Roman dictator - Knowledge (XXG)

1265:, first to hold the elections—in which he was returned as consul for the following year—and on multiple occasions between October 48 BC and his death in 44. It is unclear which of Caesar's acts were undertaken under his overlapping dictatorial, proconsular, consular, or private authority. Unlike the consulship, which was limited by hundreds of years of precedent, the dictatorship, by virtue of its "separat from its foundations by 120 years of disuse", as well as Sulla's example, offered Caesar a position that gave him vast, ill-defined, and largely unconstrained powers. His dictatorship built on that of Sulla's as well: he changed the number of magistracies and reformed the state, but Caesar's dictatorship was administrative rather than one given up at the completion of a task. To that end, shortly before his death Caesar had himself appointed 1282: 38: 1202:. "Sulla never aimed at permanent tyranny"; wishing his settlement to succeed, and conceiving of it in quasi-republican terms, he resigned the dictatorship in place of ordinary magistrates. Sulla's reforms and proscriptions did stabilize a republic—albeit on radically reformed grounds with Sulla as a "law-giver" who gave Rome "a new constitution that would put an end to political and social strife"—and restore somewhat free elections for the next few decades, at an enormous cost. But the precedent that he set by twice marching on Rome with his armies would prove an equally destabilizing influence. 783:'s united armies. While Rome was not a formal member of the League, it did require the Latins to serve in Rome's wars under a Roman commander, which could have been a dictator appointed for the occasion. One argument of this is the siege of Veii: for nine years of siege, Rome did not resort to a dictator, until the last year when Etruscan intervention compelled Rome to call in its Latin allies. Moreover, it is plausible that the dictatorship was borrowed from other Latin municipalities that had a 906:, for quelling sedition and for war). However, by the middle Republic the historical record clearly shows that dictators were appointed more as temporary extraordinary magistrates to do some very specifically defined action before resigning, acting as proxies or substitutes for the ordinary magistrates of that year; the historicity of the dictators appointed in the early period to quell sedition—who usually took the side of the protestors—is also debated. 1119: 1061:. In this role, the dictators always took the side of the plebs, implying that the later tradition of the dictatorship as a tool of patrician tyranny is a post-Sullan anachronism. Their efforts may have been decisive in that legislation passed in the Assemblies called by dictators did not need the approval of the Senate, serving to break impasses between an obstinate patrician-heavy Senate and popular demands. 755:, although Livy thought this improbable, as he had not previously been consul and, had a Valerius been desired, Manius' father, Marcus, who was consul in 505 BC, could have been chosen instead. However, few modern scholars put much faith in these traditional accounts: by the time Roman history started being written down, the dictatorship as a military commander had already lapsed out of living memory. 74: 791: 1232:

ineffective path to the mastery of Rome" with the dictatorship as an "obvious tool for republican regime change" informed by Sulla's proscriptions and reforms. The phraseology of how Crassus would supposedly have been elevated to the dictatorship also suggests it was seen as an available instrument for ambitious factional leaders to force through self-serving change.

1373: 2083:, p. 89. If a consul were trapped, there would be only one consul able to move about, necessitating a dictator; if the consuls are both occupied at war, a dictator might be appointed to hold elections; if one of the consuls were killed, a dictator might be appointed as substitute before a successor could be elected. 1239:

in 52 BC also is reported to have been initially intended as a dictatorship; it was, however, aborted by his election as sole consul (without colleague) to restore order. Scholars disagree as to the reasons why Pompey was made sole consul: ancient sources (Appian, Dio, and Plutarch) all believed

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could not then take up a military command against the wishes of the Senate. Dictators could carry out functions which fell outside the scope of their initial appointments, but only at the direction of the Senate; this included the drawing of funds from the public treasury, which a dictator could only

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The Roman view stresses that the dictatorship is said to have existed from the earliest years of the Republic, created as "an integral part of the republican constitution". And while other Latin cities had dictatorships, they emerged from their abolished monarchies as ordinary magistrates rather than

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The religious purpose of the dictatorship in undertaking rituals to appease the gods in cases of pestilence or other disasters also was replaced. Dictators appointed to appease the gods was highly reactive but, over time, the accumulation of precedent formalised a spiritual process. Instead of an ad

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At the same time, the new promagistrates also meant the consuls could spend more time in Rome, meaning it became less necessary to appoint dictators to conduct elections. During the various wars of the 140s BC, the ability to have more commanders under praetorian or proconsular leadership meant

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The Romans were not consistent in classifying specific threats and then appointing a dictator if they met some criteria. Rather, they judged the matter subjectively such that a dictator in military matters would only be appointed if there were converging threats from multiple enemies, all-consuming

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The dictatorship seems to have been conceived as a way to bypass normal Roman politics and create a short-term magistrate with special powers, serving to defend the Republic in war, or otherwise to cow internal civil unrest, especially if such unrest imperilled the conduct of war. There are broadly

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this occurred to deny him a dictatorship; "recent scholarship has emphasised Pompey’s consulship rather as a means of resolving a political impasse". If this were an abortive dictatorship, it would have been "a final echo of the archaic dictators" with the sole goal of restoring order to the city.

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In theory, the magister equitum was commander of the cavalry, but he was not limited to that role. The dictator and magister equitum did not always take the field together; in some instances the magister equitum was assigned the defense of the city while the dictator took an army into the field,

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The magister equitum was also a curule magistrate, with powers to summon the Senate and perhaps also powers to summon the Assembly; however, he had only six lictors, symbolizing his subordination to the dictator, and his expectation of quickly vacating office. The magister equitum was necessarily

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starting in 264 BC, when Rome established hegemony over Italy, dictators were overwhelmingly appointed to conduct military campaigns and also appointed regularly. However, these dictators were not given the best commands—they rarely won triumphs: only five of some 75 triumphs between 363 and

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of the other magistrates was not vacated by the nomination of a dictator. They continued to perform the duties of their office, although subject to the dictator's authority, and continued in office until the expiration of their year, by which time the dictator had typically resigned. Dictatorial

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Consular nomination occurred in a nocturnal ritual, usually preceded by advice from the Senate asking for a specific person to be appointed, but this was not strictly necessary. A vote of the people could be held, but this was unusual, perhaps except in cases with a non-consular nominator. In the

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The dictator was the only important official in the Roman state that was appointed. The power to appoint a dictator vested in the consuls, one of whom could nominate a man to serve in the office; he did not need to consult his colleague, and no other magistrates had such authority. A dictator,

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The reasons for which someone might be appointed dictator were varied. The purpose of the dictatorship was to return Rome to the status quo before some threat emerged. The dictatorship existed "to eliminate whatever had arisen that was out of bounds and then eliminate themselves so that normal

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264 BC—suggesting that they functioned as substitutes for the ordinary magistrates. The middle Republic also shows significant use of the dictatorship to hold elections in place of consuls: this occurred twelve times during the First Punic War and eight times during the following Second.

