290:
38:
688:. Now, once tragedy had lost the genius of music, tragedy in the strictest sense was dead: for where was that metaphysical consolation now to be found? Hence an earthly resolution for tragic dissonance was sought; the hero, having been adequately tormented by fate, won his well-earned reward in a stately marriage and tokens of divine honour. The hero had become a gladiator, granted freedom once he had been satisfactorily flayed and scarred. Metaphysical consolation had been ousted by the
1751:
594:. A contrivance must be used for matters outside the drama — either previous events, which are beyond human knowledge, or later ones that need to be foretold or announced. For we grant that the gods can see everything. There should be nothing improbable in the incidents; otherwise, it should be outside the tragedy, e.g., that in
729:
and described its use as an integral part of the plot, designed for a specific purpose. Often, Euripides' plays would begin with gods, so it is argued that it would be natural for the gods to finish the action. The conflict throughout
Euripides' plays would be caused by the meddling of the gods, so
717:
surveyed and recorded other late 19th-century responses to the device. He recorded that some of the critical responses to the term referred to it as 'burlesque', 'coup de théâtre', and 'catastrophe'. Verrall notes that critics have a dismissive response to authors who deploy the device in their
583:
In the characters, too, exactly as in the structure of the incidents, ought always to seek what is either necessary or probable, so that it is either necessary or probable that a person of such-and-such a sort say or do things of the same sort, and it is either necessary or probable that this
367:
to describe the technique as a device to resolve the plot of tragedies. It is said by one person to be undesirable in writing and often implies a lack of creativity on the part of the author. The reasons for this are that it damages the story's internal logic and is often so unlikely that it
1594:'s self-replicating machine, it is imagined that the machine has a mechanical program and equipment to first manufacture the components of a watch and then to assemble these parts into a new, functioning, offspring watch that inherits the ability to replicate itself from the parent watch.
163:
whereby a seemingly unsolvable problem in a story is suddenly or abruptly resolved by an unexpected and unlikely occurrence. Its function is generally to resolve an otherwise irresolvable plot situation, to surprise the audience, to bring the tale to a
619:
Aristotle praised
Euripides, however, for generally ending his plays with bad fortune, which he viewed as correct in tragedy, and somewhat excused the intervention of a deity by suggesting that "astonishment" should be sought in tragic drama:
681:
of the new dramas. At the end of the old tragedies there was a sense of metaphysical conciliation without which it is impossible to imagine our taking delight in tragedy; perhaps the conciliatory tones from another world echo most purely in
737:
Other champions of the device believe that it can be a spectacular agent of subversion. It can be used to undercut generic conventions and challenge cultural assumptions and the privileged role of tragedy as a literary/theatrical model.
280:
The device produced an immediate emotional response in Greek audiences. They would have a feeling of wonder and astonishment at the appearance of the gods, which would often add to the moral effect of the drama.
734:, therefore it was not simply a device to relieve the playwright of the embarrassment of a confusing plot-ending. This device enabled him to bring about a natural and more dignified dramatic and tragic ending.
194: 'god from the machine'. The term was coined from the conventions of ancient Greek theater, where actors who were playing gods were brought on stage using a machine. The machine could be either a crane (
459:
used the device when Rose Maylie turns out to be the long-lost sister of Agnes, and therefore Oliver's aunt; she marries her long-time sweetheart Harry, allowing Oliver to live happily with his savior Mr.
730:
it would make sense both to the playwright and to the audience of the time that the gods would resolve all conflict that they began. Half of
Euripides' eighteen extant plays end with the use of
638:(lines 191–2), where he instructs poets that they should never resort to a "god from the machine" to resolve their plots "unless a difficulty worthy of a god's unraveling should happen" .
204:
introduced the idea and it was used often to resolve the conflict and conclude the drama. The device is associated mostly with Greek tragedy, although it also appeared in comedies.
624:
Irrationalities should be referred to what people say: That is one solution, and also sometimes that it is not irrational, since it is probable that improbable things will happen.
