17:
666:
impossible. The reasons for this had as much to do with the
Safavids as with their enemies. Iran's "military revolution" remained half-finished; it buttressed the absolutism of Shah Abbas I and his successors, but failed to effect a profound transformation in the Safavid political and social structure". Hence defensive walls never became a mainstay in relation to Safavid policies on the construction of cities and towns, and artillery and firearms never became core parts of the
76:
665:
in the 1630s. While the
Ottomans were forced to adapt the European way of warfare and the Russians fully integrated firearms into its system, in Safavid Iran, as Matthee explains: "The interplay between political, social and material factors made a similar revolution unnecessary and therefore perhaps
171:
As few of
Safavid Iran's enemies used firearms, with even fewer making use of them effectively, the Safavids were even less poised to maintain and create defensive walls around their cities. This was especially the case in the eastern part of the Safavid realm, where firearms were adopted only late
176:
continued to use traditional weapons for a long period of time. Although Afghan tribes, who would play a foremost role in dealing the final blow to the declining
Safavid rulers, used firearms, they, like the Safavids, were remarkably weak in using them effectively in siege warfare.
141:
The rule of Shah Abbas the Great which was also characterized by attendant relatively stability provided the
Iranians with strategic depth and made fortifications of cities in central Iran less and less important. Thereby, in this regard, the Safavids started to resemble the
43:
coupled with the workings of historical contingency. In
Safavid Iran, rather than walls, it was usually the citadel within the urban area that functioned as the city's stronghold and the refuge for stationed forces and some of the city's population.
110:), within urban areas, which is not always clear from the extant data. Fortified towns were especially located in areas that bordered empires whose military often used artillery. Towns that fit this criterion are the northern frontier town of
125:
Many
European travellers who visited eastern towns, noted that unlike European cities, they were often unwalledâa feature also encountered in Safavid Iran. However, a number of Iranian towns were already walled prior to the rise of the
101:
explains, is flexible, and ranges in meaning from fortified ramparts to feeble clay enclosures of urban quarters of gardens and plots of agricultural land. A further problem is the distinction between common walls
96:
Reports on walls in
Safavid Iran are less than comprehensive due to conflicting and ambiguous reports. Furthermore, matters are complicated due to different purposes served by walls. The term "wall", as historian
51:
explains, was a lack of repair due to, in part, absence of a centrally organised defence policy, and a weakly developed municipal organisation, and in some cases a deliberate "decastellation". For instance, Shah
63:
1588-1629), in his efforts to centralise Iran and establish strong rule, destroyed many fortifications within the country that had been used by local rulers. The existing notion that the
130:, with some cities undergoing little or no change in over 200 years of rule by the Safavids. Cities in Safavid Iran that fit this category are Derbent in the north, as well as
47:
The
Safavid period was seemingly a period wherein the number of towns surrounded by walls and fortifications decreased gradually. Responsible for this, the historian
67:
wanted to attack heavily fortified towns and cities also seemingly inspired the
Safavids to destroy some fortifications which were not used as frontier outposts.
1048:
138:'s fortifications is limited, its high and strong walls that surrounded the city in the late 17th century may have been constructed in the early 1500s.
1112:
976:
39:
in contemporaneous times and the concept and execution of city constructionâthe latter being itself a reflection of the physical characteristics of
905:
933:
1033:
657:
The Safavid rulers did not face the Ottoman dilemma of being forced to adapt new forms of warfare based on European model, nor the
1107:
16:
35:
were few in number, a development which can be traced back in dialectical fashion to the low appreciation of artillery by the
1069:
950:
943:
1028:
928:
898:
1023:
1018:
667:
36:
1043:
150:
of ancient times, who were likewise noted for focussing on the defense on the border areas of their realms.
1038:
1117:
891:
321:
971:
154:
860:
1079:
1002:
997:
658:
147:
75:
1074:
173:
938:
872:
859:(1996). "Unwalled Cities and Restless Nomads: Firearms and Artillery in Safavid Iran". In
661:'s acute need to restructure its army and defensive strategies due to the outbreak of the
127:
83:
53:
1084:
64:
1101:
966:
119:
914:
856:
662:
343:
143:
98:
48:
40:
992:
541:
122:. The existence of fortified villages in Safavid Iran is also undisputable.
