Thermometer - Knowledge (XXG)

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until after reading it. If the non-registering thermometer was removed from the hot liquid, then the temperature indicated on the thermometer would immediately begin changing to reflect the temperature of its new conditions (in this case, the air temperature). Registering thermometers are designed to hold the temperature indefinitely, so that the thermometer can be removed and read at a later time or in a more convenient place. Mechanical registering thermometers hold either the highest or lowest temperature recorded until manually re-set, e.g., by shaking down a mercury-in-glass thermometer, or until an even more extreme temperature is experienced. Electronic registering thermometers may be designed to remember the highest or lowest temperature, or to remember whatever temperature was present at a specified point in time.

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qualify as thermometers at all they must agree with absolute thermometers and with each other in the following way: given any two bodies isolated in their separate respective thermodynamic equilibrium states, all thermometers agree as to which of the two has the higher temperature, or that the two have equal temperatures. For any two empirical thermometers, this does not require that the relation between their numerical scale readings be linear, but it does require that relation to be

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its temperature. Only some materials are suitable for this purpose, and they may be considered as "thermometric materials". Radiometric thermometry, in contrast, can be only slightly dependent on the constitutive relations of materials. In a sense then, radiometric thermometry might be thought of as "universal". This is because it rests mainly on a universality character of thermodynamic equilibrium, that it has the universal property of producing

450: 749: 5573: 1210: 757: 525: 38: 371:, a student of Galileo and Santorio in Padua, published what is apparently the first description and illustration of a sealed liquid-in-glass thermometer. It is described as having a bulb at the bottom of a sealed tube partially filled with brandy. The tube had a numbered scale. Delmedigo did not claim to have invented this instrument. Nor did he name anyone else as its inventor. In about 1654, 773:(1) Its heating and cooling must be rapid. That is to say, when a quantity of heat enters or leaves a body of the material, the material must expand or contract to its final volume or reach its final pressure and must reach its final temperature with practically no delay; some of the heat that enters can be considered to change the volume of the body at constant temperature, and is called the 597: 589: 305:(1566 – 1624); the first showing a scale and thus constituting a thermometer was by Santorio Santorio in 1625. This was a vertical tube, closed by a bulb of air at the top, with the lower end opening into a vessel of water. The water level in the tube was controlled by the expansion and contraction of the air, so it was what we would now call an air thermometer. 68:) in which some change occurs with a change in temperature; and (2) some means of converting this change into a numerical value (e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer or the digital readout on an infrared model). Thermometers are widely used in technology and industry to monitor processes, in 3343: 375:(1610–1670) did produce such an instrument, the first modern-style thermometer, dependent on the expansion of a liquid and independent of air pressure. Many other scientists experimented with various liquids and designs of thermometer. However, each inventor and each thermometer was unique — there was 1034:

of a thermometer is simply to what fraction of a degree it is possible to make a reading. For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure to the nearest 10 °C or more. Clinical thermometers and many electronic thermometers are usually readable to 0.1 °C. Special instruments can

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can be precisely measured. The walls of the cavity, provided they are completely opaque and poorly reflective, can be of any material indifferently. This provides a well-reproducible absolute thermometer over a very wide range of temperatures, able to measure the absolute temperature of a body inside

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very accurately quantitatively describes the power spectral density of electromagnetic radiation, inside a rigid walled cavity in a body made of material that is completely opaque and poorly reflective, when it has reached thermodynamic equilibrium, as a function of absolute thermodynamic temperature

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A thermometer is simply a thermoscope with a scale. ... I propose to regard it as axiomatic that a “meter” must have a scale or something equivalent. ... If this is admitted, the problem of the invention of the thermometer becomes more straightforward; that of the invention of the thermoscope remains

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documented his experiment with a tube submerged in a container of liquid on one end and connected to an air-tight, hollow sphere on the other. When air in the sphere is heated with a candle or by exposing it to the sun, expanding air exits the sphere and generates bubbles in the vessel. As air in the

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Thermometers can be calibrated either by comparing them with other calibrated thermometers or by checking them against known fixed points on the temperature scale. The best known of these fixed points are the melting and boiling points of pure water. (Note that the boiling point of water varies with

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There are several principles on which empirical thermometers are built, as listed in the section of this article entitled "Primary and secondary thermometers". Several such principles are essentially based on the constitutive relation between the state of a suitably selected particular material and

1079:, correctly calibrated, used and maintained liquid-in-glass thermometers can achieve a measurement uncertainty of ±0.01 °C in the range 0 to 100 °C, and a larger uncertainty outside this range: ±0.05 °C up to 200 or down to −40 °C, ±0.2 °C up to 450 or down to −80 °C. 969:

Other fixed points used in the past are the body temperature (of a healthy adult male) which was originally used by Fahrenheit as his upper fixed point (96 °F (35.6 °C) to be a number divisible by 12) and the lowest temperature given by a mixture of salt and ice, which was originally the

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In contrast, "Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also, they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated

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Thermometers may be described as empirical or absolute. Absolute thermometers are calibrated numerically by the thermodynamic absolute temperature scale. Empirical thermometers are not in general necessarily in exact agreement with absolute thermometers as to their numerical scale readings, but to

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Traditional thermometers were all non-registering thermometers. That is, the thermometer did not hold the temperature reading after it was moved to a place with a different temperature. Determining the temperature of a pot of hot liquid required the user to leave the thermometer in the hot liquid

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and the eventual invention of the thermometer. First, he had the idea that hotness or coldness may be measured by "degrees of hot and cold." He also conceived of a fixed reference temperature, a mixture of equal amounts of ice and boiling water, with four degrees of heat above this point and four

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Thermometers utilize a range of physical effects to measure temperature. Temperature sensors are used in a wide variety of scientific and engineering applications, especially measurement systems. Temperature systems are primarily either electrical or mechanical, occasionally inseparable from the

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bath or solid block where the temperature is held constant relative to a calibrated thermometer. Other thermometers to be calibrated are put into the same bath or block and allowed to come to equilibrium, then the scale marked, or any deviation from the instrument scale recorded. For many modern

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found constant pressure air thermometers unsatisfactory, because they needed troublesome corrections. He therefore built a constant volume air thermometer. Constant volume thermometers do not provide a way to avoid the problem of anomalous behaviour like that of water at approximately 4 °C.

784:(2) Its heating and cooling must be reversible. That is to say, the material must be able to be heated and cooled indefinitely often by the same increment and decrement of heat, and still return to its original pressure, volume and temperature every time. Some plastics do not have this property; 128:

Sparse and conflicting historical records make it difficult to pinpoint the invention of the thermometer to any single person or date with certitude. In addition, given the many parallel developments in the thermometer's history and its many gradual improvements over time, the instrument is best

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developed devices with an air-filled glass bulb, connected to a tube, partially filled with water. As the air in the bulb warms or cools, the height of the column of water in the tube falls or rises, allowing an observer to compare the current height of the water to previous heights to detect

189:(10–70 AD) provides a recipe for building a "Fountain which trickles by the Action of the Sun's Rays," a more elaborate version of Philo's pneumatic experiment but which worked on the same principle of heating and cooling air to move water around. Translations of the ancient work 732:, that when a process of isochoric adiabatic work is the sole means of change of internal energy of a closed system, the final state of the system is never colder than the initial state; except for phase changes with latent heat, it is hotter than the initial state. 3238:; Gusarov, Andrei I.; Brichard, Benoît; Bodart, Serge; Lammens, Koen; Berghmans, Francis; Decréton, Marc; Mégret, Patrice; Blondel, Michel; Delchambre, Alain (2002). "Temperature monitoring of nuclear reactor cores with multiplexed fiber Bragg grating sensors". 1046:

is used, usually linear. This may give significant differences between different types of thermometer at points far away from the fixed points. For example, the expansion of mercury in a glass thermometer is slightly different from the change in resistance of a

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means that comparisons are valid in scientific experiments and industrial processes are consistent. Thus if the same type of thermometer is calibrated in the same way its readings will be valid even if it is slightly inaccurate compared to the absolute scale.

