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approaches. Due to the increasing demand for rapid, affordable and reliable information in today's world, disposable sensorsâlow-cost and easyâtoâuse devices for shortâterm monitoring or singleâshot measurementsâhave recently gained growing importance. Using this class of sensors, critical analytical
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developed the CCD in 1969. While researching the MOS process, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable
112:
are still widely used. Their applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life. There is a wide range of other sensors that measure chemical and physical properties of materials, including optical sensors
121:
assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making
182:
is then defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is constant with the units . The sensitivity is the slope of the transfer function. Converting the sensor's electrical output (for
437:
is a sensor architecture with multiple sensor components that create a pattern for analyte detection from the additive responses of individual sensor components. There exist several types of chemical sensor arrays including electronic, optical, acoustic wave, and potentiometric devices. These
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Svigelj, Rossella; Dossi, Nicolo; Pizzolato, Stefania; Toniolo, Rosanna; Miranda-Castro, Rebeca; de-los-Santos-Ălvarez, NoemĂ; Lobo-Castañón, MarĂa JesĂșs (1 October 2020). "Truncated aptamers as selective receptors in a gluten sensor supporting direct measurement in a deep eutectic solvent".
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example V) to the measured units (for example K) requires dividing the electrical output by the slope (or multiplying by its reciprocal). In addition, an offset is frequently added or subtracted. For example, â40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to â40 C input.
116:
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much its output changes when the input quantity it measures changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, its sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope
270:
error causes the output value to vary depending on the previous input values. If a sensor's output is different depending on whether a specific input value was reached by increasing vs. decreasing the input, then the sensor has a hysteresis
64:
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is deviation of a sensor's transfer function from a straight line transfer function. Usually, this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full
408:
materials are going to substitute to some extent recognition biomaterials, a sharp distinction between a biosensor and a standard chemical sensor is superfluous. Typical biomimetic materials used in sensor development are
1042:
The source states "controls" rather than "sensors", so its applicability is assumed. Many units are derived from the basic measurements to which it refers, such as a liquid's level measured by a differential pressure
81:
In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor.
595:-sensitive MOSFET demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975. The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance, and where the
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or sites included in the structure of the recognition element of the sensor. Consequently, a characteristic physical parameter varies and this variation is reported by means of an integrated
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and in vivo applications. The encapsulation of the biological component in biosensors, presents a slightly different problem that ordinary sensors; this can either be done by means of a
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The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.
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The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.
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Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The
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Toniolo, Rosanna; Dossi, NicolĂČ; Giannilivigni, Emanuele; Fattori, Andrea; Svigelj, Rossella; Bontempelli, Gino; Giacomino, Agnese; Daniele, Salvatore (3 March 2020).
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Dincer, Can; Bruch, Richard; CostaâRama, EstefanĂa; FernĂĄndezâAbedul, Maria Teresa; Merkoçi, Arben; Manz, Andreas; Urban, Gerald Anton; GĂŒder, Firat (2019-05-15).
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M. Kretschmar and S. Welsby (2005), Capacitive and
Inductive Displacement Sensors, in Sensor Technology Handbook, J. Wilson editor, Newnes: Burlington, MA.
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voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first
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is the smallest change that can be detected in the quantity that is being measured. The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the
372:
A chemical sensor is a self-contained analytical device that can provide information about the chemical composition of its environment, that is, a
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Albert, Keith J.; Lewis, Nathan S.; Schauer, Caroline L.; Sotzing, Gregory A.; Stitzel, Shannon E.; Vaid, Thomas P.; Walt, David R. (2000-07-01).
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may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error. This is an error in the slope of a linear transfer function.
113:
for refractive index measurement, vibrational sensors for fluid viscosity measurement, and electro-chemical sensors for monitoring pH of fluids.
89:) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in
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can cause a dynamic error, or if the input variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency near a multiple of the sampling rate,
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platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure and flow measurement, for example into
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with which the measurement is made, but they are not the same thing. A sensor's accuracy may be considerably worse than its resolution.
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in 1959, and demonstrated in 1960. MOSFET sensors (MOS sensors) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure
520:
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information can be obtained by anyone, anywhere and at any time, without the need for recalibration and worrying about contamination.
