268:
heritability, advocates developmentalist research of environmental effects, a logical inconsistency. Barnes et al., made similar criticisms observing that the innate human capacity for language (deeply genetic) does not determine the specific language spoken (a contextually environmental effect). It is then, in principle, possible to separate the effects of genes and environment. Similarly, Steven Pinker argues if genes and environment couldn't actually be separated then speakers have a deterministic genetic disposition to learn a specific native language upon exposure. Though seemingly consistent with the idea of geneâenvironment interaction, Pinker argues it is nonetheless an absurd position since empirical evidence shows ancestry has no effect on language acquisition â environmental effects are often separable from genetic ones.
197:
illegitimate. Thus, for developmental systems theory, many of the most widely applied, asymmetric and entirely legitimate distinctions biologists draw (between, say, genetic factors that create potential and environmental factors that select outcomes or genetic factors of determination and environmental factors of realisation) obtain their legitimacy from the conceptual clarity and specificity with which they are applied, not from their having tapped a profound and irreducible ontological truth about biological causation. One problem might be solved by reversing the direction of causation correctly identified in another. This parity of treatment is especially important when comparing the evolutionary and developmental explanations for one and the same character of an organism.
243:
highly interactive, context dependent, and extremely complex, it is incorrect to conclude main effects of heredity and environment are unlikely to be found in the "messiness". SesardiÄ argues that the idea that changing the effect of one factor always depends on what is happening in other factors is an empirical claim, as well as a false one; for example, the bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis produces a protein that is toxic to caterpillars. Genes from this bacterium have been placed into plants vulnerable to caterpillars and the insects proceed to die when they eat part of the plant, as they consume the toxic protein. Thus, developmental approaches must be assessed on a case by case basis and in SesardiÄ's view, DST does not offer much if only posed in general terms.
218:âs âatomicâ genes and gene-like âreplicatorsâ. DST regards every level of biological structure as susceptible to influence from all the structures by which they are surrounded, be it from above, below, or any other direction â a proposition that throws into question some of (popular and professional) biologyâs most central and celebrated claims, not least the âcentral dogmaâ of Mendelian genetics, any direct determination of phenotype by genotype, and the very notion that any aspect of biological (or psychological, or any other higher form) activity or experience is capable of direct or exhaustive genetic or evolutionary âexplanationâ.
210:â models is regarded by developmental systems theory as not merely weak but actually false. Not only are major elements of the environment built and inherited as materially as any gene but active modifications to the environment by the organism (for example, a termite mound or a beaverâs dam) demonstrably become major environmental factors to which future adaptation is addressed. Thus, once termites have begun to build their monumental nests, it is the demands of living in those very nests to which future generations of termite must adapt.
222:
directly corresponding change in gene frequencies is an elementary assumption of developmental systems theory, just as neo-Darwinismâs âexplanationâ of phenomena in terms of reproductive fitness is regarded as fundamentally shallow. Even the widespread mechanistic equation of âgeneâ with a specific DNA sequence has been thrown into question, as have the analogous interpretations of evolution and adaptation.
316:
184:. Data (inputs, resources, content, and so on) is required by all processes, and must often fall within certain limits if the process in question is to have its ânormalâ outcome. However, the data alone is helpless to create this outcome, while the process may be âsatisfiedâ with a considerable range of alternative data.
196:
For reductionists there is a fundamental asymmetry between different causal factors, whereas for DST such asymmetries can only be justified by specific purposes, and argue that many of the (generally unspoken) purposes to which such (generally exaggerated) asymmetries have been put are scientifically
242:
speculation; SesardiÄ observes that while the emergence of lung cancer is a highly complicated process involving the combined action of many factors and interactions, it is not unreasonable to believe that smoking has an effect on developing lung cancer. Therefore, though developmental processes are
221:
Developmental systems theory is plainly radically incompatible with both neo-Darwinism and information processing theory. Whereas neo-Darwinism defines evolution in terms of changes in gene distribution, the possibility that an evolutionarily significant change may arise and be sustained without any
566:
Wright, John Paul, J. C. Barnes, Brian B. Boutwell, Joseph A. Schwartz, Eric J. Connolly, Joseph L. Nedelec, and Kevin M. Beaver. "Mathematical proof is not minutiae and irreducible complexity is not a theory: A final response to Burt and Simons and a call to criminologists." Criminology 53 (2015):
225:
Likewise, the wholly generic, functional and anti-developmental models offered by information processing theory are comprehensively challenged by DSTâs evidence that nothing is explained without an explicit structural and developmental analysis on the appropriate levels. As a result, what qualifies
267:
Another
SesardiÄ argument counters another DST claim of impossibility of determining contribution of trait influence (genetic vs. environment). It necessarily follows a trait cannot be causally attributed to environment as genes and environment are inseparable in DST. Yet DST, critical of genetic
213:
This inheritance may take many forms and operate on many scales, with a multiplicity of systems of inheritance complementing the genes. From position and maternal effects on gene expression to epigenetic inheritance to the active construction and intergenerational transmission of enduring niches,
187:
Developmental systems theory, by contrast, assumes that the process/data distinction is at best misleading and at worst completely false, and that while it may be helpful for very specific pragmatic or theoretical reasons to treat a structure now as a process and now as a datum, there is always a
205:
One upshot of this approach is that developmental systems theory also argues that what is inherited from generation to generation is a good deal more than simply genes (or even the other items, such as the fertilised zygote, that are also sometimes conceded). As a result, much of the conceptual
188:
risk (to which reductionists routinely succumb) that this methodological convenience will be promoted into an ontological conclusion. In fact, for the proponents of DST, either all structures are both process and data, depending on context, or even more radically, no structure is either.