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as magister equitum. Suetonius' version of events may be anachronistic, with Crassus and Caesar's involvement being an embellishment. Regardless, the suggestion of a dictatorship "belongs, perhaps to a late-republican school of thought that saw the antiquated office of the consulship as an

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The new dictatorships of Sulla and Caesar differed greatly from the traditional dictatorship. The long period of abeyance in which the dictatorship had lain meant that men like Sulla and Caesar were no longer bound by the chains of centuries of tradition requiring any man appointed to the

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Dictatorial powers likely extended beyond the term of the nominating magistrate, and most dictators are recorded to have given up their powers as quickly as possible. Customary law may have required dictators to give up their powers immediately after completion of their assigned task.

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ongoing wars, or extinction-level threats to the city which could be handled by a man "whose empowerment with the dictatorship offered more assurance of success than the incumbent magistrates". Alternatively, dictators might be appointed if another consul-like magistrate was needed.

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Normally there was only one dictator at a time, although a new dictator could be appointed following the resignation of another. A dictator could be compelled to resign his office without accomplishing his task or serving out his term if there were found to be a fault in the

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Some sources, both ancient and modern in summaries of the office, assert that the dictator was limited to a term for six months, but this is contradicted by recorded practice and Livy has a dictator object to a six-month limitation explicitly as objectionably unorthodox.

1190:, he completed this task on 1 January 79 BC and resigned to take up an ordinary consulship. This dictatorship aligned with one aspect of the archaic dictatorship—restoring stability—as the state was, in fact, in a shambles after the domination and proscriptions of 1072:

and usually lasted several years, making the short term of the dictatorship unsuitable. Moreover, the fact that these conflicts occurred far from Rome radically limited the possibility of panicked tumult that could result in a dictatorial appointment. The rise of

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as an extraordinary magistrate only appointed in time of crisis. Others have argued that the dictatorship existed as a means to slip through the inefficiency of a new collegiate magistracy, arguing that the Romans would not have made it – with regal powers – an

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also meant that the Romans had, by jettisoning the annual term, more generals in the field than they had in the past. These promagistrates resembled archaic dictators as well, being exempt from normal consular responsibilities while being assigned a limited

2570:, p. 133. "As has been persuasively argued, Sulla conceived of his dictatorship in quasi-republican terms, as a special office undertaken to perform a specific task, namely, the establishment of a constitutional (republican) form of government". 989:, and to a considerable degree depended on the dictator's ability to work together with other magistrates. The precise limitations of this power were not sharply defined, but subject to debate, contention, and speculation throughout Roman history. 660:

to veto his actions or of the people to appeal them were retained. The extent of a dictator's mandate strictly controlled the ends to which his powers could be directed. Dictators were also liable to prosecution after their terms completed.

1342:, or "master of the horse". The first act of a dictator was to choose this lieutenant, usually at his own discretion. It was customary for the dictator to nominate a magister equitum, even if he were appointed for a non-military reason. 972:

was superior to that of the consuls or that he was endowed with the power of both consuls. As the kings had been accustomed to appear on horseback, this right was forbidden to the dictator unless he first received permission from the

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seems that the dictator's supreme power did not necessarily extend into the city... that the power of a dictator did not override that of the tribunes—a point attested also by the tradition about appeals against the dictator

1269:, i.e., in a dictatorship that continued each year without the need to seek the senate's approval or appointment by one of the consuls. This new and transformed dictatorship, endowed with a kingly power, ended with 1020:

Most authorities hold that a dictator could not be held to account for his actions after resigning his office. However, there are cases where this is asserted in the literary sources and the surviving text of the

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After Caesar's death, it became unlawful to propose, vote for, or accept any dictatorship. Any person who became dictator also could be summarily executed. Essentially, the title was cursed and excised from the

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to accept the dictatorship, and Augustus refused, knowing that the title would bring only hatred, and that his own informal authority, "encumbered by neither ancient nor recent precedent", would be sufficient.

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power also did not override that of the tribunes. While some sources assert there was no appeal to the tribunes from a dictator's actions, other sources document the extent of a dictator's powers within the

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part of their constitution in the immediate aftermath of the monarchy's abolition, confining it therefore to a peripheral and extraordinary role. Other scholars have advanced theories that the consuls came

1094:, dictators were not appointed: in the former, the consul refused to act, precluding a dictatorial nomination, and in the latter, the Senate authorised the consul to use force via the so-called 968:

The Latin theory of the dictatorship's origin has also suggested that the twenty-four lictors emerged from the uniting of "two governments". It may have also simply signalled that a dictator's

1738:, p. 304. Ridley attributes this view to Mommsen; he also adds "The often quoted line that the dictatorship was a 'temporary restoration of monarchy' was not in fact Mommsen's real view". 1025:

implies the dictator and his magister equitum could be prosecuted after their terms ended. Rather, some modern scholars hold the position that unaccountability is a "legalistic illusion".

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The full extent of the dictatorial power was considerable, but not unlimited. It was circumscribed by the conditions of a dictator's appointment, as well as by the evolving traditions of

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serving as a military commander. This view also stresses continuity between the Roman kingdom and the succeeding republic, with the dictatorship as a bridge between the two periods.

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In a notable exception to the Roman reluctance to reconstitute the symbols of the kings, the lictors of the dictator never removed the axes from their fasces, even within the

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endowed with full authority to resolve some specific problem to which he had been assigned. He received the full powers of the state, subordinating the other magistrates,

624: 2486:, p. 290-91. "Valerius likely oversaw not an election per se... but the passage of a law naming Sulla dictator, following the manner established for Fabius Maximus". 2378:, p. 269. "It is not a coincidence that the first years of extensive use of the proconsulship overlapped with the last years of reliance on the dictatorship". 996:, the dictator's authority was nearly absolute. However, as a rule he could not exceed the mandate for which he was appointed; a dictator nominated to hold the 3219: 3761: 3803: 3791: 823:

most attested dictators were ex-consuls; it does not appear, however, that this emerged from any kind of legislation, as implied in Livy, to that effect.

3850: 2658:, p. 305, describing the dictatorship as "a sword lying ready for any with the stature and ambition to take it up of the dictator and his faction". 1530:

was nominated in 352 BC in order to carry on a war but was actually appointed to procure the election of two patrician consuls, in violation of the

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The need for the dictatorship—especially as an instrument of pseudo-royal power—was clearly already gone: in 22 BC, a senatorial delegation begged

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dictatorship—traditionally a man trusted by all Romans—to act for all Romans, resolve the issue to which he was appointed, and then immediately resign.

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while on other occasions the dictator remained at Rome to see to some important duty, and entrusted the magister equitum with an army in the field.

5138: 3776: 1591:, reverting it to the condition of normality in which it existed before the need or crisis arose that required resolution" (emphasis in original). 1164: 668:(218–201 BC), but the magistracy then went into abeyance for over a century. It was later revived in a significantly modified form, first by 656:

A dictator was still controlled and accountable during his term in office: the Senate still exercised some oversight authority and the rights of

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it was possible to keep at least one consul in Rome while the other fought abroad. Even when the Senate wanted to act against men such as

948:. The dictator, however, was accompanied by twenty-four lictors rather than the normal twelve lictors of the consul. However, within the 3724: 1210:

After Sulla's dictatorship, there are a few cases where a dictatorship was supposedly considered as a means of effecting regime change.