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parameters. The earliest MOSFET sensors include the open-gate field-effect transistor (OGFET) introduced by
Johannessen in 1970, the
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2011:
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If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured property. This error is also called
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For an analog sensor signal to be processed or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to a digital signal, using an
1909:
2165:
C. A. Grimes, E. C. Dickey, and M. V. Pishko (2006), Encyclopedia of
Sensors (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers.
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technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly faster measurement time and higher sensitivity compared with
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sensors are sensors that physically mimic structures and functions of biological neural entities. One example of this is the
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Letâs get
Physiqual â An intuitive and generic method to combine sensor technology with ecological momentary assessments
473:. Whereas a non-biological sensor, even organic (carbon chemistry), for biological analytes is referred to as sensor or
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187:
2189:
https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105724/http://www.cbm-sweden.se/images/Seminarie/Class_Descriptions_IDA_MEMS.pdf
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chemical sensor arrays can employ multiple sensor types that are cross-reactive or tuned to sense specific analytes.
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Blaauw, F.J., Schenk, H.M., Jeronimus, B.F., van der Krieke, L., de Jonge, P., Aiello, M., Emerencia, A.C. (2016).
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Matsumoto, Kazuya; et al. (1985). "A new MOS phototransistor operating in a non-destructive readout mode".
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2029:"A Mini-System Integrated with Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Sensor and Micro-Packed Gas Chromatographic Column"
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that generates the output signal. A chemical sensor based on recognition material of biological nature is a
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380:. The information is provided in the form of a measurable physical signal that is correlated with the
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If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant, the sensor has an offset error or
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showing sensitivity error and phase shift as a function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.
37:"Detector" redirects here. For detector circuits in radio and other signal-related electronics, see
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Eric R. Fossum (1993), "Active Pixel
Sensors: Are CCD's Dinosaurs?" Proc. SPIE Vol. 1900, p. 2â14,
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2095:. The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science. Vol. 80. Norwell, MA:
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388:). Two main steps are involved in the functioning of a chemical sensor, namely, recognition and
674:(ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By the early 2000s, BioFET types such as the
146:
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is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of detecting a physical phenomenon.
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If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined as
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1189:"Modified Screen Printed Electrode Suitable for Electrochemical Measurements in Gas Phase"
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1527:"A Review of Current Neuromorphic Approaches for Vision, Auditory, and Olfactory Sensors"
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it is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application, and
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1032:. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd. on behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.
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Sun, Jianhai; Geng, Zhaoxin; Xue, Ning; Liu, Chunxiu; Ma, Tianjun (17 August 2018).
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1790:
Boyle, William S; Smith, George E. (1970). "Charge
Coupled Semiconductor Devices".
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312:, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behavior of the sensor.
257:. Long term drift over months or years is caused by physical changes in the sensor.
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By the mid-1980s, numerous other MOSFET sensors had been developed, including the
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1910:"The Optical Mouse, and an Architectural Methodology for Smart Digital Sensors"
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Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (
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1704:"Recent advances in biologically sensitive field-effect transistors (BioFETs)"
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304:. Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of
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Parametric Analog Signal
Amplification Applied to Nanoscale CMOS Technologies
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FET (GASFET), surface accessible FET (SAFET), charge flow transistor (CFT),
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Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a
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or chemically constrains the macromolecule by bounding it to the scaffold.
122:
the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages.
1977:"LiDAR vs. 3D ToF Sensors â How Apple Is Making AR Better for Smartphones"
465:
thanks to a biological component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or
242:
Deviation caused by rapid changes of the measured property over time is a
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http://www.cbm-sweden.se/images/Seminarie/Class_Descriptions_IDA_MEMS.pdf
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493:, or a 3D polymer matrix, which either physically constrains the sensing
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27:
Converter that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
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1671:"40 years of ISFET technology: From neuronal sensing to DNA sequencing"
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1130:"Disposable Sensors in Diagnostics, Food, and Environmental Monitoring"
910:
671:
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392:. In the recognition step, analyte molecules interact selectively with
385:
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range defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.