519:
device is often criticized as inartistic, too convenient, and overly simplistic. However, champions of the device say that it opens up ideological and artistic possibilities.
753:
complicates the lives and attitudes of characters confronted by the deity, while simultaneously bringing the drama home to its audience. Sometimes, the unlikeliness of the
334:
where a character breaks the action and rewrites the ending as a reprieve from hanging for MacHeath. During the politically turbulent 17th and 18th centuries, the
969:
Chondros, Thomas G.; Milidonis, Kypros; Vitzilaios, George; Vaitsis, John (September 2013). ""Deus-Ex-Machina" reconstruction in the Athens theater of
Dionysus".
386:
writers
Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely admitted the time travel plot device in the 2019 film was the result of having written themselves into a corner in
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1141:
584:
happen after that one. It is obvious that the solutions of plots, too, should come about as a result of the plot itself, and not from a contrivance, as in the
468:: The Martians in H. G. Wells's novel have destroyed everything in their path and apparently triumphed over humanity, but they are suddenly killed by bacteria.
1329:
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creates a false sense of consolation that ought not to be sought in phenomena. His denigration of the plot device has prevailed in critical opinion.
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by use of the device, and was highly skeptical of the "Greek cheerfulness", prompting what he viewed as the plays' "blissful delight in life". The
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parodies
Euripides' frequent use of the crane by making Euripides himself a character in the play and bringing him on stage by way of the
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499:
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cannot be viewed in these simplified terms, and contends that the device allows mortals to "probe" their relationship with the divine.
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447:. The abrupt ending conveys the terrible fate that would have afflicted the children if the officer had not arrived at that moment.
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is evidence of the author's attempt to ruin the whole of his work and to prevent anyone from putting any importance on his work.
31:
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in their resolution and some critics claim that
Euripides invented it, not Aeschylus. A frequently cited example is Euripides'
1755:
338:
was sometimes used to make a controversial thesis more palatable to the powers of the day. For example, in the final scene of
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1771:
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481:, the phrase is often used for supposedly "magical remedies" which are not likely to work in practice. For instance, in the
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579:, where he argued that the resolution of a plot must arise internally, following from previous action of the play:
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because "her late arrival to the final battle ... feels like a function of her powers being too strong".
330:
1602:
hypothesis did not have a theological motivation. Instead, it grew out of a puzzle in computer theory.
944:: ἀπὸ μηχανῆϛ θεὸς ἐπεφάνηϛ "You are by your epiphany a veritable god from the machine", as quoted in
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2002:
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Poetics with
Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II and the Fragments of the On Poets.
1370:
Breton, Rob (Summer 2005). "Ghosts in the
Machina: Plotting in Chartist and Working-Class Fiction".
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2014:
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257:, the heroine agrees to give up her own life to spare the life of her husband Admetus. At the end,
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plot device is employed deliberately. Note for example the comic effect generated in a scene in
1567:. Controversies in Science. Santa Barbara, California: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 155.
1454:
1217:
The
Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders, Volume 1
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348:, the heroes are saved from a terrible fate by an agent of the compassionate, all-seeing King
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In 2006, when electronic fetal heart monitoring was being touted as a preventive measure for
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was a sign that the playwright was unable to properly manage the complications of his plot.
406:
363:(in the Poetics 15 1454b1) was the first to use a Greek term equivalent to the Latin phrase
62:
50:, performed in 2009 in Syracuse, Italy; the sun god sends a golden chariot to rescue Medea.
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1935:
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as an inept plot device, although it continued to be employed by Renaissance dramatists.
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200:) used to lower actors from above or a riser that brought them up through a trapdoor.
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Abel, D. Herbert (December 1954). "Euripides' Deus ex Machina: Fault or Excellence".
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1674:. Classical Antiquity, Vol 9, October 1990, pp 247–294. University of California.
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Thought experiments and speculations in theology, computer science, robotics and
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for terminal COVID-19 patients was suggested, it was immediately denounced as a
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160:
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17:
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1402:"Shaw's response to the deus ex machina: From the Quintessence of Ibsenism to
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339:
261:
appears and seizes Alcestis from Death, restoring her to life and to Admetus.
