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later, or move all the files after B so that the empty space is at the end. Since moving the files could be time-consuming if there were many files which needed to be moved, usually the empty space is simply left there, marked in a table as available for new files (see example 2 in the image). When a new file, F, is allocated requiring 6 blocks of space, it could be placed into the first 6 blocks of the space that formerly held file B, and the 4 blocks following it will remain available (see example 3 in the image). If another new file, G, is added and needs only 4 blocks, it could then occupy the space after F and before C (example 4 in the image).
323:, an increasing number of defragmenters are now able to defragment the MFT, because the Windows defragmentation API has been improved and now supports that move operation. Even with the improvements, the first four clusters of the MFT remain unmovable by the Windows defragmentation API, resulting in the fact that some defragmenters will store the MFT in two fragments: The first four clusters wherever they were placed when the disk was formatted, and then the rest of the MFT at the beginning of the disk (or wherever the defragmenter's strategy deems to be the best place).
254:), and greater data density reduce the negative impact of fragmentation on system performance to some degree, though increases in commonly used data quantities offset those benefits. However, modern systems profit enormously from the huge disk capacities currently available, since partially filled disks fragment much less than full disks, and on a high-capacity HDD, the same partition occupies a smaller range of cylinders, resulting in faster seeks. However, the average
280:, where it is typically stored in the /var partition), the defragmenter runs better since it does not need to deal with all the static files from other directories. (Alternatively, a defragmenter can be told to simply exclude certain file paths.) For partitions with relatively little write activity, defragmentation time greatly improves after the first defragmentation, since the defragmenter will need to defragment only a small number of new files in the future.
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and it is best to leave the computer alone during the process so that the defragmenter does not get confused by unexpected changes to the filesystem. Depending on the algorithm used it may or may not be advantageous to perform multiple passes. The reorganization involved in defragmentation does not change logical location of the files (defined as their location within the
134:
space for the file in the first place). Files that are often appended to (as with log files) as well as the frequent adding and deleting of files (as with emails and web browser cache), larger files (as with videos) and greater numbers of files contribute to fragmentation and consequent performance loss. Defragmentation attempts to alleviate these problems.
182:(see example 5 in the image). Repeat this hundreds of times and the filesystem will have a number of small free segments scattered in many places, and some files will have multiple extents. When a file has many extents like this, access time for that file may become excessively long because of all the random seeking the disk will have to do when reading it.
315:(MFT) must grow to store the information for the new files. Every time the MFT cannot be extended due to some file being in the way, the MFT will gain a fragment. In early versions of Windows, it could not be safely defragmented while the partition was mounted, and so Microsoft wrote a hardblock in the defragmenting
349:). However, Windows still defragments a SSD automatically (albeit less vigorously) to prevent the file system from reaching its maximum fragmentation tolerance (when the metadata can’t represent any more file fragments). Once the maximum fragmentation limit is reached, subsequent attempts to write to disk fail.
208:
To defragment a disk, defragmentation software (also known as a "defragmenter") can only move files around within the free space available. This is an intensive operation and cannot be performed on a filesystem with little or no free space. During defragmentation, system performance will be degraded,
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the hard disk(s) in a way that separates partitions of the file system that experience many more reads than writes from the more volatile zones where files are created and deleted frequently. The directories that contain the users' profiles are modified constantly (especially with the Temp directory
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fragmented; the read/write heads will have to seek these (non-fragmented) files randomly to access them in sequence. Some groups of files may have been originally installed in the correct sequence, but drift apart with time as certain files within the group are deleted. Updates are a common cause of
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has a number of optimizations to the allocation algorithms in an attempt to defragment files while they are being accessed without a separate defragmenter. There are several restrictions for files to be candidates for 'on-the-fly' defragmentation (including a maximum size 20MB). There is a utility,
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Move all the files after F until one opens enough space to make it contiguous again. This presents the same problem as in the previous example: if there are a small number of files or not much data to move, it isn't a big problem, but if there are thousands or even tens of thousands of files, there
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can never be lower than a half rotation of the platters, and platter rotation (measured in rpm) is the speed characteristic of HDDs which has experienced the slowest growth over the decades (compared to data transfer rate and seek time), so minimizing the number of seeks remains beneficial in most
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this, because in order to update a file, most updaters usually delete the old file first, and then write a new, updated one in its place. However, most filesystems do not write the new file in the same physical place on the disk. This allows unrelated files to fill in the empty spaces left behind.