255:
to denote a nonâadditive environmental effect conditioned upon genotype. âInteractionism'sâ overâgeneralization cannot render attempts to identify genetic and environmental contributions meaningless. Where behavioural genetics attempts to determine portions of
954:
Neumann-Held, E.M. (1999). The gene is dead- long live the gene. Conceptualizing genes the constructionist way. In P. Koslowski (ed.). Sociobiology and
Bioeconomics: The Theory of Evolution in Economic and Biological Thinking, pp. 105â137. Berlin:
214:
development systems theory argues that not only inheritance but evolution as a whole can be understood only by taking into account a far wider range of âreproducersâ or âinheritance systemsâ â genetic, epigenetic, behavioural and symbolic â than
132:) priority of any particular entity and thereby maintains an explanatory openness on all empirical fronts. For example, there is vigorous resistance to the widespread assumptions that one can legitimately speak of genes âforâ specific
46:
factors on developmental processes. DST, unlike conventional scientific theories, is not directly used to help make predictions for testing experimental results; instead, it is seen as a collection of philosophical, psychological, and
71:. Developmental systems theory embraces a large range of positions that expand biological explanations of organismal development and hold modern evolutionary theory as a misconception of the nature of living processes.
136:
characters or that adaptation consists of evolution âshapingâ the more or less passive species, as opposed to adaptation consisting of organisms actively selecting, defining, shaping and often creating their niches.
169:
Evolution As
Construction: The evolution of an entire developmental system, including whole ecosystems of which given organisms are parts, not just the changes of a particular being or population.
238:, while not dismissive of developmental systems theory, argues that its proponents forget that the role between levels of interaction is ultimately an empirical issue, which cannot be settled by
276:
Developmental systems theory is not a narrowly defined collection of ideas, and the boundaries with neighbouring models are porous. Notable related ideas (with key texts) include:
112:, heredity and the development of particular organisms, can only be accounted for by incorporating many more layers of structure and process than the conventional concepts of â
180:
To adopt a computing metaphor, the reductionists (whom developmental systems theory opposes) assume that causal factors can be divided into âprocessesâ and âdataâ, as in the
163:
Development as a process of construction: The organism helps shape its own environment, such as the way a beaver builds a dam to raise the water level to build a lodge.
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as âinformationâ depends wholly on the content and context out of which that information arises, within which it is translated and to which it is applied.
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In other words, although it does not claim that all structures are equal, development systems theory is fundamentally opposed to
615:
Overton, Willis F. (April 2013). "A New
Paradigm for Developmental Science: Relationism and Relational-Developmental Systems".
60:
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of all kinds. In short, developmental systems theory intends to formulate a perspective which does not presume the causal (or
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Gray, R.D. (2000). Selfish genes or developmental systems? In Singh, R.S., Krimbas, C.B., Paul, D.B., and Beatty, J. (2000).
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transcends the structures from which it arose and has its own systematic characteristics, information, functions and laws.
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Oyama, S. (1985). The
Ontogeny of Information: Developmental Systems and Evolution. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
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See Oyama 2000 for a detailed critique of information processing theory from a developmental systems perspective)
345:
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Distributed
Control: Idea that no single source of influence has central control over an organism's development.
992:(2009). "Logical Fallacies Used to Dismiss the Evidence on Intelligence Testing". In Phelps, Richard P. (ed.).
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to any lower (or higher) level of structure, and can be described and explained only on its own terms.
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Joint
Determination by Multiple Causes: Development is a product of multiple interacting sources.
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SesardiÄ, Neven. Making sense of heritability. Cambridge
University Press, 2005, pp.15-16, 73-75
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accounted for by genetics, environmentalâdevelopmentalistics like DST attempt to determine the
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Context
Sensitivity and Contingency: Development depends on the current state of the organism.
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87:(including both evolution and development) operate by continually assembling new structures.
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Pinker, Steven. "Why nature & nurture won't go away." Daedalus 133, no. 4 (2004): 5-17.
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course of human development and erroneously conclude the common theme is readily changed.
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Extended Inheritance: An organism inherits resources from the environment in addition to
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SesardiÄ, Neven. Making sense of heritability. Cambridge University Press, 2005, p.25â27
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Lehrman, D.S. (1953). A critique of Konrad Lorenzâs theory of instinctive behaviour.