53:
2045:
1425:"The Optoelectronic Nose: Colorimetric and Fluorometric Sensor Arrays"
1338:
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1480:"Optical sensor arrays for chemical sensing: the optoelectronic nose"
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57:
45:
1478:
Askim, Jon R.; Mahmoudi, Morteza; Suslick, Kenneth S. (2013-10-21).
1322:
1074:
Machinery
Prognostics and Prognosis Oriented Maintenance Management
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introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors.
2703:
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2482:
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2521:
2198:
1577:"1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated"
344:
is the minimum distance that can be accurately measured by any
2806:
2751:
1702:
Schöning, Michael J.; Poghossian, Arshak (10 September 2002).
914:
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A number of MOSFET sensors have been developed, for measuring
1581:
The
Silicon Engine: A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers
1244:
Chemical
Sensors and Biosensors:Fundamentals and Applications
759:
in 1985. The CMOS active-pixel sensor was later developed by
527:(MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) invented by
1423:
Li, Zheng; Askim, Jon R.; Suslick, Kenneth S. (2019-01-09).
809:
sensor (bottom, center), as part of the camera system on an
2179:. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, vol. 63, page 141â149.
789:
sensor chip. Since the first commercial optical mouse, the
640:
202:, several types of deviations can occur which limit sensor
1915:. In H. T. Kung; Robert F. Sproull; Guy L. Steele (eds.).
1861:
Charge-Coupled Devices and Solid State Optical Sensors III
1525:
Vanarse, Anup; Osseiran, Adam; Rassau, Alexander (2016).
1368:
Johnson, Kevin J.; Rose-Pehrsson, Susan L. (2015-07-10).
308:
strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by
1996:
Omura, Yasuhisa; Mallik, Abhijit; Matsuo, Naoto (2017).
332:
of the digital output. The resolution is related to the
263:
is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
2086:
Mead, Carver A.; Ismail, Mohammed, eds. (May 8, 1989).
1999:
MOS Devices for Low-Voltage and Low-Energy Applications
1246:. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. p. 576.
1878:"The Optical Mouse: Early Biomimetic Embedded Vision"
1077:. Wiley & Sons Singapore Pte. Ltd. p. 107.
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1669:Chris Toumazou; Pantelis Georgiou (December 2011).
1948:Brain, Marshall; Carmack, Carmen (24 April 2000).
352:, the distance resolution is usually equal to the
770:technology. The first optical mouse, invented by
1766:The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future
246:error. Often, this behavior is described with a
1370:"Sensor Array Design for Complex Sensing Tasks"
2370:Radio-frequency microelectromechanical systems
30:"Sensors" redirects here. For other uses, see
2533:
2210:
8:
2089:Analog VLSI Implementation of Neural Systems
167:it does not influence the measured property.
1758:
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755:(APS) was developed by Tsutomu Nakamura at
2982:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
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2518:
2411:
2285:
2217:
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2195:
1030:A History of Control Engineering 1930â1955
296:All these deviations can be classified as
281:If the signal is monitored digitally, the
2385:Biological microelectromechanical systems
2062:
2044:
1919:. Computer Science Press. pp. 1â19.
1552:
1542:
1289:
1155:
1145:
384:of a certain chemical species (termed as
356:(total noise) of the signal expressed in
157:A good sensor obeys the following rules:
198:Since sensors cannot replicate an ideal
161:it is sensitive to the measured property
1323:"Cross-Reactive Chemical Sensor Arrays"
1020:
708:MOS technology is the basis for modern
619:applications, such as the detection of
1046:
917:substances. Other MOS sensors include
2136:Springer Science & Business Media
1374:Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry
1066:
1064:
766:MOS image sensors are widely used in
577:ion-sensitive field-effect transistor
523:(MOS) technology originates from the
7:
1882:Advances in Embedded Computer Vision
1769:. Springer. pp. 245 & 249.
1621:"The impact of MOSFET-based sensors"
1394:10.1146/annurev-anchem-062011-143205
1123:
1121:
817:MOS monitoring sensors are used for
477:. This terminology applies for both
142:Classification of measurement errors
2128:Oliveira, Joao; Goes, JoĂŁo (2012).