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At temperatures around about 4 °C, water does not have the property (3), and is said to behave anomalously in this respect; thus water cannot be used as a material for this kind of thermometry for temperature ranges near 4 °C.

981:, though in practice the melting point of water is more commonly used than its triple point, the latter being more difficult to manage and thus restricted to critical standard measurement. Nowadays manufacturers will often use a 1244:. It has the advantage of remote temperature sensing; it does not require contact or even close proximity unlike most thermometers. At higher temperatures, blackbody radiation becomes visible and is described by the 840:

Gases, on the other hand, all have the properties (1), (2), and (3)(a)(α) and (3)(b)(α). Consequently, they are suitable thermometric materials, and that is why they were important in the development of thermometry.

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For many purposes reproducibility is important. That is, does the same thermometer give the same reading for the same temperature (or do replacement or multiple thermometers give the same reading)? Reproducible

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Contemporary Developments in Continuum Mechanics and Partial Differential Equations. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Continuum Mechanics and Partial Differential Equations, Rio de Janeiro, August

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with a digital display to 0.1 °C (its precision) which has been calibrated at 5 points against national standards (−18, 0, 40, 70, 100 °C) and which is certified to an accuracy of ±0.2 °C.

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the measured property of matter is known so well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities. Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on the

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temperatures and maintaining temperatures in foods being served under heat lamps or hot water baths. Cooking thermometers are important for determining if a food is properly cooked. In particular

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is an emergent research field dealing with the knowledge of temperature in the sub-micrometric scale. Conventional thermometers cannot measure the temperature of an object which is smaller than a

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sphere cools, a partial vacuum is created, sucking liquid up into the tube. Any changes in the position of the liquid will now indicate whether the air in the sphere is getting hotter or colder.

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scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points and interpolating thermometers. The most recent official temperature scale is the

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Early attempts at standardization added a single reference point such as the freezing point of water. The use of two references for graduating the thermometer is said to have been introduced by

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resistance thermometer, so these two will disagree slightly at around 50 °C. There may be other causes due to imperfections in the instrument, e.g. in a liquid-in-glass thermometer if the

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system which they control (as in the case of a mercury-in-glass thermometer). Thermometers are used in roadways in cold weather climates to help determine if icing conditions exist. Indoors,

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While an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is an absolute

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mixture can extend the low-temperature usability of mercury thermometers to -56°C. (...) Nevertheless, few liquids have been found to mimic the thermometric properties of mercury in

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relative changes of the heat in the bulb and its immediate environment. Such devices, with no scale for assigning a numerical value to the height of the liquid, are referred to as a

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A thermometer calibrated to a known fixed point is accurate (i.e. gives a true reading) at that point. The invention of the technology to measure temperature led to the creation of

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correctly, certain types of mercury thermometers can be incredibly accurate. Mercury thermometers can be used in temperatures ranging from about -38 to 350°C. The use of a mercury-

5607: 1594:, where food at temperatures within 41 and 135 °F (5 and 57 °C) can be prone to potentially harmful levels of bacterial growth after several hours which could lead to 1174:

at distinct temperature changes. Thus by tuning the phase transition temperatures for a series of substances the temperature can be quantified in discrete increments, a form of

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Many empirical thermometers rely on the constitutive relation between pressure, volume and temperature of their thermometric material. For example, mercury expands when heated.

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give readings to one thousandth of a degree. However, this precision does not mean the reading is true or accurate, it only means that very small changes can be observed.

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Brites, Carlos D. S.; Lima, Patricia P.; Silva, Nuno J. O.; Millán, Angel; Amaral, Vitor S.; Palacio, Fernando; Carlos, Luís D. (2012). "Thermometry at the nanoscale".

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Immerse the sensing portion in a stirred mixture of pure ice and water at atmospheric pressure and mark the point indicated when it had come to thermal equilibrium.

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A thermometer is called primary or secondary based on how the raw physical quantity it measures is mapped to a temperature. As summarized by Kauppinen et al., "For

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is called the 'universal hotness manifold'." To this information there needs to be added a sense of greater hotness; this sense can be had, independently of

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The Concepts and Logic of Classical Thermodynamics as a Theory of Heat Engines. Rigorously Constructed upon the Foundation Laid by S. Carnot and F. Reech

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The Concepts and Logic of Classical Thermodynamics as a Theory of Heat Engines. Rigorously Constructed upon the Foundation Laid by S. Carnot and F. Reech

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Band edge thermometry (BET) takes advantage of the temperature-dependence of the band gap of semiconductor materials to provide very precise optical (

5081: 293:. Though Galileo is often said to be the inventor of the thermometer, there is no surviving document that he actually produced any such instrument. 3452: 978: 107: 5172: 1696:. Thermometers are used in roadways in cold weather climates to help determine if icing conditions exist and indoors in climate control systems. 974:.) As body temperature varies, the Fahrenheit scale was later changed to use an upper fixed point of boiling water at 212 °F (100 °C). 514: 4607: 3482: 2826:

BS1041-2.1:1985 Temperature Measurement- Part 2: Expansion thermometers. Section 2.1 Guide to selection and use of liquid-in-glass thermometers

3433: 2810: 5457: 5398: 5112: 3414: 3068: 2874: 2091: 3402: 1358:. This can potentially be problematic for internal standards which are usually assumed to have a defined chemical shift (e.g 0 ppm for 509:(1701–1744) proposed a scale with zero at the boiling point and 100 degrees at the freezing point of water, though the scale which now 5360: 3756: 1310: 787:(3) Its heating and cooling must be monotonic. That is to say, throughout the range of temperatures for which it is intended to work, 403:

of water as standards and, in 1694, Carlo Renaldini (1615–1698) proposed using them as fixed points along a universal scale. In 1701,

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developed body temperature scales based on Galen's theory of degrees to help him mix the appropriate amount of medicine for patients.

60:(the rates of change of temperature in space). A thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb of a 3424: 3377: 1606:

are used to aid in cooking meat to a safe internal temperature while preventing over cooking. They are commonly found using either a

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either (i) the pressure increases when the temperature increases, or else (ii) the pressure decreases when the temperature increases;

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in 1977, though rather mathematically abstract, is more informative for thermometry: "Zeroth Law – There exists a topological line

3341:, Ming-Yun Chen, "Rapid response electronic clinical thermometer", published 2005-02-15, assigned to Actherm Inc. 1321:. Typically they are specified to work within about —50 to 150°C with accuracies in the ±0.25 to 1°C range but can be improved by 1196:

non-contact) temperature measurements. BET systems require a specialized optical system, as well as custom data analysis software.

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either (i) the volume increases when the temperature increases, or else (ii) the volume decreases when the temperature increases;

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against a primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed temperatures. Such fixed points, for example,

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If it is used for its relation between pressure and volume and temperature, a thermometric material must have three properties:

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with black dots representing single degrees and white represented 10-degree increments; used to measure atmospheric temperatures

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are useful over a wide temperature range from cryogenic temperatures to over 1000°C, but typically have an error of ±0.5-1.5°C.

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devices calibration will be stating some value to be used in processing an electronic signal to convert it to a temperature.

781:. Some materials do not have this property, and take some time to distribute the heat between temperature and volume change. 1470:, and new methods and materials have to be used. Nanothermometry is used in such cases. Nanothermometers are classified as 1119:

Some liquids possess relatively high expansion coefficients over a useful temperature ranges thus forming the basis for an

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Johnson, Shane (May 1998). "In situ temperature control of molecular beam epitaxy growth using band-edge thermometry".

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Given this, the possible inventors of the thermometer are usually considered to be Galileo, Santorio, Dutch inventor

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devices and ideas from antiquity provided inspiration for the thermometer's invention during the Renaissance period.

