria
63:tropical corals
53:The habitat of
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2571:
2569:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2545:
2544:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2507:Precious coral
2504:
2499:
2494:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2476:
2469:
2456:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2411:
2409:
2400:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2337:
2335:
2334:Coral diseases
2331:
2330:
2328:
2327:
2322:
2320:Virgin Islands
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2220:Coral Triangle
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2176:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2099:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2053:
2052:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1980:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1937:
1931:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1914:
1909:
1901:
1900:External links
1898:
1897:
1896:
1883:
1882:
1856:
1853:on 2016-01-23.
1833:
1809:
1782:Marine Ecology
1765:
1750:
1735:
1694:
1663:
1623:
1604:
1593:(2): 185–208.
1577:
1557:"Oculina Bank"
1545:
1526:(4): 315–406.
1506:
1476:
1457:
1438:
1425:
1412:
1393:
1368:
1308:
1289:
1286:on 2010-08-15.
1264:
1246:
1237:
1220:Marine Geology
1210:
1195:
1160:
1141:(4): 581–597.
1121:
1114:
1088:
1063:Marine Geology
1053:
1035:
999:
996:on 2010-02-21.
971:
969:
966:
965:
964:
959:
953:
952:
936:
933:
919:
916:
884:
881:
855:
852:
811:
808:
782:
779:
712:ocean currents
685:
682:
678:calico scallop
666:black sea bass
644:thickets, the
605:
599:
581:Xenophyophores
572:Rockall Trough
560:United Kingdom
555:
552:
510:County Donegal
448:island in the
412:Atlantic Ocean
390:
384:
296:
293:
275:and the class
258:South Carolina
250:A specimen of
243:
240:
128:Porcupine Bank
119:
116:
85:including the
43:Coryphaenoides
26:
24:
18:Deep-sea coral
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2570:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2460:Zooxanthellae
2458:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2430:Project AWARE
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2407:Organizations
2404:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2275:Ningaloo Reef
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2180:List of reefs
2178:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2172:Coral regions
2169:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2039:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1953:
1951:
1946:
1944:
1939:
1938:
1935:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1885:
1870:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1834:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1754:
1751:
1746:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1710:
1709:Hydrobiologia
1705:
1698:
1695:
1687:September 18,
1682:
1678:
1676:
1667:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1638:
1637:Hydrobiologia
1630:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1578:
1567:on 2019-02-13
1566:
1562:
1558:
1552:
1550:
1546:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1507:
1499:September 18,
1494:
1490:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1470:
1461:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1442:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1426:
1422:
1416:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1394:
1382:
1378:
1372:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1346:10.1038/45127
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1290:
1282:
1275:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1259:Living Oceans
1256:
1250:
1247:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1211:
1206:
1199:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1164:
1161:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1115:9781402084614
1111:
1107:
1102:
1101:
1092:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1057:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1036:
1025:on 2009-06-26
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1012:
1003:
1000:
995:
991:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
973:
967:
963:
960:
958:
955:
954:
950:
949:Oceans portal
944:
939:
934:
932:
929:
928:Darwin Mounds
925:
918:Darwin mounds
917:
915:
913:
909:
905:
902:In 1999, the
900:
898:
894:
890:
883:Sula and Røst
882:
880:
878:
873:
868:
863:
861:
860:Oculina Banks
854:Oculina Banks
853:
851:
849:
844:
842:
837:
834:
832:
828:
823:
821:
817:
809:
807:
804:
796:
792:
791:squat lobster
787:
780:
778:
776:
771:
769:
768:
762:
760:
756:
751:
749:
745:
741:
737:
732:
730:
726:
725:
720:
715:
713:
709:
705:
697:
696:
690:
683:
681:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
662:speckled hind
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
626:
624:
620:
616:
612:
611:
603:
600:
598:
596:
592:
588:
587:
582:
577:
573:
569:
565:
564:Darwin Mounds
561:
554:Darwin Mounds
553:
551:
549:
545:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
494:Norwegian Sea
491:
490:Faroe Islands
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
466:
463:
459:
454:
451:
447:
443:
439:
434:
432:
431:North Sea oil
428:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
408:
400:
395:
388:
385:
383:
381:
380:Enallopsammia
377:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
353:
348:
347:
342:
340:
339:Enallopsammia
335:
333:
328:
327:
322:
321:
316:
315:
306:
301:
294:
292:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
271:
267:
259:
255:
254:
248:
241:
239:
237:
236:brittle stars
228:
224:
223:
218:
213:
209:
207:
202:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
183:brittle stars
180:
176:
172:
168:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
144:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
117:
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
99:
94:
92:
91:zooxanthellae
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
49:
45:
44:
39:
38:
32:
19:
2526:
2473:Symbiodinium
2471:
2464:
2375:Conservation
2290:Pulley Ridge
2149:
2117:
2057:Octocorallia
1976:Hexacorallia
1873:. Retrieved
1868:
1859:
1851:the original
1846:
1836:
1825:. Retrieved
1822:ResearchGate
1821:
1812:
1788:(1): 21–50.