629:
233:
115:
563:
475:
277:
255:
165:
135:
111:
79:
25:
497:
453:
387:
365:
211:
607:
585:
409:
299:
131:
74:
15:
519:
887:
883:
185:
A selection of cities and the existence of walls, per Matthee:
865:
Safavid Persia: The History and Politics of an Islamic Society
431:
28:
in the Persian Empire"). Published by Jacob Peeters in 1690
134:
and Kandahar in the east. Although extant information on
812:
810:
808:
806:
804:
802:
753:
751:
738:
736:
734:
732:
707:
705:
703:
690:
688:
686:
684:
682:
187:
1062:
1011:
985:
959:
921:
172:in history, and its nomads who attacked Safavid
899:
181:Iranian cities and walls, 15th-17th centuries
8:
906:
892:
884:
977:Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
828:
840:
816:
793:
781:
769:
757:
742:
723:
711:
694:
678:
106:), surrounding cities, and fortresses (
877:Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia
118:in the east near the border with the
7:
934:List of mothers of the Safavid shahs
14:
1113:Military history of Safavid Iran
164:1666-1694) built a wall around
159:
58:
33:Defensive walls in Safavid Iran
1:
87:
22:Derbendt int rĂżck van Persien
71:Types, locations and context
944:Safavid dynasty family tree
867:. I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd.
1134:
645:
642:
639:
636:
633:
628:
623:
620:
617:
614:
611:
606:
601:
598:
595:
592:
589:
584:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
562:
557:
554:
551:
548:
545:
540:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
518:
513:
510:
507:
504:
501:
496:
491:
488:
485:
482:
479:
474:
469:
466:
463:
460:
457:
452:
447:
444:
441:
438:
435:
430:
425:
422:
419:
416:
413:
408:
403:
400:
397:
394:
391:
386:
381:
378:
375:
372:
369:
364:
359:
356:
353:
350:
347:
342:
337:
334:
331:
328:
325:
320:
315:
312:
309:
306:
303:
298:
293:
290:
287:
284:
281:
276:
271:
268:
265:
262:
259:
254:
249:
246:
243:
240:
237:
232:
227:
224:
221:
218:
215:
210:
1070:OttomanâSafavid relations
1019:Military of Safavid Iran
1108:Fortifications in Iran
1029:PersianâPortuguese War
93:
29:
20:Illustration entitled
1049:Georgian-Safavid Wars
960:Ideology and religion
114:(Darband) as well as
78:
19:
1063:Other related topics
1024:OttomanâPersian Wars
972:Ideology of Safavids
216:Yes (dismal looking)
1044:MughalâPersian Wars
796:, pp. 409â410.
1039:PersianâUzbek wars
843:, p. 408-410.
772:, p. 396-397.
726:, p. 398-399.
94:
30:
1095:
1094:
1034:Russo-Persian War
1012:Military and wars
1003:School of Isfahan
879:. Reaktion Books.
861:Melville, Charles
659:Tsardom of Russia
650:
649:
426:Badly maintained
148:Achaemenid Empire
1125:
1075:Gunpowder Empire
908:
901:
894:
885:
880:
873:Rayfield, Donald
868:
844:
838:
832:
826:
820:
814:
797:
791:
785:
779:
773:
767:
761:
755:
746:
740:
727:
721:
715:
709:
698:
692:
188:
163:
161:
92:
89:
62:
60:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1058:
1054:Defensive walls
1007:
981:
955:
939:Safavid dynasty
917:
912:
871:
855:
852:
847:
839:
835:
827:
823:
815:
800:
792:
788:
780:
776:
768:
764:
756:
749:
741:
730:
722:
718:
710:
701:
693:
680:
676:
655:
183:
158:
128:Safavid dynasty
90:
84:Jacob van Meurs
73:
57:
54:Abbas the Great
12:
11:
5:
1131:
1129:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1077:
1072:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1026:
1021:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1008:
1006:
1005:
1000:
995:
989:
987:
983:
982:
980:
979:
974:
969:
963:
961:
957:
956:
954:
953:
948:
947:
946:
941:
936:
925:
923:
919:
918:
913:
911:
910:
903:
896:
888:
882:
881:
869:
851:
848:
846:
845:
833:
831:, p. 211.
821:
819:, p. 410.
798:
786:
784:, p. 397.
774:
762:
760:, p. 396.
747:
745:, p. 399.
728:
716:
714:, p. 398.
699:
697:, p. 409.