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of a paramagnetic material exhibits an inverse temperature dependence. This phenomenon is the basis of a magnetic

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Thomsen, J.S.; Hartka, T.J. (1962). "Strange Carnot cycles; thermodynamics of a system with a density extremum".

2245:, Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig, section 22, pages 56-57. English translation edited by McGuinness, B. (1986), 1710: 1270: 486: 103: 4242: 951:

The traditional way of putting a scale on a liquid-in-glass or liquid-in-metal thermometer was in three stages:

345: 5549: 5413: 5152: 3443: 3207: 368: 3845: 2946:"The truth behind today's wafer temperature methods: Band-edge thermometry vs. emissivity-corrected pyrometry" 2132: 1113: 1874:"The Weight of the Air: Santorio's Thermometers and the Early History of Medical Quantification Reconsidered" 5448: 4675: 4592: 4056: 3640: 3580: 1765: 1614:

are used to aid in achieving a specific water content in a sugar solution based on its boiling temperature.

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Serrin, J. (1986). Chapter 1, 'An Outline of Thermodynamical Structure', pages 3-32, especially page 6, in

1426:. Galileo thermometers are used to measure indoor air temperature, due to their limited measurement range. 5485: 4278: 4026: 3995: 3620: 3257: 2969: 2702: 1280: 1068: 965:

Divide the distance between these marks into equal portions according to the temperature scale being used.

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alone. A small enough hole in the wall of the cavity emits near enough blackbody radiation of which the

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An example of a reference thermometer used to check others to industrial standards would be a platinum

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Findeisen, M.; Brand, T.; Berger, S. (February 2007). "A1H-NMR thermometer suitable for cryoprobes".

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Lieb, E.H.; Yngvason, J. (1999). "The physics and mathematics of the second law of thermodynamics".

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For decades mercury thermometers were a mainstay in many testing laboratories. If used properly and

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for which the spectra is directly proportional to the temperature. This property is the basis for a

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Thermometers increasingly use electronic means to provide a digital display or input to a computer.

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which scans the forehead in about two seconds and provides a medically accurate body temperature.

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E.F.J. Ring (January 2007). "The historical development of temperature measurement in medicine".

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Hasler's temperature scale showing degrees of body temperature based on an individual's latitude.

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thermometers (systems where thermometric properties are not directly related to luminescence).

114:(−272.5 °C; −458.5 °F) to approximately 1,358 K (1,085 °C; 1,985 °F). 5385: 5370: 5365: 5272: 5142: 5137: 5047: 5037: 4845: 4835: 4612: 4416: 4406: 4401: 4247: 4161: 4156: 3908: 3680: 3670: 3535: 3408: 3364: 3320: 3127: 3064: 3031: 2792: 2732: 2684: 2660: 2640: 2539: 2441: 2420: 2317: 2295: 2274: 2250: 2178: 2072: 2054: 1972: 1953: 1933: 1911: 1893: 1852: 1800: 1689: 1685: 1632: 1611: 1595: 1511: 1506: 1379: 1359: 1109: 1098: 1076: 926: 907: 867: 713: 616:" fails to deliver this information, but the statement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics by 498: 302: 250: 3176: 2088: 5462: 5403: 5309: 5132: 4385: 4350: 4340: 4332: 4307: 4291: 4201: 4108: 4011: 3903: 3720: 3665: 3570: 3310: 3302: 3267: 3185: 3169: 3150: 3119: 3023: 2924: 2916: 2856: 2722: 2608: 2514: 2390: 2219: 2046: 1998: 1901: 1885: 1768:. Toxic though it may be, when it comes to LiG thermometers, mercury is still hard to beat. 1607: 1603: 1563: 1452: 1294: 1102: 1052: 895: 557: 556:

that produced a body temperature reading in five minutes as opposed to twenty. In 1999, Dr.

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R.P. Benedict (1984) Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Measurements, 3rd ed,

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R.P. Benedict (1984) Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Measurements, 3rd ed,

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in 1730, that ultimately proved to be less reliable than Fahrenheit's mercury thermometer.

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Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures

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The difference between a thermoscope and a thermometer is that the latter has a scale.

3440:– Thermometers – Early History, Anders Celsius, Gabriel Fahrenheit and Thomson Kelvin. 2394: 5591: 5182: 5167: 5157: 5002: 4881: 4711: 4380: 4317: 3981: 3815: 3725: 3710: 3615: 2744: 2402: 1757: 1599: 1448: 1434: 1423: 1372: 1304: 1225: 1043: 564:

introduced the world's first temporal artery thermometer, a non-invasive temperature

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Translations of Philo's experiment from the original ancient Greek were utilized by

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thermometers have typically been mercury but have since largely been superseded by

1419: 1241: 1209: 1175: 922: 756: 728:. Another way of identifying hotter as opposed to colder conditions is supplied by 617: 524: 407:(1642–1726/27) proposed a scale of 12 degrees between the melting point of ice and 404: 290: 170: 37: 17: 2791:

T. Duncan (1973) Advanced Physics: Materials and Mechanics (John Murray, London)

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W. E. Knowles Middleton, A history of the thermometer and its use in meteorology

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In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, several European scientists, notably

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is temperature dependent. This property is used to calibrate the thermostat of

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There are various kinds of empirical thermometer based on material properties.

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is given credit for introducing two concepts important to the development of a

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have used bimetallic strips but digital thermistors have since become popular.

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Various thermometric techniques have been used throughout history such as the

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facilities to monitor reactor core temperatures and avoid the possibility of

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Bi-metallic stem thermometers used to measure the temperature of steamed milk

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The first physician to use thermometer measurements in clinical practice was

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Yoon, Howard W.; Khromchenko, Vladimir; Eppeldauer, George P. (2 May 2019).

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Adler, Jacob (1997). "J. S. Delmedigo and the Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer".

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Pairs of solid metals with different expansion coefficients can be used for

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were introduced to late 16th century Italy and studied by many, including

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automobile, used to measure temperature of vapor in 1910s and 1920s cars.

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The above instruments suffered from the disadvantage that they were also

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Kauppinen, J. P.; Loberg, K. T.; Manninen, A. J.; Pekola, J. P. (1998).

2247:

Principles of the Theory of Heat, Historically and Critically Elucidated

1889: 640:

which serves as a coordinate manifold of material behaviour. The points

5418: 5314: 5203: 5017: 5012: 4810: 4467: 4442: 4432: 4360: 4181: 4141: 3741: 3550: 3315: 3306: 2377: 2336:(1926). Über die Begründung des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermodynamik, 891: 510: 478: 321:, who describes one with a scale of 8 degrees. The word comes from the 3271: 3189: 2613: 2588: 2518: 2224: 2199: 612:

As it is customarily stated in textbooks, taken alone, the so-called "

349:

Fifty-degree thermometers from the mid-17th century on exhibit at the

5249: 4370: 3027: 2920: 1415: 1313:

are commonly found packaged in integrated circuits with accompanying

565: 111: 3427:– Notable Modern Inventions and Discoveries (archived 24 April 2008) 3099: 313:

The word thermometer (in its French form) first appeared in 1624 in

173:

sometime around 1617 and used as the basis for his air thermometer.

609:. This is a fundamental character of temperature and thermometers. 44:(mercury-in-glass thermometer) for measurement of room temperature. 4987: 4966: 3650: 3585: 1575: 1505: 1208: 1009: 993: 970:

definition of 0 °F (−17.8 °C). (This is an example of a

936: 755: 747: 720:, by a universal constant, to the frequency of the maximum of its 595: 587: 523: 468: 448: 344: 301:

The first clear diagram of a thermoscope was published in 1617 by

214: 204: 152: 36: 2474:, third edition, Longmans, Green, and Co., London, pages 232-233. 1248:. For example a glowing heating element or an approximation of a 4541: 3840: 1249: 5094: 4923: 4742: 4562: 4222: 3783: 3745: 3471: 5090: 2970:"MCP9804: ±0.25°C Typical Accuracy Digital Temperature Sensor" 1610:

coil, or a thermocouple or thermistor with a digital readout.