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is set when the disk is formatted and can be any size supported by the filesystem). On a blank disk, all of these files would be allocated one after the other (see example 1 in the image). If file B were to be deleted, there would be two options: mark the space for file B as empty to be used again
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cannot or will not allocate enough contiguous space to store a complete file as a unit, but instead puts parts of it in gaps between existing files (usually those gaps exist because they formerly held a file that the file system has subsequently deleted or because the file system allocated excess
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Defragmentation is the operation of moving file extents (physical allocation blocks) so they eventually merge, preferably into one. Doing so usually requires at least two copy operations: one to move the blocks into some free scratch space on the disk so more movement can happen, and another to
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At the beginning of the hard drive, the outer tracks have a higher data transfer rate than the inner tracks. Placing frequently accessed files onto the outer tracks increases performance. Third party defragmenters, such as MyDefrag, will move frequently accessed files onto the outer tracks and
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included the Intel
Application Launch Accelerator which optimized programs on the disk by placing the defragmented program files and their dependencies next to each other, in the order in which the program loads them, to load these programs faster. In Windows, a good defragmenter will read the
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of a file fragment on flash memory does not suffer this delay, making defragmentation to optimize access speed unnecessary. Furthermore, since flash memory can be written to only a limited number of times before it fails, defragmentation is actually detrimental (except in the mitigation of
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Move the file F to where it can be created as one contiguous file of the new, larger size. This would not be possible if the file is larger than the largest contiguous space available. The file could also be so large that the operation would take an undesirably long period of
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Additionally, the concept of “fragmentation” is not only limited to individual files that have multiple extents on the disk. For instance, a group of files normally read in a particular sequence (like files accessed by a program when it is loading, which can include certain
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When reading data from a conventional electromechanical hard disk drive, the disk controller must first position the head, relatively slowly, to the track where a given fragment resides, and then wait while the disk platter rotates until the fragment reaches the head. A
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On most harddisks the beginning of the harddisk is considerably faster than the end, sometimes by as much as 200 percent! You can measure this yourself with utilities such as * HD Tune. MyDefrag is therefore geared towards moving all files to the beginning of the
499:: Much like UFS, these filesystems employ allocation techniques designed to keep fragmentation under control at all times. As a result, defragmentation is not needed in the vast majority of cases. ext2 uses an offline defragmenter called
459:, the tool has been greatly improved and was given a new interface with no visual diskmap and is no longer part of Computer Management. There are also a number of free and commercial third-party defragmentation products available for
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finally move the blocks into their intended place. In such a paradigm, no data is ever removed from the disk, so that the operation can be safely stopped even in the event of a power loss. The article picture depicts an example.
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As we have seen, an HFS+ volume seems to resist fragmentation rather well on Mac OS X 10.3.x, and I don't envision fragmentation to be a problem bad enough to require proactive remedies (such as a defragmenting
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over different areas of the disk when accessing fragmented files is slower, compared to accessing the entire contents of a non-fragmented file sequentially without moving the read/write heads to
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with ext3, and thus has generally the same amount of support from defragmentation programs. Currently e4defrag can be used to defragment an ext4 filesystem, including online defragmentation.
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uses an internal reallocator that seeks to reduce fragmentation right in the moment when the information is written to disk. This effectively controls system degradation after extended use.
191:, various resource files, the audio/visual media files in a game) can be considered fragmented if they are not in sequential load-order on the disk, even if these individual files are
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processes the defragmentation feature in almost completely stateless way (apart from the location it is working on), so defragmentation can be stopped and started instantly.
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to impede the return of fragmentation. Some defragmentation utilities try to keep smaller files within a single directory together, as they are often accessed in sequence.
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and web browser cache creating thousands of files that are deleted in a few days). If files from user profiles are held on a dedicated partition (as is commonly done on
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storage-heavy applications. Defragmentation is just that: ensuring that there is at most one seek per file, counting only the seeks to non-adjacent tracks.
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Besides defragmenting program files, the defragmenting tool can also reduce the time it takes to load programs and open files. For example, the
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iDefrag, by
Coriolis Systems available since OS X 10.3. On traditional Mac OS defragmentation can be done by Norton SpeedDisk and TechTool Pro.
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1306:
1263:, Laura Hunter, Mahesh Satyanarayana, Kimon Andreou, Nancy G Altholz, Lawrence Abrams, Darren Windham, Tony Bradley and Brian Barber (2006)
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The practice of marking the now unused space of a deleted file in a table as available for later use (without erasing its contents), is why
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were introduced that third-party tools could use to perform defragmentation tasks; however, no defragmentation software was included. In
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programs are able to work; they recover files whose names have been deleted from the directory, but whose space has not yet been reused.
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However, if file F then needs to be expanded, there are three options, since the space immediately following it is no longer available:
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msdn.microsoft.com: "The other big enhancement is support for online defragmentation of the MFT and most directory and file metadata"
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by running at boot time before the GUI is loaded. Since
Windows Vista, the feature is not fully supported and has not been updated.