1819:Japanese Journal of Applied Physics
686:BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.
2375:Microoptoelectromechanical systems
1804:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1970.tb01790.x
25:
1242:BÇnicÇ, Florinel-Gabriel (2012).
763:and his team in the early 1990s.
2958:
1104:. Upkar Prakashan. p. 194.
966:Chemical field-effect transistor
660:chemical field-effect transistor
426:This section is an excerpt from
1884:. Springer. pp. 3â22 (3).
1098:Ganesh Kumar (September 2010).
2237:Microelectromechanical systems
615:. The ISFET is widely used in
411:molecularly imprinted polymers
232:of a linear transfer function.
1:
1917:VLSI Systems and Computations
1270:Biosensors and Bioelectronics
1648:10.1016/0250-6874(85)87009-8
1205:10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04818
1925:10.1007/978-3-642-68402-9_1
1441:10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00226
897:sensors are used to detect
869:monitoring, and monitoring
676:DNA field-effect transistor
591:by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a
188:analog-to-digital converter
3166:
2344:Digital micromirror device
2097:Kluwer Academic Publishers
1282:10.1016/j.bios.2020.112339
1053:: CS1 maint: postscript (
693:
446:
425:
346:distance measuring devices
228:. This is an error in the
43:
36:
29:
3056:
2956:
2232:
2105:10.1007/978-1-4613-1639-8
1531:Frontiers in Neuroscience
521:Metalâoxideâsemiconductor
3109:The House for the Future
3104:INTEGER Millennium House
2478:Shallow trench isolation
1950:"How Computer Mice Work"
1763:Williams, J. B. (2017).
1544:10.3389/fnins.2016.00115
1484:Chemical Society Reviews
1101:Modern General Knowledge
404:. However, as synthetic
44:Not to be confused with
32:Sensors (disambiguation)
3099:House navigation system
2987:Lighting control system
2894:Universal powerline bus
2633:Universal powerline bus
2263:Interdigital transducer
1863:, Morley M. Blouke; Ed.
1585:Computer History Museum
1008:Wireless sensor network
923:wireless sensor network
746:television broadcasting
723:(CMOS sensor), used in
461:, sensors which detect
110:force-sensing resistors
104:Analog sensors such as
2422:Surface micromachining
2321:Scratch drive actuator
1147:10.1002/adma.201806739
814:
326:measurement resolution
154:
129:as microsensors using
71:
3140:Measuring instruments
3007:Thermostat automation
2004:John Wiley & Sons
1628:Sensors and Actuators
804:
742:digital video cameras
714:charge-coupled device
700:Charge-coupled device
483:semipermeable barrier
435:chemical sensor array
428:Chemical sensor array
421:Chemical sensor array
350:time-of-flight camera
149:
66:
3114:Ubiquitous computing
2792:Bluetooth Low Energy
2669:Bluetooth Low Energy
2577:Hardware controllers
2498:Silicon on insulator
1839:10.1143/JJAP.24.L323
1193:Analytical Chemistry
1028:Bennett, S. (1993).
579:(ISFET) invented by
501:Neuromorphic sensors
330:numerical resolution
171:Most sensors have a
3084:Home energy monitor
3069:Building automation
2457:3D microfabrication
2427:Bulk micromachining
1831:1985JaJAP..24L.323M
1723:2002Ana...127.1137S
1676:Electronics Letters
1640:1985SeAc....8..109B
1386:2015ARAC....8..287J
1071:Jihong Yan (2015).
919:intelligent sensors
753:active-pixel sensor
721:active-pixel sensor
704:Active-pixel sensor
672:enzyme-modified FET
613:reference electrode
555:Biochemical sensors
467:biomimetic polymers
342:distance resolution
67:Different types of
3064:Home of the future
2432:HAR micromachining
1792:Bell Syst. Tech. J
1496:10.1039/C3CS60179J
1134:Advanced Materials
925:(WSN) technology.