1562:

such as mercury-in-glass thermometers, infrared thermometers,

1318: 1127:

thermometer. Alternative designs using this principle are the

724:; this frequency is always positive, but can have values that 2243:

Die Principien der Wärmelehre. Historisch-kritisch entwickelt

2681:

Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Measurements

2637:

Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Measurements

2022:. Easton, PA: The Chemical Publishing Company. pp. 7–8. 1474:

thermometers (if they use light to measure temperature) and

1441:

and used to measure the temperature of water in fish tanks.

2162:

Patents By Inventor Francesco Pompei :: Justia Patents

977:

These have now been replaced by the defining points in the

124:

Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology

2561:, translated by A. Ogg, Longmans, Green & Co., London. 2530: 2528: 929:

transitions, occur reproducibly at the same temperature."

2766:"The Strange History of the Invention of the Thermometer" 2589:"Coulomb blockade thermometer: Tests and instrumentation" 807:

but not (i) for some temperatures and (ii) for others; or

760:

Bi-metallic thermometer for cooking and baking in an oven

3361:

A history of the thermometer and its use in meteorology

1796:

A history of the thermometer and its use in meteorology

3450:

The NIST Industrial Thermometer Calibration Laboratory

3363:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. Reprinted ed. 2002, 3060:

200 and more NMR experiments : a practical course

2311:

Serrin, J. (1978). The concepts of thermodynamics, in

1738:. AASHTO re:source, formerly AMRL (aashtoresource.org) 1716:

Hygrometer#Psychrometer (wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer)

830:

but not (i) for some temperatures and (ii) for others.

262:(the modern concept of temperature was yet to arise). 2459:

Thermodynamics with Quantum Statistical Illustrations

2271:

The Tragicomical History of Thermodynamics, 1822-1854

2177:, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1492:

Thermometers used specifically for low temperatures.

1022:, and they can make a temperature reading inaccurate. 686: 666: 646: 626: 131:

not as a single invention, but an evolving technology

3098:

Hoffman, Roy E.; Becker, Edwin D. (September 2005).