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759:"Windows XP: Kernel Improvements Create a More Robust, Powerful, and Scalable OS -- MSDN Magazine, December 2001"
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505:, which does not work with its successor ext3. However, other programs, or filesystem-independent ones such as
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files to identify as many of these file groups as possible and place the files within them in access sequence.
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1161:"Detecting a file fragmentation point for reconstructing fragmented files using sequential hypothesis testing"
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version is a limited version of Norton SpeedDisk. The version that came with
Windows 9x was licensed from
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An otherwise blank disk has five files, A through E, each using 10 blocks of space (for this section, a
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Microsoft
Windows 2000 Professional and Server defragmentation - How to schedule defragmentation
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A common strategy to optimize defragmentation and to reduce the impact of fragmentation is to
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could defragment
Windows system files such as the swap file and the files that store the
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411:, but the NTFS filesystem driver did not include any defragmentation capabilities. In
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Defragmentation is advantageous and relevant to file systems on electromechanical
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Microsoft
Windows XP defragmentation - How to schedule a weekly defragmentation
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883:"Disk Defragmentation – Background and Engineering the Windows 7 Improvements"
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and
Windows 9x-systems come with a defragmentation utility called Defrag. The
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command, SMR hard disks still need defragmentation for improved performance.
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37:"Disk Defragmenter" redirects here. For the Microsoft Windows utility, see
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397:, and the version that came with Windows 2000 and XP is licensed from
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789:"The real and complete story - Does Windows defragment your SSD?"
511:, may be used to defragment an ext3 filesystem. ext4 is somewhat
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Add a new block somewhere else, and indicate that F has a second
84:). It also attempts to create larger regions of free space using
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that made use of the defragmentation APIs and was a snap-in for
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872:. Support.microsoft.com (2011-08-23). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
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Rearrangement of sectors on a hard disk into contiguous units
1232:
Windows XP Timesaving
Techniques For Dummies, Second Edition
68:. It does this by physically organizing the contents of the
730:"New hard disk drives reduce need for disk defragmentation"
627:, a similar technique for prolonging flash memory content
734:
SearchWindowsServer.com: Disk Defragmentation Fast Guide
236:
cache, faster platter rotation speed, command queuing (
1337:
Complete list of Defragmentation Utilities for Windows
288:
The presence of immovable system files, especially a
1035:"HTG Explains: Why Linux Doesn't Need Defragmenting"
560:'s ONTAP 7.2 operating system has a command called
482:
has online and automatic defragmentation available.
815:
689:. Larud.net (2012-01-19). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
570:provides an online defragmentation utility called
1247:Fragmentation: The Condition, the Cause, the Cure
1072:. Tldp.org (2002-11-09). Retrieved on 2013-06-22.
1349:Does Your SSD's File System Affect Performance?
1280:Server Disk Management in a Windows Environment
863:Third-party disk defragmenter tools for Windows
369:Approach and defragmenters by file-system type
1332:How defragmentation was changed for Windows 7
311:In NTFS, as files are added to the disk, the
30:"Defrag" redirects here. For other uses, see
8:
564:that is designed to defragment large files.
232:Improvements in modern hard drives such as
175:isn't enough time to move all those files.
1217:Peter Norton's Complete Guide to DOS 6.22
818:Peter Norton's Complete Guide to DOS 6.22
1320:How Linux avoids making files fragmented
527:utility that includes defrag operations.
146:Examples of five states of fragmentation
64:is a process that reduces the degree of
1230:Woody Leonhard, Justin Leonhard (2005)
677:. Cwdixon.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
660:
637:
125:File system fragmentation § Causes
1303:Benchmarks of popular defrag utilities
1012:
974:
803:from the original on 22 December 2014.
687:The Ultimate Defragger - LaRud's Place
605:Comparison of defragmentation software
1167:from the original on 21 February 2015
939:from the original on 21 February 2015
728:Serdar Yegulalp (20 September 2005).
7:
1249:. Executive Software International (
1083:Optimizing data organization on disk
1301:The Big Windows 7 Defragmenter Test
1131:"Fragmentation in HFS Plus Volumes"
837:M. Kozierok, Charles (2001-04-17).
25:
1194:from the original on 7 April 2013
908:"New Defrag options in Windows 8"
539:utility on IBM operating systems.
377:A Windows defragmentation utility
1186:Reeves, Nick (26 October 1990).
1102:"Journaling File System Support"
740:from the original on 3 June 2008
1112:from the original on 2008-12-08
1045:from the original on 2013-07-19
914:from the original on 2015-02-20
889:from the original on 2014-06-13
296:moves these files to resize an
814:Norton, Peter (October 1994).