677:
675:
672:
654:
651:
648:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
626:
625:
622:
619:
616:
613:
610:
604:
603:
600:
597:
594:
591:
588:
582:
581:
578:
575:
572:
569:
566:
560:
559:
556:
553:
550:
547:
544:
538:
537:
534:
531:
528:
525:
522:
516:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
500:
494:
493:
490:
487:
484:
481:
478:
472:
471:
470:Partly ruined
468:
465:
462:
459:
456:
450:
449:
446:
443:
440:
437:
434:
428:
427:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
406:
405:
402:
399:
396:
393:
390:
384:
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
368:
362:
361:
358:
355:
352:
349:
346:
340:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
324:
318:
317:
314:
311:
308:
305:
302:
296:
295:
292:
289:
286:
283:
280:
274:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
252:
251:
250:Partly ruined
248:
245:
242:
239:
236:
230:
229:
226:
223:
220:
217:
214:
208:
207:
204:
201:
198:
195:
192:
182:
179:
153:In 1675, Shah
72:
69:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1130:
1119:
1118:Walls in Iran
1116:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
990:
988:
984:
978:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
964:
962:
958:
952:
951:Grand viziers
949:
945:
942:
940:
937:
935:
932:
931:
930:
929:Safavid shahs
927:
926:
924:
920:
916:
909:
904:
902:
897:
895:
890:
889:
886:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
857:Matthee, Rudi
854:
853:
849:
842:
837:
834:
830:
829:Rayfield 2012
825:
822:
818:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
803:
799:
795:
790:
787:
783:
778:
775:
771:
766:
763:
759:
754:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
735:
733:
729:
725:
720:
717:
713:
708:
706:
704:
700:
696:
691:
689:
687:
685:
683:
679:
673:
671:
669:
664:
660:
652:
631:
627:
609:
605:
587:
583:
565:
561:
543:
539:
521:
517:
499:
495:
477:
473:
455:
451:
433:
429:
411:
407:
389:
385:
367:
363:
345:
341:
323:
319:
301:
297:
279:
275:
257:
253:
247:Partly ruined
235:
231:
213:
209:
205:
202:
199:
196:
193:
190:
189:
186:
180:
178:
175:
169:
167:
156:
151:
149:
145:
139:
137:
133:
129:
123:
121:
120:Mughal Empire
117:
113:
109:
105:
100:
85:
81:
77:
70:
68:
66:
55:
50:
45:
42:
38:
34:
27:
23:
18:
1053:
915:Safavid Iran
876:
864:
841:Matthee 1996
836:
824:
817:Matthee 1996
794:Matthee 1996
789:
782:Matthee 1996
777:
770:Matthee 1996
765:
758:Matthee 1996
743:Matthee 1996
724:Matthee 1996
719:
712:Matthee 1996
695:Matthee 1996
668:Safavid army
663:Smolensk War
656:
184:
170:
152:
144:Roman Empire
140:
124:
107:
103:
99:Rudi Matthee
95:
82:as drawn by
49:Rudi Matthee
46:
41:Safavid Iran
37:Iranian army
32:
31:
21:
492:Yes (weak)
206:Later 17th
91: 1672
1102:Categories
674:References
653:Assessment
486:Yes (weak)
464:Yes (weak)
203:Early 17th
197:Early 16th
168:(Tiflis).
155:Suleiman I
998:Miniature
967:Safaviyya
505:(Partial)
322:Farahabad
200:Late 16th
194:Late 15th
875:(2012).
630:Kandahar
234:Shamakhi
174:Khorasan
146:and the
116:Kandahar
65:Ottomans
986:Culture
922:Dynasty
863:(ed.).
850:Sources
564:Mashhad
476:Isfahan
448:Ruined
404:Ruined
278:Ardabil
256:Derbent
228:Yes/No
166:Tbilisi
162:
136:Mashhad
112:Derbent
80:Isfahan
61:
26:Derbent
1080:Abbasi
498:Shiraz
454:Kashan
388:Qazvin
366:Tehran
344:Zanjan
219:Yes/No
212:Tabriz
108:qal'eh
1085:Abazi
608:Balkh
586:Herat
410:Saveh
300:Rasht
132:Herat
104:ḼiᚣÄr
580:Yes
520:Yazd
272:Yes
191:City
993:Art
643:Yes
637:Yes
615:Yes
590:Yes
568:Yes
558:No
549:Yes
542:Lar
524:Yes
514:No
483:Yes
461:Yes
458:Yes
436:Yes
432:Qom
379:Yes
316:No
263:Yes
260:Yes
244:Yes
1104::
801:^
750:^
731:^
702:^
681:^
670:.
646:-
624:-
602:-
555:No
536:-
511:No
445:No
401:No
382:-
360:-
357:No
338:-
335:No
294:-
291:No
160:r.
88:c.
86:,
59:r.
24:("
907:e
900:t
893:v
640:-
634:-
621:-
618:-
612:-
599:-
596:-
593:-
577:-
574:-
571:-
552:-
546:-
533:-
530:-
527:-
508:-
502:-
489:-
480:-
467:-
442:-
439:-
423:-
420:-
417:-
414:-
398:-
395:-
392:-
376:-
373:-
370:-
354:-
351:-
348:-
332:-
329:-
326:-
313:-
310:-
307:-
304:-
288:-
285:-
282:-
269:-
266:-
241:-
238:-
225:-
222:-
157:(
102:(
56:(
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