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The Latin view argues that the dictatorship emerged from the need to rotate command between Latin states in the role of commanding the

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It is not certain who the first dictator was or in what year he was appointed. Livy gives two versions: in one, the first dictator was

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just before his death. This later dictatorship was used to effect wide-ranging and semi-permanent changes across Roman society. After

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included, for the specific purpose of resolving that issue, and that issue only, and then dispensing with those powers immediately.

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had a knack of winning elections when held by dictators, which may explain why this limited dictatorship also fell into abeyance.

2243:, and by the threat of a tribune to veto an election held by a dictator". On the threatened veto of elections, see Livy 27.6.2–11. 1517:. He proceeded to levy troops, but was compelled to resign before he could take the field, and was prosecuted the following year. 5174: 5078: 3751: 3400: 3327: 2235: 199: 3344: 3277: 2897: 2885: 2329: 2327: 1183: 1144: 706: 192: 4098: 4023: 3781: 1294: 1286: 685: 1467:

There is indication that the consuls could appoint anyone they wished. For example, after being defeated in a naval battle,

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Badian, Ernst (2012). "Cornelius, Sulla Felix, Lucius". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.).

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however, could be created by comitial legislation at the proposal of other magistrates, as Sulla and Caesar later were.

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In domestic affairs, the dictators were at times—according to tradition—appointed to resolve issue between the

64: 5184: 5179: 5164: 5123: 5103: 5043: 5033: 5023: 4429: 4118: 4018: 3998: 3913: 3903: 3608: 3548: 3240: 1359: 1224: 961:, symbolising their power over life and death and setting the dictator apart from the ordinary magistrates. 871:, to create a dictator for an important religious rite involving the driving of a nail into the wall of the 752: 741: 498: 5128: 5118: 5068: 5048: 4862: 4837: 4802: 4684: 4409: 4056: 3818: 3349: 2231: 1472: 1191: 1154: 1123: 1058: 5098: 5028: 4852: 4604: 4404: 4399: 4196: 4103: 4028: 3991: 3976: 3951: 3931: 3833: 1262: 1249: 5108: 5073: 4762: 4752: 4629: 4529: 4454: 4319: 4282: 3658: 3322: 1150: 1140: 1065: 657: 140: 1526:

A dictator could also be appointed for a reason other than the one publicly announced; for example,

5038: 4887: 4689: 4559: 4509: 3828: 3425: 1485: 1378: 1017:, appeals against dictatorial action, and threats by tribunes to veto elections held by dictators. 275: 1157:

had the dictatorship revived. In 82 BC the consuls were absent from the city, he induced the

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the lictors of other magistrates could not bear fasces at all when appearing before the dictator.

5088: 4812: 4619: 4474: 4414: 4334: 4277: 4141: 3377: 3356: 3036: 2732: 2724: 1532: 1493: 1159: 533: 172: 4727: 1394: – Form of government in which emergency dictatorial powers are limited by the constitution 1171:, to pass a law directly appointing Sulla as dictator to write laws and reconstitute the state ( 2859: 2857: 842:, spheres of command assigned to a magistrate which bound their freedom of action. The various 4722: 4574: 4329: 4289: 4267: 3475: 3141: 3131: 3104: 3100: 3075: 3065: 3061: 3028: 3003: 2993: 2972: 2953: 2943: 2924: 2914: 2716: 2526: 2516: 1947: 1945: 1314:. Antony's supporters lionised him for having rid the Republic of this instrument of tyranny. 1253: 1118: 1105: 1087: 679: 452: 445: 248: 51: 4787: 4747: 4679: 4614: 4539: 4534: 4306: 4229: 4176: 3971: 3966: 3855: 3714: 3663: 3623: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3573: 3495: 3442: 3435: 3420: 3415: 3339: 3267: 3096: 3057: 2708: 1489: 1346:

subordinate to the dictator, although this did not always prevent the two from disagreeing.

1333: 895: 728: 665: 642: 574: 568: 561: 547: 376: 355: 300: 285: 280: 265: 149: 928:—bringing that matter before the Assembly himself—in a manner akin to that of the consuls. 4882: 4694: 4674: 4634: 4569: 4519: 4514: 4389: 4339: 4247: 4081: 4061: 3981: 3430: 3255: 1038: 924: 290: 664:

Dictators were frequently appointed from the earliest period of the Republic down to the

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Literally, of the "people", referring to the common soldiers, as opposed to the cavalry.

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were elected. Dictators, however, were appointed by the sole discretion of one consul".

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was nominated dictator in order to fill up the ranks of the Senate following the

4742: 4364: 4186: 4076: 3470: 3192:. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Cary, Earnest. Harvard University Press. 2712: 1311: 1306: 1179:); he was also given immunity for all actions (including those past and future) 885: 431: 73: 17: 918:

under which he had been nominated. After nomination, a dictator would have his

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hoc approach, the Senate would advise—in moments of need—consultation of the

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was told to nominate a dictator; he nominated a lowborn subordinate of his,

1054: 986: 584: 554: 420: 402: 365: 3125: 2928: 2309:, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" paragraphs 3, 4. 2937: 816:, the people may have created him dictator directly by legislation. After 4957: 4942: 4932: 4917: 4832: 4822: 4792: 4782: 4777: 4767: 4669: 4584: 4464: 4449: 4379: 4359: 4349: 4344: 4324: 4123: 3704: 3668: 3558: 3485: 3317: 2987: 1497: 1397: 1318: 1012: 950: 519: 409: 320: 231: 129: 3040: 3016: 2728: 2696: 1545:

Specifically, Pompey was made sole consul by means of election from the

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in 501 BC. His other version states that the first dictator was

540: 330: 2515:(4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 384, 385. 732:, "master of the horse". The dictator may have also been called the 3052:. In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). 4772: 4494: 4221: 3513: 2336:, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" para 5. 2297:, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" para 2. 1978:, "Role and Significance in the Early and Middle Republic" para 3. 1280: 1117: 894:

in one extraordinary case, for appointment of senators, after the

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two views on the dictatorship's origin: that it descends from the

669: 853:, "for the conduct of the matter", used for military emergencies, 4982: 4549: 4489: 4071: 3447: 3162: 936:

Like other curule magistrates, the dictator was entitled to the

30:"Dictatores" redirects here. For the medieval rhetoricians, see 3201: 2939:

Commanders & command in the Roman republic and early empire

3543: 3056:(4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 448. 736:, as mentioned by Livy, referring to an old law requiring the 491: 438: 3017:"The origin of the Roman dictatorship: an overlooked opinion" 1442:

was elected by, and from among, the patrician senators; the

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in 44, the office was formally abolished and never revived.

2904:. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association. 2892:. Vol. 1. New York: American Philological Association. 2037: 2035: 1986: 1984: 1939:, "Key Features as a Magistracy of the People" paragraph 2. 3166: 2844: 2842: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2118: 2116: 2114: 1304:. Curiously, the person who did this was not one of the 1108:

and direct implementation of the Books' recommendations.