129:Fragmentation occurs when the
1:
154:is an allocation unit of the
109:hard drive's read/write heads
76:into the smallest number of
52:and then of defragmentation
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1188:"E format design document"
1019:: CS1 maint: url-status (
981:: CS1 maint: url-status (
841:. PC Guide. Archived from
586:, the file system used by
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36:
29:
615:File system fragmentation
610:Fragmentation (computing)
340:with no moving parts, so
39:Microsoft Drive Optimizer
1364:Defragmentation software
1234:page 456 – For Dummies (
545:introduced in 1998 with
229:defragment these files.
1315:SST Hard Disk Optimizer
935:. The FreeBSD Project.
361:hard disks will accept
284:Offline defragmentation
218:Windows 9x defragmenter
119:Causes of fragmentation
107:). The movement of the
32:Defrag (disambiguation)
1369:File system management
1282:Chapter 7 – AUERBACH (
1245:Jensen, Craig (1994).
793:Scott Hanselman's blog
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147:
56:In the maintenance of
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1215:Norton, Peter (1994)
399:Condusiv Technologies
376:
145:
72:device used to store
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910:. 13 November 2011.
437:defragmentation tool
407:was introduced with
395:Symantec Corporation
347:catastrophic failure
300:partition. The tool
80:regions (fragments,
1219:, page 521 – Sams (
1137:on 18 November 2012
1001:BTRFS documentation
963:BTRFS documentation
933:"FreeBSD Man Pages"
787:(3 December 2014).
513:backward compatible
445:Computer Management
429:Windows Server 2003
1342:2016-05-28 at the
1325:2016-06-04 at the
1278:Robb, Drew (2003)
1088:2014-09-06 at the
1068:2013-05-27 at the
868:2011-11-28 at the
673:2010-10-06 at the
620:Virtual disk image
379:
336:(SSD) is based on
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105:optical disk media
101:floppy disk drives
54:
1063:5.10. Filesystems
959:"Defragmentation"
700:"MyDefrag v4.2.8"
472:and particularly
461:Microsoft Windows
334:solid-state drive
327:Solid-state disks
319:. However, since
313:Master File Table
115:other fragments.
48:Visualization of
16:(Redirected from
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1267:– Syngress (
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1261:Dave Kleiman
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1171:21 February
1141:2 September
1106:eComStation
1039:How-To Geek
943:21 February
668:Cwdixon.com
435:included a
256:access time
131:file system
93:disk drives
1358:Categories
1288:0849324327
1225:067230614X
1116:2008-12-27
1049:2013-08-01
1006:2024-07-26
968:2024-07-26
918:2014-06-15
893:2014-06-15
849:2015-02-20
769:2006-12-19
744:2008-12-27
710:2014-08-14
656:References
562:reallocate
547:Mac OS 8.1
425:Windows XP
387:MS-DOS 6.x
321:Windows XP
302:PageDefrag
294:ntfsresize
200:Mitigation
160:block size
156:filesystem
123:See also:
86:compaction
78:contiguous
797:Microsoft
457:Windows 8
453:Windows 7
441:Diskeeper
439:based on
433:Microsoft
290:swap file
269:partition
211:directory
1340:Archived
1323:Archived
1192:Archived
1165:Archived
1110:Archived
1086:Archived
1066:Archived
1043:Archived
1015:cite web
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937:Archived
912:Archived
887:Archived
866:Archived
801:Archived
738:Archived
671:Archived
646:undelete
599:See also
543:HFS Plus
536:defragfs
533:has the
521:has the
508:defragfs
502:e2defrag
223:Prefetch
1210:Sources
588:RISC OS
572:xfs_fsr
474:FreeBSD
138:Example
82:extents
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1198:24 May
1148:tool).
558:NetApp
495:, and
180:extent
158:; the
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716:disk.
632:Notes
524:fsadm
486:Linux
480:Btrfs
447:. In
171:time.
152:block
74:files
1284:ISBN
1269:ISBN
1251:ISBN
1236:ISBN
1221:ISBN
1200:2013
1173:2015
1143:2020
1021:link
983:link
945:2015
584:ADFS
554:WAFL
519:VxFS
497:ext4
493:ext3
489:ext2
455:and
427:and
417:APIs
405:NTFS
363:TRIM
298:NTFS
274:UNIX
249:SATA
238:SCSI
189:DLLs
113:seek
103:and
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578:SFS
568:XFS
556:in
531:JFS
470:UFS
467:BSD
391:DOS
383:FAT
359:SMR
317:API
252:NCQ
247:or
245:TCQ
242:ATA
234:RAM
193:not
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