917:"God Out of the Machine – Theatrical Literary Devices - Oxford Study Courses"
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567:, 425d, though it is made in the context of an argument unrelated to drama.
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222:
212:
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1992:
1314:
1279:
1383:
1293:
Greene MF (November 2006). "Obstetricians still await a deus ex machina".
530:
was one of the device's earliest critics. He believed that the use of the
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Characters ascend into heaven to become gods at the end of the 1650 play
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1945:
352:– the same king who held Molière's career and livelihood in his hands.
196:
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1964:
1672:
Actors on High: The Skene roof, the Crane and the Gods in Attic Drama
629:
424:
240:
180:
940:
One of the earliest occurrences of the phrase is in fragment 227 of
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technology have considered the possibilities and consequences of a
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248:
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Even The Avengers: Endgame Writers Admit Time Travel Is Ludicrous
677:
But the new non-Dionysiac spirit is most clearly apparent in the
2732:
2527:
1888:
1561:(21 June 2002). "Darwinism Developed: The Ontogeny of an Idea".
718:
writings. He comes to the conclusion that critics feel that the
394:
in the climax of the film has been criticized as bordering on a
1783:
646:
Following Aristotle, Renaissance critics continued to view the
123:
1779:
749:
in particular cites examples of Greek tragedy in which the
111:
82:
74:
71:
1005:
Cunningham, Maurice P. (July 1954). "Medea ΑΠΟ ΜΗΧΑΝΗΣ".
725:
However, other scholars have looked at Euripides' use of
557:
Another critical reference to the device can be found in
225:. More than half of Euripides' extant tragedies employ a
105:
99:
1108:
How did 'Avengers: Endgame' get Captain Marvel so wrong?
439:: A passing navy officer rescues the stranded children.
27:
Contrived device to resolve the plot of a dramatic work
1410:
Theatre: Ancient & Modern, January 1999 Conference
1143:
Fantasies of Time and Death: Dunsany, Eddison, Tolkien
741:
Some 20th-century revisionist criticism suggests that
657:
criticized Euripides for making tragedy an optimistic
1522:. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press.
135:
126:
108:
102:
88:
85:
77:
65:
1204:. Harcourt Brace & Company, USA. pp. 44–45.
443:
called that a "gimmick"; other critics view it as a
68:
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2846:
2590:
2481:
2379:
2284:
2219:
2142:
1954:
1817:
120:
117:
96:
93:
1244:Wadowski BJ, Bacchetta M, Kon ZN (December 2020).
673:music and ultimately caused the death of tragedy:
1531:
1529:
827:A Reader's Guide to Literary Terms: A Dictionary
221:but it became an established stage machine with
1621:. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
675:
622:
581:
536:
239:is a dragon-drawn chariot sent by the sun god
1795:
1395:
1393:
588:and in the passage about sailing home in the
8:
1564:Animals and Science: A Guide to the Debates
842:"Deus Ex Machina - Examples and Definition"
1802:
1788:
1780:
824:Beckson, Karl E.; Ganz, Arthur F. (1961).
1365:
1363:
1269:
964:
962:
771:, is saved from a high fall by a passing
544:just like a finger they lift the machine
541:and have completely given up on the play
1246:"Beware the Deus Ex Machina of COVID-19"
1179:. Infobase Publishing. pp. 67–68.
1066:. 2003. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
803:
665:as Nietzsche saw it was symptomatic of
159:; English "god from the machine") is a
2473:Types of fiction with multiple endings
1219:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.
995:Rehm (1992, 72) and Walton (1984, 51).
669:culture, which valued knowledge over
150:
7:
983:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2013.04.010
653:Toward the end of the 19th century,
1177:William Golding's Lord of the Flies
1078:"Literary Terms and Definitions: D"
946:The Woman Possessed with a Divinity
500:The New England Journal of Medicine
243:, used to convey his granddaughter
547:and the spectators are satisfied.