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A dictator could be nominated for different reasons, or

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The Roman dictatorship: its character and its evolution

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in 363 BC, but wished to lead an army against the

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For instance, Lucius Manlius Capitolinus was appointed

2546:, "The Dictatorship of L. Cornelius Sulla, 82–79 BCE". 2149:, "Key Features as a Magistracy of the People" para 1. 1966:, "Key Features as a Magistracy of the People" para 2. 1289:

in 44 BC, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (mid 19th century).

863:, or elections, when the consuls were unable to do so; 1400: – Political leader who possesses absolute power 2158: 697:

operation of the ordinary government" could resume.

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on the obverse. The legend mentions that Caesar was

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of Publius Sepullius Macer, 44 BC, with the head of

5006: 4900: 4713: 4305: 4298: 4220: 4132: 4037: 3912: 3864: 3742: 3692: 3631: 3622: 3504: 3456: 3376: 3293: 3254: 2942:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 2697:"How and why was Pompey made sole consul in 52 BC?" 726:, "master of the infantry". His lieutenant was the 1484:The chief exception occurred in 216 BC, when 1310:but rather, Caesar's own former magister equitum, 3127:Dictator: the evolution of the Roman dictatorship 1177:legibus scribundis et rei publicae constituendae 2506: 2504: 763:, or that it was a uniquely Roman institution. 740:to put a nail into the wall of a temple on the 1589:A dictator's purpose was to move Rome backward 27:Extraordinary magistrate of the Roman Republic 3213: 618: 8: 3174:. Translated by Roberts, Canon – via 3130:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 3048:Sherwin-White, AN; Lintott, Andrew (2012). 1126:. Sulla was dictator from 82 to 79 BC. 1010: 677: 49: 4302: 3628: 3260: 3220: 3206: 3198: 2350:(PhD). University of California, Berkeley. 625: 611: 59: 2971:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2701:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 2495: 2459: 2253: 2215: 2191: 2093: 2041: 2026: 2014: 2002: 1990: 1852: 1825: 1261:also revived the dictatorship during the 904:seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa 3087:Vervaet, Frederik Juliaan (2015-12-22). 1572: 1068:, all major wars were then conducted by 36: 3101:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2151 3062:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2151 2863: 2543: 2423: 2333: 2318: 2306: 2294: 2227: 2179: 2146: 2122: 2056: 1975: 1963: 1951: 1936: 1924: 1912: 1891:, "Procedures and Powers", paragraph 1. 1888: 1864: 1786: 1723: 1655: 1647: 1635: 1612: 1565: 1409: 902:These reasons could be combined (e.g., 891:for investigating certain actions; and, 467: 419: 354: 299: 264: 220: 171: 84: 62: 2989:The constitution of the Roman Republic 2913:. London: Cambridge University Press. 2848: 2833: 2821: 2809: 2797: 2785: 2773: 2761: 2749: 2682: 2667: 2655: 2643: 2627: 2615: 2603: 2591: 2579: 2567: 2555: 2483: 2471: 2447: 2435: 2411: 2399: 2387: 2375: 2363: 2282: 2270: 2134: 2105: 2080: 2068: 1900: 1876: 1840: 1813: 1801: 1774: 1759: 1747: 1735: 1711: 1694: 1670: 1600: 1584: 1475:, who resigned in the ensuing outrage. 963:In an extraordinary sign of deference, 676:between 49 and 44 BC, who became 672:between 82 and 79 BC and then by 2902:The magistrates of the Roman republic 2890:The magistrates of the Roman republic 881:for establishing a religious holiday; 875:, as a protection against pestilence; 798:. Fabius was dictator in 217 BC. 776:the dictatorship rather than before. 7: 2230:, p. 111. "The quarrel between 1429:, sometimes translated as "knights". 1001:do with the Senate's authorisation. 711:The abolition of the Roman monarchy 2285:, pp. 248 et seq, 252–53, 256. 1064:After the Second Punic War and the 2256:, p. 118 (noting prosecution 1496:held the military command against 1387:Constitution of the Roman Republic 1338:The dictator's lieutenant was the 25: 3021:Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 2866:, "Procedures and Powers" para 4. 1954:, "Procedures and Powers" para 3. 1915:, "Procedures and Powers" para 2. 1867:, "Procedures and Powers" para 1. 873:Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus 814:Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus 796:Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus 2898:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon 2886:Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon 2203: 2159:Sherwin-White & Lintott 2012 1682: 1651: 1371: 888:, an ancient religious festival; 72: 3054:The Oxford classical dictionary 2513:The Oxford classical dictionary 1184:significant changes to the laws 1145:Constitutional reforms of Sulla 707:Overthrow of the Roman monarchy 1446:was originally elected by the 1295:Assassination of Julius Caesar 1287:Assassination of Julius Caesar 954:he may have displayed twelve. 1: 1217: 1215:First Catilinarian conspiracy 817: 712: 3792:Frontiers and fortifications 2909:Crawford, Michael H (1974). 2630:, p. 304. Citing Suet. 2346:Hartfield, Marianne (1982). 1213:One version of the supposed 1122:Head presumed to be that of 1112:Late republican dictatorship 3851:Decorations and punishments 3093:Oxford Classical Dictionary 2992:. Oxford University Press. 2713:10.25162/historia-2016-0017 2236:Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus 1392:Constitutional dictatorship 857:comitiorum habendorum causa 5201: 4758:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3333:historiography of the fall 3184:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2462:, pp. 66, 74, 79, 82. 2258:Lucius Manlius Capitolinus 1650:, pp. 27–28. (citing 1357: 1331: 1292: 1247: 1138: 704: 29: 5139:External wars and battles 3263: 3236: 3015:Ridley, Ronald T (1979). 1097:senatus consultum ultimum 1033:Decline and disappearance 878:for quelling of sedition; 461:Senatus consultum ultimum 356:Extraordinary magistrates 2986:Lintott, Andrew (1999). 2965:Flower, Harriet (2010). 2911:Roman republican coinage 2234:and his master of horse 1469:Publius Claudius Pulcher 1235:The later consulship of 1206:Between Sulla and Caesar 692:Traditional dictatorship 65:Politics of ancient Rome 5175:Ancient Roman dictators 5134:Roman–Iranian relations 3609:Optimates and populares 2695:Ramsey, John T (2016). 1492:, even as the dictator 1360:List of Roman dictators 1354:List of Roman dictators 1302:republican constitution 1225:Marcus Licinius Crassus 1165:Lucius Valerius Flaccus 753:Manius Valerius Maximus 5144:Civil wars and revolts 4410:Sextus Pompeius Festus 4057:Conflict of the Orders 3416:Legislative assemblies 2936:Drogula, Fred (2015). 