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differentiates the "fallacy of soâcalled "interactionism"" from the technical use of
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See, for example, Oyama's discussion of the use and misuse of norms of reaction in
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Thinking about Evolution: Historical, Philosophical, and Political Perspectives
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Theoretical Biology. Epigenetic and Evolutionary Order from Complex Systems
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Darwinism Evolving. System Dynamics and the Genealogy of Natural Selection
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A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action
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All versions of developmental systems theory espouse the view that:
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The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution
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Correcting Fallacies About Educational and Psychological Testing
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Cycles of contingency : developmental systems and evolution
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Epigenetic Inheritance and Evolution. The Lamarckian Dimension
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59:. As a whole, these models argue the inadequacy of the
756:
Baldwin, J. Mark (1896). "A New Factor in Evolution".
996:(1st ed.). American Psychological Association.
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Neural Darwinism: Theory of Neuronal Group Selection
1042:. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. (184-207).
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938:The Triple Helix: Gene, Organism, and Environment
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104:Furthermore, the major processes through which
26:) is an overarching theoretical perspective on
97:Conversely, each such structure is ultimately
16:Evolutionary and developmental biology theory
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906:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
38:. It emphasizes the shared contributions of
890:Consciousness. How Mind Becomes Imagination
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1045:Koestler, A., and Smythies, J.R. (1969).
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1075:Developmental Systems Theory and Beyond
902:Goodwin, B.C. and Saunders, P. (1992).
803:"A New Factor in Evolution (Continued)"
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372:
1063:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
1028:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
888:Edelman, G.M. and Tononi, G. (2001).
909:Jablonka, E., and Lamb, M.J. (1995).
596:Edelman 1987; Edelman and Tononi 2001
7:
1024:Depew, D.J. and Weber, B.H. (1995).
923:Levins, R. and Lewontin, R. (1985).
868:. New York: Oxford University Press.
141:Developmental systems theory: Topics
1059:Thelen, E. and Smith, L.B. (1994).
929:. London: Harvard University Press.
1035:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
920:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
913:. London: Oxford University Press.
875:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
357:which describe a related approach.
287:Evolutionary developmental biology
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897:How the Leopard Changed its Spots
495:Oyama, Griffiths & Gray 2001
478:Oyama, Griffiths & Gray 2001
457:Oyama, Griffiths & Gray 2001
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422:Oyama, Griffiths & Gray 2001
395:Oyama, Griffiths & Gray 2001
383:Oyama, Griffiths & Gray 2001
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302:Relational developmental systems
67:as the principal explanation of
108:as a whole operates, including
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659:"Consciousness and Evolution"
617:Applied Developmental Science
605:Gilbert Gottlieb, 1971, 2007.
182:Harvard computer architecture
61:modern evolutionary synthesis
940:. Harvard University Press.
629:10.1080/10888691.2013.778717
253:gene-environment interaction
20:Developmental systems theory
1054:Quarterly Review of Biology
850:. New York : Macmillan
493:Neumann-Held 1999; Moss in
340:Developmental psychobiology
322:Evolutionary biology portal
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1077:presentation, winter 2006.
1014:. London: Allen and Unwin.
206:framework that justifies â
63:on the roles of genes and
1012:The Strategy of the Genes
1010:Waddington, C.H. (1957).
926:The Dialectical Biologist
847:Development and Evolution
844:Baldwin, J. Mark (1902).
801:Baldwin, J. Mark (1896).
711:Baldwin, J. Mark (1896).
506:Levins and Lewontin 1985.
346:The Dialectical Biologist
885:. New York: Basic Books.
683:10.1126/science.2.34.219
297:Probabilistic epigenesis
916:Kauffman, S.A. (1993).
807:The American Naturalist
758:The American Naturalist
717:The American Naturalist
446:Jablonka and Lamb 1995.
335:Complex adaptive system
895:Goodwin, B.C. (1995).
881:Edelman, G.M. (1987).
873:The Extended Phenotype
28:biological development
1049:. London: Hutchinson.
192:Fundamental asymmetry
120:â normally allow for.
1101:Evolutionary biology
934:Lewontin, Richard C.
871:Dawkins, R. (1982).
864:Dawkins, R. (1976).
176:A computing metaphor
85:biological processes
1047:Beyond Reductionism
675:1895Sci.....2..219B
467:Dawkins 1976, 1982.
424:, pp. 179â184.
42:, environment, and
1091:Biological systems
1033:Steps Towards Life
1031:Eigen, M. (1992).
990:Gottfredson, Linda
964:Griffiths, Paul E.
892:. London: Penguin.
657:(23 August 1895).
437:, pp. 177â184
1073:William Bechtel,
1003:978-1-4338-0392-5
349:- a 1985 book by
249:Linda Gottfredson
146:Six Themes of DST
69:living structures
65:natural selection
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866:The Selfish Gene
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