847:weather monitoring
831:traffic monitoring
815:
797:Monitoring sensors
645:genetic technology
599:is replaced by an
394:receptor molecules
354:standard deviation
283:sampling frequency
155:
72:
3127:
3126:
2954:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2760:
2759:
2515:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2403:
2402:
2114:978-1-4613-1639-8
2046:10.3390/mi9080408
1934:978-3-642-68404-3
1490:(22): 8649â8682.
1339:10.1021/cr980102w
1253:978-1-118-35423-0
1111:978-81-7482-180-5
1039:978-0-86341-280-6
983:Machine olfaction
843:traffic accidents
682:FET (GenFET) and
621:DNA hybridization
529:Mohamed M. Atalla
340:For example, the
322:sensor resolution
310:signal processing
298:systematic errors
289:errors may occur.
200:transfer function
194:Sensor deviations
176:transfer function
127:microscopic scale
16:(Redirected from
3157:
2962:
2844:C-Bus (protocol)
2775:
2599:
2592:Interconnection
2562:
2542:
2535:
2528:
2519:
2493:Photolithography
2412:
2365:Millipede memory
2326:Thermal actuator
2286:
2256:Basic structures
2219:
2212:
2205:
2196:
2150:
2149:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2094:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2066:
2048:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2006:. pp. 3â4.
1993:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1983:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1914:
1906:Lyon, Richard F.
1902:
1896:
1895:
1874:Lyon, Richard F.
1870:
1864:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1760:
1751:
1750:
1731:10.1039/B204444G
1717:(9): 1137â1151.
1708:
1699:
1688:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1625:
1619:(October 1985).
1613:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1556:
1546:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1429:Chemical Reviews
1420:
1414:
1413:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1333:(7): 2595â2626.
1327:Chemical Reviews
1318:
1312:
1311:
1293:
1264:
1258:
1257:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1199:(5): 3689â3696.
1184:
1178:
1177:
1159:
1149:
1125:
1116:
1115:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1068:
1059:
1058:
1052:
1044:
1025:
941:Data acquisition
907:hydrogen sulfide
819:house monitoring
783:
778:in 1980, used a
712:, including the
658:FET (PRESSFET),
120:
93:and easy-to-use
39:Detector (radio)
21:
3165:
3164:
3160:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3130:
3129:
3128:
3123:
3079:Home automation
3052:
3038:Mesh networking
3021:
2977:Audio and video
2963:
2946:
2919:
2913:
2822:
2816:
2780:interconnection
2779:
2769:
2767:
2756:
2735:
2659:Radio frequency
2645:
2593:
2586:
2551:
2549:Home automation
2546:
2516:
2507:
2461:
2399:
2353:
2330:
2302:
2277:
2251:
2242:Microtechnology
2228:
2226:Microtechnology
2223:
2159:
2157:Further reading
2154:
2153:
2146:
2127:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2092:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2014:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1958:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1912:
1908:(August 1981).
1904:
1903:
1899:
1892:
1872:
1871:
1867:
1858:
1854:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1777:
1762:
1761:
1754:
1706:
1701:
1700:
1691:
1681:
1679:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1623:
1615:
1614:
1599:
1589:
1587:
1575:
1574:
1570:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1477:
1476:
1472:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1254:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1140:(30): 1806739.
1127:
1126:
1119:
1112:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1070:
1069:
1062:
1045:
1040:
1027:
1026:
1022:
1017:
1012:
988:Nanoelectronics
978:List of sensors
931:
899:carbon monoxide
889:, security and
799:
781:
772:Richard F. Lyon
737:George E. Smith
729:digital cameras
725:digital imaging
706:
694:Main articles:
692:
664:reference ISFET
656:pressure sensor
627:detection from
557:
518:
503:
451:
445:
440:
439:
431:
423:
370:
368:Chemical sensor
318:
196:
152:infrared sensor
144:
118:
95:microcontroller
61:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3163:
3161:
3153:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3132:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3122:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3017:Smart home hub
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2973:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2923:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2832:
2826:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2783:
2781:
2772:
2762:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2733:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2655:
2653:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2636:
2630:
2620:
2615:
2607:
2605:
2596:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2568:
2566:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2513:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2416:
2409:
2405:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2380:Microphotonics
2377:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2349:Optical switch
2346:
2340:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2312:
2310:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2298:Microbolometer
2294:
2292:
2283:
2279:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2252:
2250:
2249:
2247:Micromachinery
2244:
2239:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2214:
2207:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2181:
2180:
2173:
2163:
2158:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2144:
2120:
2113:
2078:
2019:
2012:
1988:
1968:
1940:
1933:
1897:
1890:
1865:
1852:
1809:
1798:(4): 587â593.