25:
2876:Third-person omniscient narrative
950:Menander: The Principal Fragments
628:Such a device was referred to by
538:when they don't know what to say
1749:
1726:Walton, J Michael, trans. 2000.
1400:Handley, Miriam (January 1999).
1262:10.1016/j.athoracsur.2020.08.001
1120:"Top 10 Deus Ex Machina moments"
61:
32:Deus ex machina (disambiguation)
1548:. Reelviews Movie Reviews. 2003
1520:The Greek Theatre and its Drama
1518:Flickinger, Roy Caston (1926).
1330:"In defence of deus ex machina"
2264:Conflict between good and evil
1772:New International Encyclopedia
1328:Vaatmann, Veiko (2022-07-01).
1167:Friedman, Lawrence S. (2008).
390:. Also, the sudden arrival of
1:
1754:The dictionary definition of
1651:Janko, Richard, trans. 1987.
1632:Heath, Malcolm, trans. 1996.
1588:machina ex machina hypothesis
573:criticized the device in his
152:[ˈdɛ.ʊsɛksˈmaːkʰɪnaː]
1617:Bushnell, Rebecca ed. 2005.
1215:Westfahl, Gary, ed. (2005).
1202:A Glossary of Literary Terms
971:Mechanism and Machine Theory
760:Monty Python's Life of Brian
251:to the safety of Athens. In
168:or act as a comedic device.
1670:Mastronarde, Donald, 1990.
1544:James Berardinelli, James.
487:double lung transplantation
3138:
1692:Tanner, Michael ed. 2003.
1175:. In Bloom, Harold (ed.).
954:Francis Greenleaf Allinson
793:self-reproducing automaton
702:Nietzsche argued that the
285:Modern theatrical examples
29:
2903:Stream of unconsciousness
2434:Falling action/Catastasis
1444:11.5, Penguin (1996, 45).
763:when Brian, who lives in
711:Euripides the Rationalist
427:have been critiqued as a
2271:Self-fulfilling prophecy
1480:Nietzsche (2003, 84–86).
1334:Journal of Screenwriting
1200:Abrams, MH, ed. (1993).
896:Encyclopaedia Britannica
368:challenges the reader's
315:Pericles, Prince of Tyre
172:Origin of the expression
2898:Stream of consciousness
2361:Suspension of disbelief
1766:"Deus ex Machina"
1713:Greek Tragedy in Action
1546:"Review: Life of Brian"
1455:"Ars Poetica by Horace"
1057:"Tartuffe: Novel Guide"
812:Random House Dictionary
715:Arthur Woollgar Verrall
370:suspension of disbelief
215:used the device in his
3122:Television terminology
3102:Latin literary phrases
2439:Denouement/Catastrophe
2420:Rising action/Epitasis
1711:Taplin, Oliver, 1978.
1659:. Cambridge: Hackett.
1619:A Companion to Tragedy
1169:"Grief, grief, grief:
921:oxfordstudycourses.com
700:
626:
617:
555:
483:2020 COVID-19 outbreak
300:
247:away from her husband
51:
3097:Ancient Greek theatre
2785:Utopian and dystopian
1681:. Routledge, London.
1501:The Classical Journal
1489:Nietzsche (2003, 80).
1471:Nietzsche (2003, 85).
1384:10.1353/vic.2006.0003
465:The War of the Worlds
412:The Lord of the Rings
292:
40:
3117:Narrative techniques
2339:Narrative techniques
2119:Story within a story
1931:Supporting character
1698:Nietzsche, Friedrich
1694:The Birth of Tragedy
1679:Greek Tragic Theatre
1598:'s development of a
1461:. 21 September 2017.
1346:10.1386/josc_00091_1
1140:(26 December 2019).
1076:Dr. L. Kip Wheeler.
192:(apò mēkhanês theós)
30:For other uses, see
3044:Political narrative
2886:Unreliable narrator
2743:Speculative fiction
2451:Nonlinear narrative
2399:Three-act structure
2259:Deal with the Devil
1730:. Methuen, London.
1715:. Methuen, London.
1700:. Penguin: London.
1640:. Penguin: London.