1785:
1781:
1768:
1753:
1744:
1738:
1713:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1685:. Retrieved
1681:the original
1674:
1666:
1641:
1635:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1590:
1586:
1580:
1569:. Retrieved
1565:the original
1560:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1509:
1497:. Retrieved
1493:the original
1468:
1460:
1441:
1433:
1428:
1420:
1415:
1407:the original
1396:
1385:. Retrieved
1381:forskning.no
1380:
1371:
1328:
1324:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1281:the original
1267:
1258:
1249:
1240:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1204:
1198:
1173:
1170:GSA Bulletin
1169:
1163:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1124:
1099:
1091:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1047:
1038:
1027:. Retrieved
1023:the original
1016:
1010:
1002:
994:the original
921:
901:
886:
864:
857:
845:
840:
838:
835:
824:
813:
810:Human impact
802:
800:
794:
793:living on a
774:
772:
765:
763:
752:
733:
728:
722:
718:
716:
710:and rely on
701:
693:
645:
641:
629:
627:
622:
618:
614:
608:
607:
604:distribution
601:
594:
590:
584:
575:
557:
547:
546:
541:
537:
533:
530:Cape Lookout
525:
521:
517:
513:
502:Rockall Bank
497:
485:
481:
467:
455:
437:
435:
429:colonies on
426:
424:
405:
403:
398:
389:distribution
386:
379:
375:
374:
370:Goniocorella
369:
366:Solenosmilia
365:
362:Desmophyllum
361:
357:
352:Goniocorella
350:
344:
337:
332:Desmophyllum
330:
324:
318:
312:
309:
295:Distribution
263:
251:
232:
220:
203:
164:
152:hydrocarbons
140:
136:Polar Circle
121:
102:
95:
93:to survive.
75:stony corals
58:
54:
52:
41:
35:
2553:Coral reefs
2466:Amphidinium
2255:Lakshadweep
2190:Amazon Reef
2095:Coral reefs
1968:coral reefs
1869:jncc.gov.uk
1226:: 159–164.
764:Individual
744:crustaceans
740:zooplankton
736:nematocysts
708:zooplankton
704:bathymetric
674:rock shrimp
658:red grouper
634:Fort Pierce
334:cristagalli
264:Corals are
199:sea spiders
191:sea urchins
179:crustaceans
83:soft corals
2547:Categories
2532:Fire coral
2517:Coral sand
2440:Reef Check
2420:Green Fins
2135:Microatoll
2075:Organ pipe
1999:Hermatypic
1827:2019-03-18
1620:: 201–206.
1571:2017-11-13
1387:2017-11-13
1305:: 611–618.
1029:2009-08-06
968:References
957:Coral reef
877:reef balls
781:Importance
524:colonies.
498:L. pertusa
482:L. pertusa
285:Hexacorals
281:Octocorals
87:Gorgonians
2512:Coral rag
2435:Reef Ball
2205:Baa Atoll
1644:: 43–55.
1190:0016-7606
912:Røst Reef
908:Sula Reef
865:In 1980,
759:asexually
746:and even
670:red porgy
640:Like the
470:Skagerrak
462:Trondheim
458:Sula Reef
442:Røst Reef
305:octocoral
195:bryozoans
114:habitat.