1587:, pp. 333, 334. " 1473:Marcus Claudius Glicia 1290: 1271:Caesar's assassination 1192:Lucius Cornelius Cinna 1176: 1155:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1135:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1127: 1124:Lucius Cornelius Sulla 1059:Conflict of the Orders 1011: 992:In the pursuit of his 981:Powers and limitations 799: 686:Caesar's assassination 678: 222:Political institutions 57: 50: 4853:Simplicius of Cilicia 4605:Quintus Curtius Rufus 3834:Siege in Ancient Rome 3443:Executive magistrates 3124:Wilson, Mark (2021). 1284: 1200:Gnaeus Papirius Carbo 1121: 1057:during the so-called 793: 641:was an extraordinary 40: 5170:Ancient Roman titles 4863:Stephanus Byzantinus 4768:Eusebius of Caesaria 4630:Sidonius Apollinaris 4320:Ammianus Marcellinus 3659:Tribune of the plebs 2670:, pp. 307, 308. 1816:, pp. 307, 308. 1750:, pp. 304, 305. 1066:Third Macedonian War 301:Ordinary magistrates 5039:Distinguished women 4690:Velleius Paterculus 4530:Nicolaus Damascenus 4510:Marcellus Empiricus 3899:Republican currency 2618:, p. 303 n. 1. 2474:, pp. 334–336. 2450:, p. 286, 287. 1511:clavi figendi causa 1486:Marcus Fabius Buteo 1379:Ancient Rome portal 868:clavi figendi causa 4813:Phlegon of Tralles 4620:Seneca the Younger 4094:Naming conventions 3824:Personal equipment 3357:Later Roman Empire 2812:, pp. 328–29. 2558:, p. 291–293. 2426:, pp. 112–13. 2232:L. Papirius Cursor 1726:, pp. 109–10. 1654:, 7.3.5; see also 1533:lex Licinia Sextia 1528:Gaius Julius Iulus 1494:Marcus Junius Pera 1425:Literally, of the 1291: 1250:Caesar's civil war 1160:comitia centuriata 1128: 859:, for holding the 851:rei gerundae causa 800: 716: 509 BC 534:Triumvir monetalis 468:Titles and honours 58: 5152: 5151: 5114:Pontifices maximi 4896: 4895: 4753:Diogenes Laërtius 4575:Pliny the Younger 4330:Asconius Pedianus 4290:Romance languages 4162:Civil engineering 3904:Imperial currency 3777:Political control 3738: 3737: 3372: 3371: 3189:Roman Antiquities 3137:978-0-472-12920-1 3110:978-0-19-938113-5 3071:978-0-19-954556-8 2978:978-0-691-14043-8 2949:978-1-4696-2314-6 2522:978-0-19-954556-8 1927:, p. 110-11. 1789:, pp. 29–30. 1285:Depiction of the 1267:dictator perpetuo 1254:Dictator perpetuo 1221: 65 BC 1151:Sulla's civil war 1141:Sulla's civil war 1088:Tiberius Gracchus 1023:lex repetundarium 742:ides of September 680:dictator perpetuo 658:plebeian tribunes 635: 634: 453:Quaestio perpetua 446:Senatus consultum 249:Roman citizenship 52:dictator perpetuo 16:(Redirected from 5192: 5104:Magistri equitum 5019:Cities and towns 5012: 4938:Constantinopolis 4748:Diodorus Siculus 4680:Valerius Maximus 4615:Seneca the Elder 4535:Nonius Marcellus 4303: 3856:Hippika gymnasia 3819:Infantry tactics 3725:Consular tribune 3715:Magister equitum 3664:Military tribune 3629: 3589:Pontifex maximus 3584:Princeps senatus 3574:Magister militum 3340:Byzantine Empire 3261: 3222: 3215: 3208: 3199: 3193: 3179: 3173: 3155:Ancient sources 3149: 3120: 3118: 3117: 3083: 3044: 3027:(3/4): 303–309. 3011: 2982: 2961: 2932: 2905: 2893: 2867: 2861: 2852: 2846: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2740: 2692: 2686: 2680: 2671: 2665: 2659: 2653: 2647: 2641: 2635: 2625: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2606:, p. 301-2. 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2571: 2565: 2559: 2553: 2547: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2508: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2481: 2475: 2469: 2463: 2457: 2451: 2445: 2439: 2433: 2427: 2421: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2385: 2379: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2352: 2351: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2322: 2316: 2310: 2304: 2298: 2292: 2286: 2280: 2274: 2267: 2261: 2260:in 362 BC). 2250: 2244: 2225: 2219: 2213: 2207: 2201: 2195: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2144: 2138: 2132: 2126: 2120: 2109: 2103: 2097: 2090: 2084: 2078: 2072: 2066: 2060: 2054: 2045: 2039: 2030: 2024: 2018: 2012: 2006: 2000: 1994: 1988: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1961: 1955: 1949: 1940: 1934: 1928: 1922: 1916: 1910: 1904: 1898: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1844: 1838: 1829: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1790: 1784: 1778: 1772: 1763: 1757: 1751: 1745: 1739: 1733: 1727: 1721: 1715: 1709: 1698: 1692: 1686: 1680: 1674: 1668: 1659: 1645: 1639: 1633: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1598: 1592: 1582: 1576: 1570: 1550: 1543: 1537: 1524: 1518: 1507: 1501: 1490:Battle of Cannae 1482: 1476: 1465: 1459: 1444:princeps senatus 1436: 1430: 1423: 1417: 1414: 1381: 1376: 1375: 1374: 1340:magister equitum 1334:Magister equitum 1327:Magister equitum 1222: 1219: 1044:Magistri equitum 1016: 964: 896:Battle of Cannae 884:for holding the 822: 819: 729:magister equitum 717: 714: 683: 666:Second Punic War 627: 620: 613: 569:Pontifex maximus 562:Princeps senatus 548:Magister militum 383:Consular tribune 377:Magister equitum 205:Augustan reforms 76: 60: 55: 21: 18:Dictator (Roman) 5200: 5199: 5195: 5194: 5193: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5155: 5154: 5153: 5148: 5010: 5008: 5002: 4892: 4728:Aëtius of Amida 4709: 4695:Verrius Flaccus 4675:Valerius Antias 4635:Silius Italicus 4570:Pliny the Elder 4515:Marcus Aurelius 4390:Cornelius Nepos 4340:Aurelius Victor 4294: 4216: 4128: 4062:Secessio plebis 4033: 3908: 3860: 3734: 3688: 3618: 3500: 3452: 3368: 3289: 3250: 3232: 3226: 3196: 3182: 3169:History of Rome 3161: 3152: 3138: 3123: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3086: 3072: 3047: 3014: 3000: 2985: 2979: 2968:Roman republics 2964: 2950: 2935: 2921: 2908: 2896: 2884: 2875: 2870: 2862: 2855: 2847: 2840: 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1722: 1718: 1710: 1701: 1693: 1689: 1681: 1677: 1669: 1662: 1646: 1642: 1634: 1619: 1611: 1607: 1599: 1595: 1583: 1579: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1553: 1544: 1540: 1525: 1521: 1508: 1504: 1483: 1479: 1466: 1462: 1437: 1433: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1377: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1362: 1356: 1336: 1330: 1297: 1279: 1256: 1246: 1220: 1208: 1147: 1137: 1114: 1106:Sibylline Books 1039:First Punic War 1035: 983: 962: 934: 925:comitia curiata 820: 805: 738:praetor maximus 734:praetor maximus 724:magister populi 715: 709: 703: 694: 631: 602: 598:Other countries 589: 458: 415: 350: 295: 260: 216: 193:Sullan republic 158: 154: 145: 136: 132: 125: 115: 106: 97: 67: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5198: 5196: 5188: 5187: 5185:Cursus honorum 5182: 5180:Emergency laws 5177: 5172: 5167: 5165:Roman Republic 5157: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5015: 5013: 5004: 