716:: the temperature of a bath of thermal radiation is 56:(the degree of hotness or coldness of an object) or 5521: 5437: 5384: 5348: 5292: 5237: 5191: 5030: 4980: 4934: 4890: 4859: 4803: 4755: 4694: 4654: 4631: 4575: 4519: 4476: 4425: 4394: 4331: 4300: 4277: 4261: 4235: 4101: 4035: 3947: 3872: 3794: 2200:"A restatement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics" 1851:R.S. Doak (2005) Galileo: astronomer and physicist 513:has them the other way around. French entomologist 3421:The Thermometer—From The Feeling To The Instrument 1138:As with liquids, gases can also be used to form a 708:, and of properties of particular materials, from 692: 672: 652: 632: 433:Mercury-in-glass thermometer (mercury thermometer) 2691:, chapter 11 "Calibration of Temperature Sensors" 2265: 2263: 1950:Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement 1930:Principles and Methods of Temperature Measurement 1826:. London: Taylor Walton and Maberly. p. 69. 258:because they provide an observable indication of 2582: 2580: 2353:, Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 42–43. 2257:, section 5, pp. 48–49, section 22, pages 60–61. 775:latent heat of expansion at constant temperature 3145:Krusius, Matti (2014). "Magnetic thermometer". 2193: 2191: 1362:) but in fact exhibit a temperature dependence. 958:Immerse the sensing portion in a steam bath at 600:Comparison of the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales 453:A medical mercury-in-glass maximum thermometer. 373:Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany 272: 2164:. Patents.justia.com. Retrieved on 2011-03-30. 1736:"The Anatomy of a Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer" 1014:Separated columns are often a problem in both 898:of an electrical resistor, and on the angular 222:degrees of cold below. 16th century physician 5106: 3757: 3483: 2991:"Si7050/1/3/4/5-A20: I2C Temperature Sensors" 2675: 2673: 2461:, Interscience Publishers, New York, page 17. 8: 5608:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment 3500:meteorological equipment and instrumentation 3201: 3199: 3083:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1692:. These measurements are used to initialize 1574:settings to determine if individuals have a 1410:are used in climate control systems such as 4717:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument 2834: 2832: 1089:Temperature measurement § Technologies 1083:Indirect methods of temperature measurement 592:Various thermometers from the 19th century. 367:, i.e. sensitive to air pressure. In 1629, 5113: 5099: 5091: 4944: 4931: 4920: 4752: 4739: 4572: 4559: 4232: 4219: 3791: 3780: 3764: 3750: 3742: 3490: 3476: 3468: 1664:(maximum-minimum thermometer) are used in 201:First temperature scale with a fixed point 3314: 3261: 2928: 2787: 2785: 2726: 2612: 2376: 2294:, edited by J. Serrin, Springer, Berlin, 2223: 2122:. Vol. 45, no. 1. pp. 3–5. 1905: 1799:. Internet Archive. Johns Hopkins Press. 1112:. Another design using this principle is 685: 665: 645: 625: 5082:Instruments used in medical laboratories 2351:The Concepts of Classical Thermodynamics 2338:S.-B. Preuß. Akad. Wiss. phys. math. Kl. 990:Precision, accuracy, and reproducibility 456: 30:For broader coverage of this topic, see 4598:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device 2152:. Exergen.com. Retrieved on 2011-03-30. 1967: 1965: 1726: 1042:. In between fixed calibration points, 979:International Temperature Scale of 1990 948:pressure, so this must be controlled.) 108:International Temperature Scale of 1990 4646:Transmission electron microscope (TEM) 3403:History of Temperature and Thermometry 3206:Angela M. Fraser, Ph.D. (2006-04-24). 3076: 3057:Braun, Stefan Berger; Siegmar (2004). 2483:Lewis, G.N., Randall, M. (1923/1961). 2019:Evolution of the thermometer 1592-1743 5458:Artificial intelligence in healthcare 3444:Thermometers and Thermometric Liquids 3184:. Vol. 684. pp. 1009–1014. 2879:Molecular Beam Epitaxy Research Group 2173:Beattie, J.A., Oppenheim, I. (1979). 1213:An infrared thermometer is a kind of 517:invented an alcohol thermometer and, 7: 2534:Truesdell, C., Bharatha, S. (1977). 2415:Truesdell, C., Bharatha, S. (1977). 1867: 1865: 1823:The Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria 1788: 1786: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1778: 1776: 157:Fludd's figure of Philo's experiment 3063:(. ed.). Weinheim: WILEY-VCH. 2249:, D. Reidel Publishing, Dordrecht, 1311:Silicon bandgap temperature sensors 962:and again mark the point indicated. 5533:reform debate in the United States 4641:Scanning electron microscope (SEM) 2438:An Introduction to Thermomechanics 2292:New Perspectives in Thermodynamics 1437:liquid crystals) are also used in 875:Primary and secondary thermometers 849:According to Preston (1894/1904), 584:Physical principles of thermometry 341:Sealed liquid-in-glass thermometer 25: 5560:(Category Health care by country) 2841:Infrared Physics & Technology 1706:Automated airport weather station 1652:, mercury-in-glass thermometers, 1133:Beckmann differential thermometer 680:are called 'hotness levels', and 515:René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 489:invented a reliable thermometer, 383:Early attempts at standardization 5572: 5571: 4686:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) 4496:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) 1447:temperature sensors are used in 1373:Paramagnetism § Curie's law 1110:bi-metal mechanical thermometers 779:specific heat at constant volume 485:In 1714, scientist and inventor 3215:North Carolina State University 3016:Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry 1878:Journal of Early Modern Studies 78:), and in scientific research. 64:or the pyrometric sensor in an 5269:Academic health science centre 3168:Sergatskov, D. A. (Oct 2003). 2861:10.1016/j.infrared.2006.06.029 2051:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2015.12.003 1631:uses a thermometer to measure 1590:Thermometers are important in 791:(a) at a given fixed pressure, 501:which now (slightly adjusted) 1: 5506:Health information management 5491:health information technology 5229:Health information management 3104:Journal of Magnetic Resonance 2395:10.1016/S0370-1573(98)00128-8 1688:conditions exist along their 960:standard atmospheric pressure 230:Late Renaissance developments 27:Device to measure temperature 5481:Translational bioinformatics 3462:Thermometry at the Nanoscale 3236:Fernandez, Alberto Fernandez 2944:Wissman, Barry (June 2016). 2440:, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 2175:Principles of Thermodynamics 1793:Middleton, W. E. K. (1966). 1295:Coulomb blockade thermometer 1283:which use materials such as 942:Mercury-in-glass thermometer 814:(b) at a given fixed volume, 614:zeroth law of thermodynamics 415:Era of precision thermometry 333:, meaning "hot" and μέτρον, 110:. It extends from 0.65 62:mercury-in-glass thermometer 5511:Consumer health informatics 3425:History Channel – Invention 3405:(archived 25 February 2008) 3208:"Food Safety: Thermometers" 2546:, pages 9-10, 15-18, 36-37. 2133:Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt 2033:Wright, William F. (2016). 1734:Knake, Maria (April 2011). 1598:. This includes monitoring 1568:liquid crystal thermometers 1431:liquid crystal thermometers 1401:List of temperature sensors 1189:Band edge thermometry (BET) 1151:Vapour pressure thermometer 845:Constant volume thermometry 289:, or British mathematician 197:, who had read it by 1594. 5624: 3375:History of the Thermometer 3359:Middleton, W.E.K. (1966). 3178:AIP Conference Proceedings 2558:Treatise on Thermodynamics 2111:Tan, S. Y.; Hu, M (2004). 2039:Journal of Thermal Biology 1872:Bigotti, Fabrizio (2018). 1624:Indoor-outdoor thermometer 1534:liquid crystal thermometer 1499: 1485: 1398: 1370: 1340:Nuclear magnetic resonance 1267:Optical absorbance spectra 1250:star's surface temperature 1180:liquid crystal thermometer 1178:. This is the basis for a 1097:Utilizing the property of 1086: 887:of sound in a gas, on the 548:(1668–1738). In 1866, Sir 495:alcohol and water mixtures 418: 356: 315:La Récréation Mathématique 238: 213:The Roman Greek physician 121: 95: 85: 29: 5567: 5501:Public health informatics 5414:Electronic health records 5284:Supervised injection site 5224:Allied health professions 5128: 5079: 4947: 4930: 4919: 4841:Time-domain reflectometer 4751: 4738: 4608:Liquid chromatograph (LC) 4571: 4558: 4231: 4218: 3790: 3779: 3506: 3124:10.1016/j.jmr.2005.05.015 2570:Preston, T. (1894/1904). 