1307:10.1056/NEJMe068176
1007:Classical Philology
948:, as translated in
923:. 14 September 2015
779:Associated concepts
697:Friedrich Nietzsche
655:Friedrich Nietzsche
306:uses the device in
3022:Narrative paradigm
3017:Narrative identity
2947:Dominant narrative
2893:Multiple narrators
2177:Fictional location
2020:Dramatic structure
1677:Rehm, Rush, 1992.
1600:machina ex machina
1062:2012-01-21 at the
789:machina ex machina
685:Oedipus at Colonus
614:, (1454a33–1454b9)
388:the previous movie
331:The Beggar's Opera
301:
52:
3084:
3083:
3027:Narrative therapy
2461:television series
2406:Freytag's Pyramid
2249:Moral development
2152:Alternate history
1862:False protagonist
1706:978-0-14-043339-5
1646:978-0-14-044636-4
1459:Poetry Foundation
1372:Victorian Studies
1301:(21): 2247–2248.
1171:Lord of the Flies
892:"Deus ex machina"
867:"deus ex machina"
523:Ancient criticism
436:Lord of the Flies
383:Avengers: Endgame
270:Thesmophoriazusae
16:(Redirected from
3129:
3107:Plot (narrative)
3007:Literary science
2550:Narrative poetry
2446:Linear narrative
2356:Stylistic device
2351:Show, don't tell
2314:Figure of speech
2104:Shaggy dog story
1847:Characterization
1804:
1797:
1790:
1781:
1776:
1768:
1753:
1728:Euripides: Medea
1605:
1604:
1583:
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1555:
1549:
1542:
1536:
1535:Rehm (1992, 71).
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1487:
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1432:Janko (1987, 20)
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1404:Heartbreak House
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1256:(6): 1787–1788.
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1138:Vaninskaya, Anna
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1122:. Archived from
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1047:Rehm (1992, 70).
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846:Literary Devices
838:
832:
831:
830:. Noonday Press.
821:
815:
808:
773:alien space-ship
698:
642:Modern criticism
615:
553:
503:denounced it as
491:deus ex machina.
407:J. R. R. Tolkien
208:Ancient examples
190:ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός
154:
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21:
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3087:
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3012:Literary theory
2952:Fiction writing
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2215:
2138:
2009:Deus ex machina
1950:
1936:Title character
1921:Stock character
1867:Focal character
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1757:deus ex machina
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1250:Ann Thorac Surg
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781:
767:at the time of
755:deus ex machina
751:deus ex machina
743:deus ex machina
732:deus ex machina
727:deus ex machina
720:deus ex machina
704:deus ex machina
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690:deus ex machina
663:deus ex machina
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532:deus ex machina
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517:deus ex machina
513:
505:deus ex machina
475:
457:Charles Dickens
445:deus ex machina
441:William Golding
429:deus ex machina
396:deus ex machina
378:
365:deus ex machina
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237:deus ex machina
227:deus ex machina
210:
177:Deus ex machina
174:
147:
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116:
92:
81:
64:
60:
56:Deus ex machina
42:Deus ex machina
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Deux ex machina
15:
12:
11:
5:
3135:
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3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3089:
3088:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3078:
3076:Verisimilitude
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3046:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3029:
3024:
3019:
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2981:
2979:Parallel novel
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2363:
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2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
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2301:
2296:
2290:
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2282:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2267:
2266:
2261:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2225:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2189:
2184:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2148:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2099:Self-insertion
2096:
2091:
2086:
2084:Poetic justice
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2054:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1973:
1968:
1960:
1958:
1952:
1951:
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1948:
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1938:
1933:
1928:
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1918:
1913:
1908:
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1906:
1901:
1896:
1886:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1842:Character flaw
1839:
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1823:
1821:
1815:
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1799:
1792:
1784:
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1744:External links
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1418:
1389:
1378:(4): 557–575.
1359:
1340:(2): 155–167.
1320:
1285:
1236:
1229:
1207:
1192:
1185:
1159:
1152:
1129:
1126:on 2020-05-02.