5003: 5001: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4985: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4904: 4902: 4898: 4897: 4894: 4893: 4891: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4719: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4708: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4580:Pomponius Mela 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4442: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4327: 4322: 4317: 4315:Aelius Donatus 4311: 4309: 4300: 4296: 4295: 4293: 4292: 4287: 4286: 4285: 4283:Ecclesiastical 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4237: 4232: 4226: 4224: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4138: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4127: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4085: 4084: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4043: 4041: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4031: 4026: 4024:Toys and games 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3995: 3994: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3929: 3924: 3918: 3916: 3910: 3909: 3907: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3870: 3868: 3862: 3861: 3859: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3837: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3806: 3801: 3800: 3799: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3754: 3748: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3736: 3735: 3733: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3696: 3694: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3635: 3633: 3626: 3620: 3619: 3617: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3586: 3581: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3564:Vigintisexviri 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3524:Cursus honorum 3521: 3516: 3510: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3499: 3498: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3462: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3451: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3439: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3423: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3398: 3393: 3388: 3382: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3370: 3369: 3367: 3366: 3365: 3364: 3354: 3353: 3352: 3347: 3337: 3336: 3335: 3330: 3323:Western Empire 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3299: 3297: 3291: 3290: 3288: 3287: 3282: 3281: 3280: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3243: 3237: 3234: 3233: 3227: 3225: 3224: 3217: 3210: 3202: 3195: 3194: 3180: 3158: 3151: 3150: 3136: 3121: 3109: 3084: 3070: 3045: 3012: 2998: 2983: 2977: 2962: 2948: 2933: 2919: 2906: 2894: 2881: 2878:Modern sources 2874: 2871: 2869: 2868: 2853: 2851:, p. 330. 2838: 2836:, p. 329. 2826: 2824:, p. 331. 2814: 2802: 2800:, p. 328. 2790: 2788:, p. 326. 2778: 2776:, p. 325. 2766: 2764:, p. 315. 2754: 2752:, p. 309. 2742: 2707:(3): 298–324. 2687: 2685:, p. 308. 2672: 2660: 2648: 2646:, p. 305. 2636: 2620: 2608: 2596: 2594:, p. 133. 2584: 2582:, p. 120. 2572: 2560: 2548: 2536: 2521: 2500: 2496:Broughton 1952 2488: 2476: 2464: 2460:Broughton 1952 2452: 2440: 2438:, p. 285. 2428: 2416: 2414:, p. 275. 2404: 2402:, p. 270. 2392: 2390:, p. 269. 2380: 2368: 2366:, p. 268. 2353: 2338: 2323: 2311: 2299: 2287: 2275: 2273:, p. 333. 2262: 2254:Broughton 1951 2245: 2220: 2218:, p. 125. 2216:Broughton 1951 2208: 2196: 2194:, p. 117. 2192:Broughton 1951 2184: 2182:, p. 112. 2163: 2151: 2139: 2137:, p. 158. 2127: 2125:, p. 111. 2110: 2108:, p. 166. 2098: 2096:, p. 145. 2094:Broughton 1951 2085: 2073: 2061: 2046: 2044:, p. 248. 2042:Broughton 1951 2031: 2029:, p. 152. 2027:Broughton 1951 2019: 2017:, p. 150. 2015:Broughton 1951 2007: 2005:, p. 132. 2003:Broughton 1951 1995: 1993:, p. 112. 1991:Broughton 1951 1980: 1968: 1956: 1941: 1929: 1917: 1905: 1903:, p. 132. 1893: 1881: 1879:, p. 131. 1869: 1857: 1855:, p. 215. 1853:Broughton 1951 1845: 1843:, p. 124. 1830: 1828:, p. 243. 1826:Broughton 1951 1818: 1806: 1804:, p. 307. 1791: 1779: 1777:, p. 306. 1764: 1762:, p. 305. 1752: 1740: 1728: 1716: 1714:, p. 304. 1699: 1687: 1675: 1673:, p. 303. 1660: 1640: 1638:, p. 110. 1617: 1615:, p. 109. 1605: 1603:, p. 334. 1593: 1577: 1575:, p. 490. 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1551: 1538: 1519: 1502: 1477: 1460: 1431: 1418: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1401: 1395: 1389: 1383: 1382: 1366: 1363: 1358:Main article: 1355: 1352: 1332:Main article: 1329: 1324: 1278: 1275: 1245: 1242: 1207: 1204: 1136: 1133: 1113: 1110: 1092:Gaius Gracchus 1082:—to complete. 1070:promagistrates 1034: 1031: 982: 979: 939:toga praetexta 933: 930: 900: 899: 892: 889: 882: 879: 876: 864: 854: 804: 801: 702: 699: 693: 690: 647:Roman Republic 639:Roman dictator 633: 632: 630: 629: 622: 615: 607: 604: 603: 601: 600: 594: 591: 590: 588: 587: 582: 577: 572: 565: 558: 551: 544: 537: 530: 527:Vigintisexviri 523: 516: 509: 502: 495: 488: 480: 479: 478: 470: 469: 465: 464: 457: 456: 449: 442: 435: 427: 424: 423: 417: 416: 414: 413: 406: 399: 392: 385: 380: 373: 368: 362: 359: 358: 352: 351: 349: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 307: 304: 303: 297: 296: 294: 293: 288: 283: 278: 272: 269: 268: 262: 261: 259: 258: 255:Cursus honorum 251: 246: 239: 234: 228: 225: 224: 218: 217: 215: 214: 209: 208: 207: 197: 196: 195: 185: 179: 176: 175: 169: 168: 167: 166: 157: 156: 147: 137: 135: 134: 127: 126:27 BC – AD 284 119: 118: 117: 116:27 BC – AD 395 108: 103:Roman Republic 99: 87: 86: 82: 81: 78: 77: 69: 68: 63: 32:Ars dictaminis 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5197: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5005: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4905: 4903: 4899: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4533: 4531: 4528: 4526: 4523: 4521: 4518: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4470:Julius Paulus 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4405:Fabius Pictor 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4343: 4341: 4338: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4321: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4308: 4304: 4301: 4297: 4291: 4288: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4219: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4142:Amphitheatres 4140: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4131: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4083: 4080: 4079: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4036: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3919: 3917: 3915: 3911: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3879:Deforestation 3877: 3875: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3829:Siege engines 