1782:
1775:
1752:
1689:
1661:
1634:(2): 109â127.
1617:Bergveld, Piet
1597:
1568:
1517:
1470:
1435:(1): 231â292.
1415:
1380:(1): 287â310.
1360:
1313:
1259:
1252:
1234:
1179:
1117:
1110:
1090:
1083:
1060:
1038:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
980:
975:
974:
973:
968:
963:
953:
948:
943:
938:
932:
930:
927:
903:sulfur dioxide
798:
795:
716:(CCD) and the
691:
688:
684:cell-potential
556:
553:
517:
514:
502:
499:
489:membrane or a
447:Main article:
444:
441:
432:
424:
422:
419:
369:
366:
365:
364:
361:
358:unit of length
317:
314:
294:
293:
290:
279:
272:
264:
258:
251:
240:
233:
222:
215:
195:
192:
169:
168:
165:
162:
143:
140:
106:potentiometers
91:micromachinery
87:tactile sensor
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3162:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3120:
3119:Xanadu Houses
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3055:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3043:Organizations
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2992:Other systems
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2922:
2916:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:technologies,
2763:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2738:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2640:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2618:Optical fiber
2616:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2589:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2538:
2536:
2531:
2529:
2524:
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2520:
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2499:
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2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2464:
2458:
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2453:
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2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2390:Microfluidics
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2362:
2360:
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2347:
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2339:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
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2309:
2305:
2299:
2296:
2295:
2293:
2291:
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2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2234:
2231:
2227:
2220:
2215:
2213:
2208:
2206:
2201:
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2197:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2172:
2171:1-58883-056-X
2168:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2147:
2145:9781461416708
2141:
2138:. p. 7.
2137:
2133:
2132:
2124:
2121:
2116:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2090:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2033:Micromachines
2030:
2023:
2020:
2015:
2013:9781119107354
2009:
2005:
2001:
2000:
1992:
1989:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1957:
1956:
1955:HowStuffWorks
1951:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1891:9783319093871
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1813:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1783:
1778:
1776:9783319490885
1772:
1768:
1767:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1665:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1622:
1618:
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1608:
1606:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1586:
1582:
1578:
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1564:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1518:
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1493:
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1481:
1474:
1471:
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1458:
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1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
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1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
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1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1317:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
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1235:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
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1198:
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1190:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1157:10044/1/69878
1153:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1107:
1103:
1102:
1094:
1091:
1086:
1084:9781118638729
1080:
1076:
1075:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1050:
1041:
1035:
1031:
1024:
1021:
1014:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
998:Sensing floor
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
959:
958:
957:
954:
952:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
933:
928:
926:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
879:air pollution
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
849:(such as for
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
812:
808:
803:
796:
794:
792:
788:
785:
777:
773:
769:
768:optical mouse
764:
762:
758:
754:
749:
747:
743:
738:
734:
733:Willard Boyle
730:
726:
722:
719:
715:
711:
710:image sensors
705:
701:
697:
690:Image sensors
689:
687:
685:
681:
680:gene-modified
677:
673:
669:
668:biosensor FET
665:
661:
657:
653:
648:
646:
643:sensing, and
642:
639:measurement,
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
611:solution and
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
583:in 1970, the
582:
581:Piet Bergveld
578:
574:
573:environmental
570:
566:
562:
554:
552:
550:
549:environmental
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
515:
513:
511:
507:
500:
498:
496:
495:macromolecule
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
469:, are called
468:
464:
460:
459:biotechnology
456:
450:
442:
436:
429:
420:
418:
416:
412:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
382:concentration
379:
375:
367:
362:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
338:
337:
335:
331:
327:
323:
315:
313:
311:
307:
303:
302:random errors
299:
291:
288:
284:
280:
277:
273:
269:
265:
262:
259:
256:
252:
249:
245:
241:
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1971:
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895:gas detector
839:traffic jams
829:monitoring,
816:
791:IntelliMouse
765:
750:
707:
696:Image sensor
649:
587:FET (ADFET)
558:
551:parameters.