2120:Singapore Medical Journal 2003:10.1080/00033799700200221 1711:Thermodynamic instruments 1672:in various levels of the 1271:Fiber optical thermometer 1002:" radiator cap on a 1913 497:. In 1724, he proposed a 487:Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit 249:and Italian physiologist 104:thermodynamic temperature 3155:10.1036/1097-8542.398650 2555:Planck, M. (1897/1903). 2457:Landsberg, P.T. (1961). 2269:Truesdell, C.A. (1980). 369:Joseph Solomon Delmedigo 309:Coining of "thermometer" 5449:Medical image computing 5399:Artificial intelligence 4676:Melting-point apparatus 4057:Cryogenic storage dewar 3581:Ice accretion indicator 2875:"Band-edge thermometry" 2349:Buchdahl, H.A. (1966). 2138:Encyclopædia Britannica 1766:temperature measurement 1694:weather forecast models 1550:with a digital readout. 1384:magnetic susceptibility 1367:Magnetic susceptibility 1170:Some compounds exhibit 1061:temperature measurement 858:Radiometric thermometry 710:Wien's displacement law 552:(1836–1925) invented a 550:Thomas Clifford Allbutt 161:In the 3rd century BC, 92:Temperature measurement 32:Temperature measurement 5486:Translational medicine 4613:Mass spectrometer (MS) 4603:Gas chromatograph (GC) 3621:Present weather sensor 3446:– Mercury and Alcohol. 3412:, Vol. 5, No. 2 (2000) 2538:, Springer, New York, 2470:Maxwell, J.C. (1872). 2419:, Springer, New York, 2273:, Springer, New York, 2198:Thomsen, J.S. (1962). 2089:Christin's thermometer 1654:recording thermometers 1515: 1350:probes, usually using 1317:and interface such as 1281:Resistance thermometer 1222: 1069:resistance thermometer 1023: 1007: 944: 761: 753: 744:Thermometric materials 694: 674: 654: 634: 601: 593: 541: 482: 466: 454: 354: 283: 210: 158: 45: 5475:Computational biology 5376:Universal precautions 4988:Acid-resistant gloves 4669:differential scanning 3410:The Chemical Educator 3339:US Active 6854882 2817:Reference Thermometer 2679:R.P. Benedict (1984) 2635:R.P. Benedict (1984) 2436:Ziegler, H., (1983). 2100:Linnaeus' thermometer 2016:Bolton, H.C. (1900). 1680:use thermometers and 1650:infrared thermometers 1509: 1277:Electrical resistance 1212: 1129:reversing thermometer 1114:Breguet's thermometer 1040:scales of temperature 1013: 997: 940: 759: 751: 695: 675: 655: 635: 599: 591: 527: 472: 460: 452: 421:Precision thermometry 348: 337:, meaning "measure". 208: 156: 40: 5469:Behavior informatics 4565:Analytical chemistry 4067:Laminar flow cabinet 3773:Laboratory equipment 3546:Dark adaptor goggles 2996:. Silicon Labs. 2016 2728:10.1364/OE.27.014246 1646:Alcohol thermometers 1586:Food and food safety 1560:Medical thermometers 1558:to thermal imaging. 1530:Forehead thermometer 1524:infrared thermometer 1330:Electrical resonance 1301:Electrical potential 1261:Phosphor thermometry 1238:infrared thermometer 1055:varies in diameter. 1020:mercury thermometers 906:emission of certain 881:primary thermometers 684: 664: 644: 624: 554:clinical thermometer 445:Infrared thermometer 219:scale of temperature 137:Ancient developments 98:Scale of temperature 66:infrared thermometer 58:temperature gradient 54:measures temperature 5453:imaging informatics 5361:Cultural competence 4937:Personal protective 3846:Meker–Fisher burner 3431:About – Thermometer 3387:Thermometry at the 3299:2012Nanos...4.4799B 3254:2002OptEn..41.1246F 3241:Optical Engineering 3116:2005JMagR.176...87H 2913:1998JVSTB..16.1502J 2853:2007InPhT..49..297R 2719:2019OExpr..2714246Y 2713:(10): 14246–14259. 2605:1998RScI...69.4166K 2511:1962AmJPh..30...26T 2387:1999PhR...314....1L 2216:1962AmJPh..30..294T 2150:Exergen Corporation 1890:10.5840/jems2018714 1832:1851phal.book.....W 1556:Galileo thermometer 1532:is an example of a 1502:Medical thermometer 1445:Fiber Bragg grating 1230:blackbody radiation 1203:Blackbody radiation 1161:Galileo thermometer 562:Exergen Corporation 529:Very Slippy-Weather 463:alcohol thermometer 437:Medical thermometer 359:Alcohol thermometer 275:as obscure as ever. 75:medical thermometer 42:Mercury thermometer 18:Digital thermometer 5439:Health informatics 5214:Healthcare science 4780:Function generator 4763:Bench power supply 4702:Analytical balance 4463:Ostwald viscometer 4458:Graduated cylinder 4197:Inoculation needle 3591:Lightning detector 3455:2016-07-22 at the 3436:2020-01-22 at the 3417:2004-03-10 at the 3380:2016-03-06 at the 3307:10.1039/C2NR30663H 2813:2011-09-21 at the 2572:The Theory of Heat 2094:2013-06-01 at the 1948:T.D. McGee (1988) 1928:T.D. McGee (1988) 1662:Six's thermometers 1612:Candy thermometers 1516: 1510:A Kinsa QuickCare 1334:Quartz thermometer 1246:colour temperature 1224:All objects above 1223: 1024: 1008: 972:frigorific mixture 945: 762: 754: 730:Planck's principle 722:frequency spectrum 690: 670: 650: 630: 607:strictly monotonic 602: 594: 542: 483: 481:(symbol °C) units. 467: 455: 393:Christiaan Huygens 391:in 1668, although 355: 297:The first diagrams 211: 187:Hero of Alexandria 177:Hero of Alexandria 163:Philo of Byzantium 159: 149:Philo of Byzantium 46: 5585: 5584: 5349:Skills / training 5273:Teaching hospital 5088: 5087: 5075: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5048:Fire extinguisher 5038:Biosafety cabinet 5026: 5025: 4915: 4914: 4911: 4910: 4846:Transistor tester 4836:Spectrum analyzer 4734: 4733: 4730: 4729: 4554: 4553: 4550: 4549: 4426:Measuring devices 4248:Soxhlet extractor 4214: 4213: 4210: 4209: 4162:Spectrophotometer 4157:Pipeclay triangle 3909:Mortar and pestle 3739: 3738: 3681:Thermo-hygrograph 3671:Sunshine recorder 3536:Ceiling projector 3272:10.1117/1.1475739 3190:10.1063/1.1627261 3070:978-3-527-31067-8 2972:. Microchip. 2012 2614:10.1063/1.1149265 2599:(12): 4166–4175. 2593:Rev. Sci. Instrum 2519:10.1119/1.1941890 2225:10.1119/1.1941991 1991:Annals of Science 1686:atmospheric icing 1633:rate of heat flow 1604:meat thermometers 1596:foodborne illness 1564:pill thermometers 1512:smart thermometer 1453:nuclear meltdowns 1380:Curie temperature 1099:thermal expansion 1094:Thermal expansion 1077:British Standards 868:spectral radiance 714:thermal radiation 693:{\displaystyle M} 673:{\displaystyle M} 653:{\displaystyle L} 633:{\displaystyle M} 519:temperature scale 499:temperature scale 473:Thermometer with 377:no standard scale 303:Giuseppe Biancani 251:Santorio Santorio 52:is a device that 16:(Redirected from 5615: 5575: 5574: 5463:Neuroinformatics 5404:Connected health 5115: 5108: 5101: 5092: 4945: 4932: 4921: 4826:Network analyzer 4753: 4740: 4573: 4560: 4233: 4220: 4202:Inoculation loop 4072:Microtiter plate 4012:Test tube holder 3904:Magnetic stirrer 3792: 3781: 3766: 3759: 3752: 3743: 3721:Whole sky camera 3666:Stevenson screen 3571:Heat flux sensor 3492: 3485: 3478: 3469: 3348: 3347: 3346: 3342: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3318: 3293:(16): 4799–829. 3282: 3276: 3275: 3265: 3248:(6): 1246–1254. 3232: 3226: 3225: 3223: 3222: 3212: 3203: 3194: 3193: 3183: 3174: 3165: 3159: 3158: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3082: 3074: 3054: 3048: 3047: 3028:10.1002/mrc.1941 3011: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3001: 2995: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2978: 2977: 2966: 2960: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2950: 2941: 2935: 2934: 2932: 2921:10.1116/1.589975 2907:(3): 1502–1506. 2896: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2886: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2836: 2827: 2824: 2818: 2805: 2799: 2789: 2780: 2779: 2777: 2776: 2762: 2756: 2755: 2753: 2751: 2730: 2698: 2692: 2677: 2668: 2654: 2648: 2633: 2627: 2626: 2616: 2584: 2575: 2568: 2562: 2553: 2547: 2532: 2523: 2522: 2494: 2488: 2481: 2475: 2468: 2462: 2455: 2449: 2434: 2428: 2413: 2407: 2406: 2380: 2360: 2354: 2347: 2341: 2331: 2325: 2324:, pages 411-451. 