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3811: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3798: 3795: 3794: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3762:Establishment 3760: 3758: 3755: 3753: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3741: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3697: 3695: 3693:Extraordinary 3691: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3679:Promagistrate 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3621: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3550: 3547: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3525: 3522: 3520: 3517: 3515: 3512: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3497: 3494: 3492: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3467: 3466:Twelve Tables 3464: 3463: 3461: 3459: 3455: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3418: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3404: 3402: 3399: 3397: 3394: 3392: 3389: 3387: 3384: 3383: 3381: 3379: 3375: 3363: 3360: 3359: 3358: 3355: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3342: 3341: 3338: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3325: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3292: 3286: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3275: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3265: 3262: 3259: 3257: 3253: 3247: 3244: 3242: 3239: 3238: 3235: 3230: 3223: 3218: 3216: 3211: 3209: 3204: 3203: 3200: 3191: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3172: 3170: 3164: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3156: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3133: 3129: 3128: 3122: 3112: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2999:0-19-815068-7 2995: 2991: 2990: 2984: 2980: 2974: 2970: 2969: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2945: 2941: 2940: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2920:0-521-07492-4 2916: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2882: 2880: 2879: 2872: 2865: 2860: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2767: 2763: 2758: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2743: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2691: 2688: 2684: 2679: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2664: 2661: 2657: 2652: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2624: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2564: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2549: 2545: 2540: 2537: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2518: 2514: 2507: 2505: 2501: 2498:, p. 66. 2497: 2492: 2489: 2485: 2480: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2465: 2461: 2456: 2453: 2449: 2444: 2441: 2437: 2432: 2429: 2425: 2420: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2393: 2389: 2384: 2381: 2377: 2372: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2358: 2354: 2349: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2300: 2296: 2291: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2276: 2272: 2266: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2249: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2224: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2188: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2155: 2152: 2148: 2143: 2140: 2136: 2131: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2099: 2095: 2089: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2074: 2071:, p. 70. 2070: 2065: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1996: 1992: 1987: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1957: 1953: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1933: 1930: 1926: 1921: 1918: 1914: 1909: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1858: 1854: 1849: 1846: 1842: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1807: 1803: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1753: 1749: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1717: 1713: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1697:, p. 35. 1696: 1691: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1676: 1672: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1658:, p. 15. 1657: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1606: 1602: 1597: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1578: 1574: 1573:Crawford 1974 1569: 1566: 1560: 1555: 1548: 1542: 1539: 1535: 1534: 1529: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1506: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1481: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1464: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1435: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1419: 1413: 1410: 1404: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1380: 1369: 1364: 1361: 1353: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1341: 1335: 1328: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1315: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1303: 1296: 1288: 1283: 1276: 1274: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1255: 1251: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1233: 1230: 1229:Julius Caesar 1226: 1216: 1211: 1205: 1203: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1188:proscriptions 1185: 1180: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1146: 1142: 1134: 1132: 1125: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1109: 1107: 1101: 1099: 1098: 1093: 1089: 1083: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1040: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1024: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1007: 1002: 999: 995: 990: 988: 980: 978: 976: 971: 966: 960: 955: 953: 952: 947: 946: 945:sella curulis 941: 940: 931: 929: 927: 926: 921: 917: 911: 907: 905: 897: 893: 890: 887: 883: 880: 877: 874: 870: 869: 865: 862: 858: 855: 852: 849: 848: 847: 845: 841: 838:were akin to 837: 833: 828: 824: 821: 300 BC 815: 809: 802: 797: 794:Depiction of 792: 788: 786: 782: 777: 775: 770: 764: 762: 756: 754: 750: 749:Titus Larcius 745: 743: 739: 735: 731: 730: 725: 721: 708: 700: 698: 691: 689: 687: 682: 681: 675: 674:Julius Caesar 671: 667: 662: 659: 654: 652: 648: 644: 640: 628: 623: 621: 616: 614: 609: 608: 606: 605: 599: 596: 595: 593: 592: 586: 583: 581: 578: 576: 573: 571: 570: 566: 564: 563: 559: 557: 556: 552: 550: 549: 545: 543: 542: 538: 536: 535: 531: 529: 528: 524: 522: 521: 517: 515: 514: 510: 508: 507: 503: 501: 500: 496: 494: 493: 489: 487: 486: 482: 481: 477: 474: 473: 472: 471: 466: 463: 462: 455: 454: 450: 448: 447: 443: 441: 440: 436: 434: 433: 429: 428: 426: 425: 422: 418: 412: 411: 407: 405: 404: 400: 398: 397: 393: 391: 390: 386: 384: 381: 379: 378: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 363: 361: 360: 357: 353: 347: 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 