1111:
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1049:
1040:
1019:10.1086/363788
1013:(3): 151–160.
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797:
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694:
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495:cerebral palsy
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377:
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309:As You Like It
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44:in Euripides'
26:
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2866:Second-person
2864:
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2770:Magic realism
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2701:Psychological
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2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2606:Autobiography
2604:
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2593:
2589:
2583:
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2573:
2570:
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2545:Narrative art
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2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2503:Flash fiction
2501:
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2404:
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2397:
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2394:Act structure
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2384:
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2257:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2250:
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2245:
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2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2212:
2211:Worldbuilding
2209:
2207:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
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2180:
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2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2058:Kishōtenketsu
2055:
2053:
2052:
2051:In medias res
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2030:Foreshadowing
2028:
2026:
2025:Eucatastrophe
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2010:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
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1994:
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1988:Chekhov's gun
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1877:Gothic double
1875:
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1860:
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1857:Deuteragonist
1855:
1853:
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1837:Character arc
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1762:
1760:at Wiktionary
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1736:0-413-75280-1
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1559:Shanks, Niall
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1507:(3): 127–130.
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3066:Storytelling
2881:Subjectivity
2871:Third-person
2861:First-person
2495:
2304:Comic relief
2056:
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2040:Flashforward
2008:
2007:
1981:Origin story
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1926:Straight man
1881:
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2804:Theological
2696:Pop culture
2577:Short story
2555:Epic poetry
2276:Time travel
2089:Red herring
2074:Plot device
2045:Frame story
1998:Cliffhanger
1941:Tritagonist
1916:Protagonist
1596:Von Neumann
977:: 172–191.
635:Ars Poetica
473:In medicine
356:Plot device
328:uses it in
304:Shakespeare
179:is a Latin
161:plot device
3091:Categories
2957:Continuity
2826:Nonfiction
2790:Underwater
2686:Picaresque
2661:Historical
2646:Epistolary
2518:Fairy tale
2429:Peripeteia
2411:Exposition
2167:Dreamworld
2109:Stereotype
2079:Plot twist
1827:Antagonist
1611:References
1230:0313329516
1083:2008-07-26
952:(1921) by
927:2021-04-23
852:2021-04-23
552:Antiphanes
528:Antiphanes
155:; plural:
2848:Narration
2797:Superhero
2721:Chivalric
2706:Religious
2691:Political
2626:Adventure
2611:Biography
2533:Tall tale
2381:Structure
2366:Symbolism
2334:Narration
2234:Leitmotif
2162:Crossover
2157:Backstory
2114:Story arc
2064:MacGuffin
2035:Flashback
1976:Backstory
1852:Confidant
1832:Archenemy
1819:Character
1811:Narrative
1657:Aristotle
1638:Aristotle
1354:252424778
1035:163893448
747:Rush Rehm
671:Dionysiac
596:Sophocles
571:Aristotle
511:Criticism
460:Brownlow.
415:carrying
361:Aristotle
350:Louis XIV
321:Cymbeline
296:Andromède
223:Euripides
218:Eumenides
213:Aeschylus
202:Aeschylus
183:from
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3049:Rhetoric
2856:Diegesis
2836:Creative
2809:Thriller
2758:Southern
2676:Paranoid
2671:Nautical
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2415:Protasis
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2197:parallel
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2129:Suspense
2015:Dialogue
2003:Conflict
1911:Narrator
1883:Hamartia
1634:Poetics.
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1280:32871108
1060:Archived
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713:(1895),
695:—
667:Socratic
607:—
564:Cratylus
550:—
479:medicine
376:Examples
345:Tartuffe
326:John Gay
259:Heracles
254:Alcestis
2984:Prequel
2940:Related
2926:Present
2819:Western
2775:Science
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2716:Romance
2666:Mystery
2651:Ergodic
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1946:Villain
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679:endings
632:in his
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576:Poetics
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2456:films
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2254:Motif
2244:Moral
2229:Irony
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1031:S2CID
1023:JSTOR
799:Notes
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586:Medea
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