2309: 2303: 2288: 2282: 2267: 2258: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2227: 2195: 2186: 2171: 2165: 2159: 2153: 2147: 2141: 2130: 2124: 2123: 2117: 2108: 2102: 2086: 2080: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2030: 2024: 2023: 2013: 2007: 2006: 1986: 1980: 1969: 1960: 1946: 1940: 1926: 1920: 1919: 1909: 1869: 1860: 1849: 1843: 1842: 1840: 1838: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1790: 1771: 1770: 1745: 1743: 1731: 1684:to determine if 1520:Ear thermometers 1412:air conditioners 1205: 1204: 1103:phases of matter 699: 697: 696: 691: 679: 677: 676: 671: 660:of the manifold 659: 657: 656: 651: 639: 637: 636: 631: 558:Francesco Pompei 546:Herman Boerhaave 477:(symbol °F) and 425:Fahrenheit scale 409:body temperature 287:Cornelis Drebbel 281: 82:A standard scale 21: 5623: 5622: 5618: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5613: 5612: 5588: 5587: 5586: 5581: 5563: 5517: 5516: 5515: 5433: 5380: 5344: 5320:Overutilization 5288: 5279:Pharmacy school 5245:Assisted living 5233: 5187: 5124: 5119: 5089: 5084: 5067: 5063:Solvent cabinet 5022: 4993:Eyewash station 4976: 4941: 4939:equipment (PPE) 4938: 4926: 4907: 4886: 4855: 4799: 4790:Pulse generator 4756:Control devices 4747: 4726: 4690: 4656:Thermochemistry 4650: 4627: 4567: 4546: 4515: 4472: 4438:Conical measure 4421: 4390: 4327: 4296: 4273: 4257: 4227: 4206: 4187:Test tube brush 4097: 4082:Picotiter plate 4045: 4031: 4027:Lab drying rack 3986:Extension clamp 3962: 3943: 3882: 3868: 3804: 3786: 3775: 3770: 3740: 3735: 3701:Weather balloon 3696:Transmissometer 3661:Sounding rocket 3606:Pan evaporation 3531:Ceiling balloon 3502: 3496: 3457:Wayback Machine 3438:Wayback Machine 3419:Wayback Machine 3399: 3392:– Recent review 3382:Wayback Machine 3356: 3354:Further reading 3351: 3344: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3234: 3233: 3229: 3220: 3218: 3210: 3205: 3204: 3197: 3181: 3172: 3167: 3166: 3162: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3075: 3071: 3056: 3055: 3051: 3013: 3012: 3008: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2988: 2984: 2975: 2973: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2898: 2897: 2893: 2884: 2882: 2873: 2872: 2868: 2838: 2837: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2815:Wayback Machine 2806: 2802: 2790: 2783: 2774: 2772: 2764: 2763: 2759: 2749: 2747: 2700: 2699: 2695: 2678: 2671: 2656:J. Lord (1994) 2655: 2651: 2634: 2630: 2586: 2585: 2578: 2569: 2565: 2554: 2550: 2533: 2526: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2482: 2478: 2469: 2465: 2456: 2452: 2435: 2431: 2414: 2410: 2365:Physics Reports 2362: 2361: 2357: 2348: 2344: 2332: 2328: 2310: 2306: 2289: 2285: 2268: 2261: 2237: 2233: 2197: 2196: 2189: 2172: 2168: 2160: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2131: 2127: 2115: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2096:Wayback Machine 2087: 2083: 2070: 2066: 2032: 2031: 2027: 2015: 2014: 2010: 1988: 1987: 1983: 1970: 1963: 1947: 1943: 1927: 1923: 1871: 1870: 1863: 1850: 1846: 1836: 1834: 1819: 1818: 1814: 1807: 1792: 1791: 1774: 1741: 1739: 1733: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1702: 1620: 1588: 1548:NTC thermistors 1504: 1498: 1490: 1484: 1476:non-luminescent 1464:Nanothermometry 1461: 1459:Nanothermometry 1403: 1397: 1375: 1356:ethylene glycol 1202: 1201: 1140:gas thermometer 1091: 1085: 1000:Boyce MotoMeter 992: 935: 927:superconducting 877: 860: 847: 746: 682: 681: 662: 661: 642: 641: 622: 621: 586: 574: 531: 447: 417: 389:Joachim Dalence 385: 361: 343: 311: 299: 282: 279: 268: 266:Air thermometer 247:Galileo Galilei 243: 237: 232: 203: 195:Galileo Galilei 179: 151: 139: 126: 120: 100: 94: 86:Main articles: 84: 72:, in medicine ( 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5621: 5619: 5611: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5590: 5589: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5579: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5540:United Kingdom 5537: 5536: 5535: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5518: 5514: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5455: 5445: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5411: 5409:Digital health 5406: 5401: 5396: 5394:3D bioprinting 5390: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5379: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5356:Bedside manner 5352: 5350: 5346: 5345: 5343: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5296: 5294: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5265:Medical school 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5241: 5239: 5235: 5234: 5232: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 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4064: 4059: 4054: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4043: 4040: 4036: 4033: 4032: 4030: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4017:Test tube rack 4014: 4009: 4006: 4001: 3998: 3993: 3992:Funnel support 3990: 3987: 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3960: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3942: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3899:Liquid whistle 3896: 3891: 3885: 3883: 3881: 3880: 3877: 3873: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3866: 3864:Vacuum dry box 3861: 3856: 3851: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3826:Heating mantle 3823: 3818: 3813: 3811:Alcohol burner 3807: 3805: 3803: 3802: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3787: 3784: 3777: 3776: 3771: 3769: 3768: 3761: 3754: 3746: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3713: 3708: 3703: 3698: 3693: 3688: 3683: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3507: 3504: 3503: 3497: 3495: 3494: 3487: 3480: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3459: 3447: 3441: 3428: 3422: 3406: 3398: 3397:External links 3395: 3394: 3393: 3384: 3372: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3349: 3330: 3277: 3263:10.1.1.59.1761 3227: 3217:. pp. 1–2 3195: 3160: 3137: 3090: 3069: 3049: 3022:(2): 175–178. 3006: 2982: 2961: 2936: 2930:2286/R.I.27894 2891: 2866: 2847:(3): 297–301. 2828: 2819: 2800: 2781: 2757: 2707:Optics Express 2693: 2669: 2649: 2628: 2576: 2563: 2548: 2524: 2489: 2485:Thermodynamics 2476: 2472:Theory of Heat 2463: 2450: 2429: 2408: 2378:hep-ph/9807278 2371:(1–2): 1–96 . 2355: 2342: 2326: 2304: 2283: 2259: 2231: 2210:(4): 294–296. 2187: 2166: 2154: 2142: 2125: 2103: 2081: 2064: 2025: 2008: 1997:(3): 293–299. 1981: 1961: 1941: 1921: 1861: 1844: 1812: 1805: 1772: 1725: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1701: 1698: 1643: 1642: 1636: 1626: 1619: 1616: 1587: 1584: 1552: 1551: 1537: 1527: 1522:tend to be an 1500:Main article: 1497: 1494: 1486:Main article: 1483: 1480: 1460: 1457: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1391: 1376: 1368: 1364: 1363: 1344:Chemical shift 1341: 1337: 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profiler 3724: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3711:Weather radar 3709: 3707: 3704: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3692: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3616:Pyrheliometer 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3562: 3559: 3557: 3554: 3552: 3549: 3547: 3544: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3509: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3493: 3488: 3486: 3481: 3479: 3474: 3473: 3470: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3454: 3451: 3448: 3445: 3442: 3439: 3435: 3432: 3429: 3426: 3423: 3420: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3407: 3404: 3401: 3400: 3396: 3391: 3390: 3385: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3370: 3369:0-8018-7153-0 3366: 3362: 3358: 3357: 3353: 3340: 3334: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3281: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3255: 3251: 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2544:0-387-07971-8 2541: 2537: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2480: 2477: 2473: 2467: 2464: 2460: 2454: 2451: 2447: 2446:0-444-86503-9 2443: 2439: 2433: 2430: 2426: 2425:0-387-07971-8 2422: 2418: 2412: 2409: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2359: 2356: 2352: 2346: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2327: 2323: 2322:0-444-85166-6 2319: 2315: 2308: 2305: 2301: 2300:3-540-15931-2 2297: 2293: 2287: 2284: 2280: 2279:0-387-90403-4 2276: 2272: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2255:90-277-2206-4 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2235: 2232: 2226: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2183:0-444-41806-7 2180: 2176: 2170: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2155: 2151: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2139: 2134: 2129: 2126: 2121: 2114: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2090: 2085: 2082: 2078: 2077:0-471-89383-8 2074: 2068: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2029: 2026: 2021: 2020: 2012: 2009: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1985: 1982: 1978: 1977:0-471-89383-8 1974: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1958:0-471-62767-4 1955: 1951: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1938:0-471-62767-4 1935: 1931: 1925: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1884:(1): 73–103. 1883: 1879: 1875: 1868: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1857:0-7565-0813-4 1854: 1848: 1845: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1824: 1820:Hero (1851). 