326:Promagistrate 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 308: 306: 305: 302: 298: 292: 289: 287: 284: 282: 279: 277: 274: 273: 271: 270: 267: 263: 257: 256: 252: 250: 247: 245: 244: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 229: 227: 226: 223: 219: 213: 210: 206: 203: 202: 201: 198: 194: 191: 190: 189: 186: 184: 181: 180: 178: 177: 174: 170: 165: 164: 160: 159: 153: 152: 148: 144: 143: 139: 138: 131: 128: 124: 121: 120: 114: 113: 109: 105: 104: 100: 96: 95: 94:Roman Kingdom 91: 90: 89: 88: 83: 80: 79: 75: 71: 70: 66: 61: 54: 53: 47: 46:Julius Caesar 43: 39: 33: 19: 5084:Institutions 4948:Leptis Magna 4901:Major cities 4808:Philostratus 4595:Quadrigarius 4415:Rufus Festus 4278:Contemporary 3999:Romanization 3922:Architecture 3709: 3529:Collegiality 3378:Constitution 3229:Ancient Rome 3188: 3168: 3154: 3153: 3126: 3114:. Retrieved 3092: 3053: 3024: 3020: 2988: 2967: 2938: 2910: 2901: 2889: 2877: 2876: 2864:Vervaet 2015 2829: 2817: 2805: 2793: 2781: 2769: 2757: 2745: 2704: 2700: 2690: 2663: 2651: 2639: 2631: 2623: 2611: 2599: 2587: 2575: 2563: 2551: 2544:Vervaet 2015 2539: 2512: 2491: 2479: 2467: 2455: 2443: 2431: 2424:Lintott 1999 2419: 2407: 2395: 2383: 2371: 2347: 2341: 2334:Vervaet 2015 2319:Vervaet 2015 2314: 2307:Vervaet 2015 2302: 2295:Vervaet 2015 2290: 2278: 2265: 2248: 2228:Lintott 1999 2223: 2211: 2199: 2187: 2180:Lintott 1999 2154: 2147:Vervaet 2015 2142: 2130: 2123:Lintott 1999 2101: 2088: 2076: 2064: 2057:Vervaet 2015 2022: 2010: 1998: 1976:Vervaet 2015 1971: 1964:Vervaet 2015 1959: 1952:Vervaet 2015 1937:Vervaet 2015 1932: 1925:Lintott 1999 1920: 1913:Vervaet 2015 1908: 1896: 1889:Vervaet 2015 1884: 1872: 1865:Vervaet 2015 1860: 1848: 1821: 1809: 1787:Drogula 2015 1782: 1755: 1743: 1731: 1724:Lintott 1999 1719: 1690: 1678: 1656:Drogula 2015 1648:Drogula 2015 1643: 1636:Lintott 1999 1613:Lintott 1999 1608: 1596: 1588: 1580: 1568: 1546: 1541: 1531: 1522: 1510: 1505: 1480: 1463: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1426: 1421: 1412: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1337: 1326: 1316: 1305: 1298: 1266: 1257: 1234: 1212: 1209: 1196:Gaius Marius 1181: 1168: 1163:, called by 1158: 1148: 1129: 1115: 1102: 1095: 1084: 1079: 1063: 1048: 1043: 1036: 1027: 1022: 1019: 1005: 1003: 997: 993: 991: 984: 974: 969: 967: 958: 956: 949: 943: 937: 935: 923: 922:ratified by 919: 912: 908: 903: 901: 866: 860: 856: 850: 843: 839: 835: 831: 829: 825: 810: 806: 784: 781:Latin League 778: 773: 768: 765: 757: 746: 737: 733: 727: 723: 710: 695: 663: 655: 638: 636: 567: 560: 553: 546: 539: 532: 525: 518: 511: 504: 497: 490: 483: 459: 451: 444: 437: 430: 408: 401: 394: 387: 375: 370: 253: 241: 237:Collegiality 173:Constitution 161: 150: 141: 112:Roman Empire 110: 101: 92: 41: 5079:Geographers 4763:Dioscorides 4743:Cassius Dio 4365:Cassiodorus 4268:Renaissance 3874:Agriculture 3846:Auxiliaries 3787:Engineering 3624:Magistrates 3476:Citizenship 3471:Mos maiorum 3406:Late Empire 2849:Wilson 2021 2834:Wilson 2021 2822:Wilson 2021 2810:Wilson 2021 2798:Wilson 2021 2786:Wilson 2021 2774:Wilson 2021 2762:Wilson 2021 2750:Wilson 2021 2683:Wilson 2021 2668:Wilson 2021 2656:Wilson 2021 2644:Wilson 2021 2628:Wilson 2021 2616:Wilson 2021 2604:Wilson 2021 2592:Flower 2010 2580:Flower 2010 2568:Flower 2010 2556:Wilson 2021 2484:Wilson 2021 2472:Wilson 2021 2448:Wilson 2021 2436:Wilson 2021 2412:Wilson 2021 2400:Wilson 2021 2388:Wilson 2021 2376:Wilson 2021 2364:Wilson 2021 2283:Wilson 2021 2271:Wilson 2021 2135:Wilson 2021 2106:Wilson 2021 2081:Wilson 2021 2069:Wilson 2021 1901:Wilson 2021 1877:Wilson 2021 1841:Wilson 2021 1814:Ridley 1979 1802:Ridley 1979 1775:Ridley 1979 1760:Ridley 1979 1748:Ridley 1979 1736:Ridley 1979 1712:Ridley 1979 1695:Wilson 2021 1671:Ridley 1979 1601:Wilson 2021 1585:Wilson 2021 1312:Mark Antony 1307:liberatores 1075:prorogation 1037:Before the 886:Roman games 432:Mos maiorum 212:Late Empire 155:AD 395–1453 5159:Categories 4968:Mediolanum 4908:Alexandria 4873:Themistius 4838:Porphyrius 4665:Tertullian 4600:Quintilian 4590:Propertius 4485:Lactantius 4435:Fulgentius 4370:Censorinus 4192:Sanitation 4177:Metallurgy 4134:Technology 4099:Demography 4047:Patricians 4014:Spectacles 3972:Literature 3967:Hairstyles 3804:Technology 3554:Praefectus 3506:Government 3496:Litigation 3481:Auctoritas 3426:Centuriate 3313:Principate 3308:Pax Romana 3268:Foundation 3176:Wikisource 3146:1243162549 3116:2022-02-19 3089:"dictator" 3050:"dictator" 2241:C. Maenius 1556:References 1452:pontifices 1293:See also: 1248:See also: 1149:Following 1139:See also: 1051:patricians 840:provinciae 803:Nomination 705:See also: 643:magistrate 513:Praefectus 421:Public law 276:Centuriate 266:Assemblies 243:Auctoritas 146:AD 395–476 133:AD 284–641 123:Principate 98:753–509 BC 5124:Quaestors 5054:Empresses 5044:Dynasties 5034:Dictators 5009:and other 4998:Volubilis 4993:Vindobona 4953:Londinium 4878:Theodoret 4848:Procopius 4828:Polyaenus 4803:Pausanias 4705:Vitruvius 4650:Symmachus 4645:Suetonius 4555:Petronius 4540:Obsequens 4505:Macrobius 4500:Lucretius 4425:Frontinus 4400:Eutropius 4385:Columella 4335:Augustine 4325:Appuleius 4273:Neo-Latin 4248:Classical 4239:Versions 4147:Aqueducts 4089:Patronage 4009:Sexuality 3982:Mythology 3957:Education 3947:Cosmetics 3772:Campaigns 3767:Structure 3720:Decemviri 3579:Imperator 3278:overthrow 3186:(1937) . 3165:(1905) . 3080:959667246 3033:0035-449X 2958:905949529 2737:252459421 2721:0018-2311 2531:959667246 1561:Citations 1277:Abolition 1263:Civil War 1080:provincia 1055:plebeians 987:Roman law 555:Imperator 403:Decemviri 396:Triumviri 366:Corrector 107:509–27 BC 5129:Tribunes 5119:Praetors 5069:Generals 5049:Emperors 4958:Lugdunum 4943:Eboracum 4933:Carthage 4918:Aquileia 4833:Polybius 4823:Plutarch 4793:Libanius 4783:Josephus 4778:Herodian 4670:Tibullus 4585:Priscian 4560:Phaedrus 4520:Manilius 4465:Jordanes 4450:Hydatius 4380:Claudian 4360:Catullus 4350:Boëthius 4345:Ausonius 4263:Medieval 4235:Alphabet 4207:Theatres 4182:Numerals 4167:Concrete 4157:Circuses 4124:Bagaudae 4114:Adoption 4109:Marriage 4082:Assembly 3987:Religion 3962:Folklore 3942:Clothing 3937:Calendar 3894:Currency 3884:Commerce 3782:Strategy 3744:Military 3730:Triumvir 3710:Dictator 3705:Interrex 3684:Governor 3669:Quaestor 3632:Ordinary 3614:Province 3604:Tetrarch 3594:Augustus 3559:Vicarius 3549:Officium 3486:Imperium 3436:Plebeian 3396:Republic 3318:Dominate 3285:Republic 3246:Timeline 3041:41244992 3008:39706770 2900:(1952). 2888:(1951). 2729:45019234 2206:, 7.3.9. 1498:Hannibal 1450:... the 1440:interrex 1398:Dictator 1365:See also 1319:Augustus 1169:interrex 1053:and the 1013:pomerium 1006:imperium 970:imperium 959:pomerium 951:pomerium 942:and the 932:Insignia 920:imperium 916:auspices 834:. 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