2558:Anthozoa
2260:Maldives
2250:Kiribati
2200:Apo Reef
2130:Fringing
2085:Sea pens
2080:Sea fans
2038:Tabulate
2024:Staghorn
1994:Elegance
1730:40904134
1716:: 1–12.
1658:13639905
1469:Lophelia
1355:10604464
1155:86181612
1046:(1768).
935:See also
816:Trawlers
803:Lophelia
795:Lophelia
755:sexually
729:Lophelia
724:Acropora
719:Lophelia
642:Lophelia
595:Lophelia
591:Lophelia
576:Lophelia
568:Scotland
562:are the
548:Lophelia
542:Lophelia
534:Lophelia
526:Lophelia
514:Lophelia
486:Lophelia
438:Lophelia
427:Lophelia
418:and off
358:Lophelia
341:rostrata
289:sea pens
277:Anthozoa
273:Cnidaria
242:Taxonomy
217:rockfish
187:starfish
175:mollusks
143:pockmark
98:bioherms
2300:Red Sea
2245:Jamaica
2019:Elkhorn
2004:Chalice
1790:Bibcode
1675:Oculina
1528:Bibcode
1363:4401771
1333:Bibcode
1071:Bibcode
646:Oculina
630:Oculina
623:Oculina
615:Oculina
450:Lofoten
268:in the
266:animals
167:sponges
160:propane
148:methane
132:Statoil
2325:Yabiji
2065:Bamboo
2032:Rugose
2009:Pillar
1964:Corals
1728:
1656:
1471:reefs"
1361:
1353:
1325:Nature
1188:
1153:
1112:
1013:reefs"
895:, the
676:, and
478:Sweden
474:Norway
420:Africa
416:Brazil
368:, and
354:dumosa
349:, and
270:phylum
158:, and
156:ethane
40:and a
2485:Other
2240:India
2113:Coral
2103:Atoll
2014:Table
1989:Brain
1984:Black
1875:6 May
1726:S2CID
1654:S2CID
1561:SAFMC
1359:S2CID
1284:(PDF)
1277:(PDF)
1151:S2CID
748:krill
654:scamp
303:Soft
225:) in
67:abyss
2070:Blue
1966:and
1877:2022
1689:2009
1501:2009
1351:PMID
1186:ISSN
1110:ISBN
922:The
797:reef
520:and
476:and
446:Røst
81:and
2108:Cay
1890:doi
1798:doi
1718:doi
1714:417
1646:doi
1642:471
1595:doi
1536:doi
1341:doi
1329:402
1228:doi
1224:137
1178:doi
1143:doi
1106:278
1079:doi
757:or
650:gag
636:to
2549::
1867:.
1845:.
1820:.
1796:.
1786:31
1784:.
1780:.
1724:.
1712:.
1652:.
1640:.
1626:^
1591:62
1589:.
1559:.
1548:^
1534:.
1524:84
1522:.
1479:^
1379:.
1357:.
1349:.
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1327:.
1323:.
1311:^
1301:.
1257:.
1222:.
1184:.
1174:81
1172:.
1149:.
1139:81
1137:.
1108:.
1077:.
1067:33
1065:.
1015:.
975:^
789:A
750:.
742:,
680:.
672:,
668:,
664:,
660:,
656:,
652:,
414:,
364:,
360:,
343:,
336:,
329:,
323:,
317:,
215:A
197:,
193:,
189:,
185:,
181:,
177:,
173:,
169:,
2036:†
2030:†
1956:e
1949:t
1942:v
1892::
1879:.
1830:.
1806:.
1800::
1792::
1762:.
1747:.
1732:.
1720::
1691:.
1660:.
1648::
1601:.
1597::
1574:.
1542:.
1538::
1530::
1503:.
1473:.
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1365:.
1343::
1335::
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1261:.
1234:.
1230::
1192:.
1180::
1157:.
1145::
1118:.
1085:.
1081::
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1050:.
1032:.
583:(
260:.
20:)
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