1816: 1813: 1808: 1806:9780801871535 1802: 1798: 1797: 1789: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1758:repeatability 1755: 1751: 1737: 1730: 1727: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1697: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1630: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1621: 1618:Environmental 1617: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1600:refrigeration 1597: 1593: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1538: 1535: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1521: 1518: 1517: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1449:nuclear power 1446: 1442: 1440: 1436: 1435:thermochromic 1432: 1427: 1425: 1424:water heaters 1421: 1420:refrigerators 1417: 1413: 1409: 1402: 1394: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1369: 1366: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1305:Thermocouples 1303: 1300: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1272: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1226:absolute zero 1220: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1200: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1188: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1162: 1159: 1156: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1082: 1080: 1078: 1075:According to 1073: 1070: 1065: 1062: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1044:interpolation 1041: 1036: 1033: 1029: 1021: 1017: 1012: 1005: 1001: 996: 989: 987: 984: 980: 975: 973: 964: 961: 957: 954: 953: 952: 949: 943: 939: 932: 930: 928: 924: 923:triple points 918: 916: 912: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 890: 889:thermal noise 886: 882: 874: 872: 869: 864: 857: 855: 852: 844: 842: 838: 829: 828: 827: 826: 820: 819: 818: 817: 813: 812: 806: 805: 804: 803: 797: 796: 795: 794: 790: 789: 788: 785: 782: 780: 776: 771: 768: 765: 758: 750: 743: 741: 739: 733: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 687: 667: 647: 627: 619: 615: 610: 608: 598: 590: 583: 581: 578: 571: 569: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 539: 538:James Gillray 535: 530: 526: 522: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 491:using mercury 488: 480: 476: 471: 464: 459: 451: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 429:Celsius scale 426: 422: 414: 412: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 382: 380: 378: 374: 370: 366: 360: 352: 351:Museo Galileo 347: 340: 338: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 308: 306: 304: 296: 294: 292: 288: 276: 271: 265: 263: 261: 260:sensible heat 257: 252: 248: 242: 234: 229: 227: 225: 224:Johann Hasler 220: 216: 207: 200: 198: 196: 192: 188: 184: 181:In his book, 176: 174: 172: 167: 164: 155: 148: 146: 144: 136: 134: 132: 125: 117: 115: 113: 109: 105: 99: 93: 89: 81: 79: 77: 76: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 43: 39: 33: 19: 5598:Thermometers 5496:Telemedicine 5429:Telemedicine 5424:Nanomedicine 5260:Nursing home 5043:Fire blanket 4981:Eye and hand 4967:Rubber apron 4831:Oscilloscope 4795:Potentiostat 4722:Plate reader 4680: 4618:pH indicator 4588:CHN analyzer 4583:AutoAnalyzer 4376:Round-bottom 4269:Boston round 4132:Filter paper 4087:Refrigerator 4004:Retort stand 3972:Clamp holder 3968:Beaker clamp 3934:Vortex mixer 3929:Stirring rod 3924:Static mixer 3854:Teclu burner 3716:Weather vane 3706:Weather buoy 3685: 3596:Nephelometer 3498:Earth-based 3409: 3388: 3360: 3333: 3290: 3286: 3280: 3245: 3239: 3230: 3219:. Retrieved 3177: 3163: 3146: 3140: 3110:(1): 87–98. 3107: 3103: 3093: 3059: 3052: 3019: 3015: 3009: 2998:. Retrieved 2985: 2974:. Retrieved 2964: 2954:December 22, 2952:. Retrieved 2939: 2904: 2900: 2894: 2883:. Retrieved 2881:. 2014-08-19 2878: 2869: 2844: 2840: 2822: 2808:Peak Sensors 2803: 2773:. Retrieved 2769: 2760: 2748:. Retrieved 2710: 2706: 2696: 2680: 2657: 2652: 2636: 2631: 2596: 2592: 2571: 2566: 2556: 2551: 2535: 2505:(1): 26–33. 2502: 2498: 2492: 2484: 2479: 2471: 2466: 2458: 2453: 2437: 2432: 2416: 2411: 2368: 2364: 2358: 2350: 2345: 2337: 2329: 2312: 2307: 2291: 2286: 2270: 2246: 2242: 2234: 2207: 2203: 2174: 2169: 2157: 2145: 2136: 2128: 2119: 2106: 2084: 2067: 2042: 2038: 2028: 2018: 2011: 1994: 1990: 1984: 1952:, pages 2–4 1949: 1944: 1929: 1924: 1881: 1877: 1847: 1835:. Retrieved 1822: 1815: 1795: 1747: 1740:. Retrieved 1729: 1676:and oceans. 1644: 1589: 1570:are used in 1553: 1491: 1462: 1443: 1428: 1414:, freezers, 1404: 1395:Applications 1257:Fluorescence 1242:thermography 1193: 1176:digitization 1074: 1066: 1057: 1037: 1031: 1027: 1025: 999: 976: 968: 950: 946: 919: 880: 878: 871:the cavity. 863:Planck's law 861: 848: 839: 835: 786: 783: 772: 769: 766: 763: 734: 726:tend to zero 718:proportional 618:James Serrin 611: 603: 579: 575: 543: 528: 484: 405:Isaac Newton 386: 362: 334: 330: 314: 312: 300: 291:Robert Fludd 284: 273: 269: 255: 244: 212: 190: 182: 180: 171:Robert Fludd 168: 160: 140: 127: 101: 73: 49: 47: 5603:Temperature 5555:New Zealand 5310:End-of-life 5192:Professions 5122:Health care 5031:Other items 4957:Face shield 4804:Measurement 4785:Galvanostat 4745:Electronics 4695:Other items 4681:Thermometer 4664:Calorimeter 4593:Colorimeter 4537:Gas syringe 4520:Other items 4448:Eye dropper 4323:Watch glass 4308:Evaporating 4287:Cold finger 4102:Other items 4008:Screw clamp 4000:Pinch clamp 3989:Flask clamp 3939:Wash bottle 3894:Homogenizer 3686:Thermometer 3676:Tethersonde 3656:Solarimeter 3646:Snow pillow 3611:Pyranometer 3556:Disdrometer 3316:10261/76059 2499:Am. 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In 1742, 493:instead of 256:thermoscope 241:Thermoscope 235:Thermoscope 88:Temperature 70:meteorology 50:thermometer 5592:Categories 5522:By country 5386:Technology 5325:Palliative 5153:Philosophy 5143:Guidelines 4962:Respirator 4903:Test probe 4821:Multimeter 4633:Microscopy 4453:Eudiometer 4417:Separatory 4386:Volumetric 4351:Erlenmeyer 4279:Condensers 4243:Dean–Stark 4192:Wire brush 4152:Microscope 4147:Centrifuge 4122:Cork borer 4077:Petri dish 4052:Agar plate 4039:Containers 4022:Wire gauze 3859:Water bath 3821:Desiccator 3691:Tide gauge 3636:Snow gauge 3631:Rain gauge 3626:Radiosonde 3601:Nephoscope 3576:Hygrometer 3566:Field mill 3541:Ceilometer 3511:Anemometer 3221:2010-02-26 3000:2017-01-03 2976:2017-01-03 2885:2019-08-14 2775:2022-12-21 2683:, 3rd ed, 2639:, 3rd ed, 2427:, page 20. 2340:: 453–463. 2334:Planck, M. 2185:, page 29. 1750:calibrated 1722:References 1674:atmosphere 1629:Heat meter 1608:bimetallic 1468:micrometre 1439:mood rings 1399:See also: 1371:See also: 1290:Thermistor 1032:resolution 1004:Car-Nation 983:thermostat 900:anisotropy 534:caricature 475:Fahrenheit 419:See also: 365:barometers 357:See also: 191:Pneumatics 183:Pneumatics 122:See also: 96:See also: 5550:Australia 5371:Education 5366:Diagnosis 5219:Dentistry 5163:Providers 5138:Equipment 5133:Economics 5053:Fume hood 4998:Glove box 4851:Voltmeter 4236:Apparatus 4225:Glassware 4114:Autoclave 4109:Aspirator 4062:Incubator 3996:Iron ring 3919:Sonicator 3889:Chemostat 3831:Hot plate 3641:Snowboard 3561:Dropsonde 3526:Barometer 3521:Barograph 3516:Atmometer 3389:Nanoscale 3287:Nanoscale 3258:CiteSeerX 3079:cite book 2745:155990906 2403:119517140 2045:: 18–30. 1898:2285-6382 1488:cryometer 1482:Cryometer 1388:cryometer 1234:pyrometer 1219:bolometer 1215:pyrometer 1028:precision 904:gamma ray 738:blackbody 441:Pyrometer 143:pneumatic 5577:Category 5255:Hospital 5238:Settings 5209:Pharmacy 5199:Medicine 5148:Industry 4952:Lab coat 4877:Tweezers 4867:Heat gun 4623:pH meter 4532:Bell jar 4412:Dropping 4366:Florence 4356:Fernbach 4318:Syracuse 4177:Scoopula 4127:Crucible 3836:Lab oven 3731:Windsock 3453:Archived 3434:Archived 3415:Archived 3378:Archived 3325:22763389 3132:15996496 3044:43214876 3036:17154329 2811:Archived 2737:31163876 2667:page 293 2647:, page 5 2623:33345808 2241:(1900). 2239:Mach, E. 2092:Archived 2059:26857973 1932:page 3, 1916:30854347 1762:accuracy 1754:thallium 1742:4 August 1700:See also 1678:Aircraft 1352:methanol 1147:Pressure 1049:platinum 885:velocity 851:Regnault 278:— 5419:mHealth 5330:Primary 5315:Hospice 5305:Chronic 5204:Nursing 5173:Ranking 4891:General 4811:Ammeter 4511:Thistle 4468:Pipette 4443:Cuvette 4433:Burette 4402:Büchner 4395:Funnels 4381:Schlenk 4361:Fleaker 4341:Büchner 4262:Bottles 4182:Spatula 4172:Stopper 4142:Forceps 4042:Storage 3959:Holders 3879:Shakers 3850:Striker 3798:Heaters 3785:General 3551:Dewcell 3464:—Review 3295:Bibcode 3250:Bibcode 3112:Bibcode 2909:Bibcode 2849:Bibcode 2750:7 March 2715:Bibcode 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