519:
510:event camera
506:Neuromorphic
504:
485:, such as a
452:
390:transduction
371:
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236:Nonlinearity
197:
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3150:Transducers
3094:Home server
2821:Control and
2770:by function
2730:Consumer IR
2442:Lithography
1291:10651/57640
946:Data logger
871:temperature
833:(including
827:agriculture
761:Eric Fossum
662:(ChemFET),
635:detection,
609:electrolyte
603:-sensitive
533:Dawon Kahng
516:MOS sensors
455:biomedicine
306:calibration
230:y-intercept
219:sensitivity
180:sensitivity
135:macroscopic
3134:Categories
3074:Floor plan
3048:Smart grid
2920:networking
2839:OpenWebNet
2823:automation
2437:Deposition
2395:Micropower
2316:Comb drive
2268:Cantilever
2039:(8): 408.
1982:2020-04-03
1590:August 31,
1276:: 112339.
1015:References
1003:Transducer
993:Nanosensor
678:(DNAFET),
670:(BioFET),
652:gas sensor
617:biomedical
597:metal gate
585:adsorption
569:biological
545:biological
475:nanosensor
471:biosensors
406:biomimetic
398:transducer
316:Resolution
268:hysteresis
212:full scale
2787:Bluetooth
2664:Bluetooth
2623:Powerline
2572:Actuators
2503:Smart cut
2408:Processes
2308:Actuators
2055:2072-666X
1961:9 October
1847:108450116
1739:1364-5528
1656:0250-6874
1504:1460-4744
1465:206542436
1449:0009-2665
1402:1936-1327
1347:0009-2665
1308:219902328
1229:211012680
1213:0003-2700
1166:0935-9648
1049:cite book
859:lightning
835:car speed
666:(REFET),
625:biomarker
449:Biosensor
443:Biosensor
402:biosensor
378:gas phase
334:precision
248:bode plot
3060:See also
3002:Security
2997:Robotics
2932:HomePlug
2927:Ethernet
2884:LonWorks
2797:FireWire
2726:Infrared
2694:MyriaNed
2651:Wireless
2565:Elements
2488:Lift-off
2466:Specific
2336:Switches
2073:30424341
1876:(2014).
1747:12375833
1563:27065784
1512:24091381
1457:30207700
1410:26132346
1355:11749297
1300:32729482
1221:32008321
1174:31094032
936:Actuator
929:See also
891:lighting
875:humidity
811:iPad Pro
751:The MOS
633:antibody
605:membrane
593:hydrogen
589:patented
565:chemical
561:physical
541:chemical
537:physical
491:hydrogel
487:dialysis
479:in-vitro
463:analytes
415:aptamers
287:aliasing
204:accuracy
18:Detector
3145:Sensors
3012:Gateway
2937:HomePNA
2889:One-Net
2864:Insteon
2854:EnOcean
2835:Bus SCS
2830:AllJoyn
2766:Network
2747:Insteon
2699:One-Net
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2610:Cable (
2582:Sensors
2447:Etching
2415:General
2290:Sensors
2064:6187308
1827:Bibcode
1719:Bibcode
1711:Analyst
1636:Bibcode
1554:4809886
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1382:Bibcode
1043:sensor.
911:ammonia
867:defense
757:Olympus
637:glucose
386:analyte
348:. In a
244:dynamic
178:. The
54:Censure
2909:Z-Wave
2904:Zigbee
2812:Zigbee
2778:Device
2719:Z-Wave
2714:Zigbee
2689:Matter
2628:PLCBUS
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887:health
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278:error.
271:error.
239:range.
173:linear
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3033:Costs
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2969:Tasks
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2187:(see
2093:(PDF)
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1707:(PDF)
1624:(PDF)
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1225:S2CID
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776:Xerox
629:blood
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261:Noise
255:drift
119:dy/dx
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2918:Data
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2740:Both
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