Dietary biology of the tawny owl

1768:. A similar wide-ranging generalist, the eagle owl most often nests in and around rock formations, often in fairly mountainous areas, but locally is also adaptive to varying habitats and may too nesting in old birds nests or on the ground, usually between the trunks of large trees. In terms of their dietary habits, the eagle owl appears to be perhaps an even more indiscriminate predator, attacking animals of all taxonomic classes unfortunate enough to encounter them. Given its far larger size and much more powerful features, the eagle owl will attack much larger prey than tawny owls, even relative to their own size. Tawny owls are likely to avoid encounters with eagle-owls and are fortunate in many areas that the eagle-owl, which requires a larger home range and tends to more exclusively prefer remote areas than tawnys, can be scarce to absent in some parts of Europe. In some areas of Spain and Italy, tawny owls have adapted to live in the vicinity of wooded montane areas and even to nesting within rock formations. Both countries have healthy recovered populations of eagle-owls, so tawny owls appear to locally restrict their vocal activity and tend to occur on the fringes or outside active eagle-owl ranges. Unlike their larger, more powerful cousin, the Ural owl, the tawny owl is not infrequently victim to predation by larger raptors. There are at least 300 recorded instances of predation on tawny owls in Europe by Eurasian eagle-owls. They tend to be taken somewhat less than other medium-sized owls, especially long-eared owls, by eagle owls by virtue of using woodlands (which differ somewhat from the habitats usually used by eagle-owls) and nesting in tree hollows. The other greatest predatory threat is certain to be the 1948:). Reports of tawny owls killing common buzzards and northern goshawks are of nebulous detail and may refer in fact to nighttime nest robberies rather than overpowering adults of these larger, dangerous and often seemingly avoided raptors. Evidence from Slovenia has indicated that the tawny owl is more feared by small owls such as the boreal owl than even the larger, more powerful Ural owl, as they clustered more strongly as can be explained by habitat in the realm of Ural owl territories but seemed to avoid where possible tawny owl territories. Although there are more known instances of tawny owls hunting little owls, data in central Europe could not distinguish whether little owls were avoiding tawny owls or the wooded habitats they frequent to account for their sometimes spotty ranges. However, when forced to nest in quite close proximity to tawny owls and other medium-sized owl species due to clustered "islands" of habitat remaining in southeastern Poland, the productivity of little owls appeared to lower. Predation by tawny owls can be severe as well on 17: 806:, common shrews were the leading prey species, at 18.2% of 15,450 prey items. In a much smaller study in Norway during the summer, the common shrew was the leading prey species, constituting 30.4% of 69 prey items. However, given their small size, with the common shrew being one of the larger available species at merely 8 to 11 g (0.28 to 0.39 oz), shrews are a marginal contributor to the owl's prey biomass and taken for subsistence until a more substantial food source is available. Exceptional quantities of shrews may be predicted in French studies (usually during preferred prey shortages), with shrew prey contributing up to 15% of the biomass overall and more locally, in the 1600:, beetles collectively constituted 35.1% of the diet and Orthoptera constituted 14.4%. In Sahel, Algeria, invertebrates in total slightly outnumbered mammals, but lagged slightly behind birds in number. In general, insects in central and northern Europe are a regular but secondary food source, taken in similar volume to birds but far less significant as contributors to biomass. Tawny owls are said to take beetles in central Europe more frequently in April–May before ground cover becomes too extensive. An exceptional case of invertebrates being primary as a food source in a northerly country was recorded in the 1670:, the long-eared and tawny owls are more or less equally adaptive to such areas. The food niche breadth is usually greater in Europe for the tawny owl than for the barn owl as well, although the barn owl appears to have a stronger liking of shrews as prey than does the tawny owl (shrews more than twice as often selected). The barn owl, although also by nature a cavity nester, does not generally acclimate to well-wooded areas where the tawny owl is at home. Both the long-eared and barn owls prefer voles where they are available, especially as both often hunt in open areas where they are common, whereas 154: 68:, forming a quartering or zigzag pattern over the opening. During these flights they cover about 30 to 50 m (98 to 164 ft) before changing direction. Hunting from flight was surprisingly prevalent in a Swedish study of two radio-tagged birds, with 34% of study time spent hunting from flight while 40% of the study time was spent on hunting from a perch. In a similar study in England, less than 1% of time was spent hunting from flight. In a more deliberate variation of hunting from flight, the hunting owl may examine crags and nest boxes or also 211: 56:, the talons are extremely sharp, stout and quite decurved. The claws are considered to be visibly more overdeveloped than those of other European mid-sized owls and the footspan including the claws is somewhat larger as well, at an average of about 13.4 cm (5.3 in). The hunting owl often extends its wings to balance and control prey upon impact. Alternatively, this species may hunt from flight. This occurs from 2 to 3 m (6.6 to 9.8 ft) over the ground, often over open habitats such as 1675:

than the long-eared owl and 24% larger than the barn owl. Tawny owls are known to readily evict barn owls from their own nest sites, normally when taking up residency in towns or cities. It was additionally found that barn owls, being a species better adapted to warmer, more tropical areas, is at higher risk of starvation in cool weather than long-eared and tawny owls, with proportionately many more found dead in winter in France due presumably to inferior

1171: 992:, Sweden, on 26 tawny territories the diversity of songbird species was higher (at 12.83 average species) inside tawny territories than outside (10.3 species). Attempts to study whether songbirds were significant in the foods found that bird altogether amounted to 6.78% of the total prey numbers (most likely to be thrushes), so were not significantly effected here. As is the case with other medium-sized owls in Europe, there is some evidence that local 292:

mean prey size taken in all of Europe for the tawny owl was 34.5 g (1.22 oz). In northern and central Europe, older studies place the mean prey size taken as usually between 29 and 40 g (1.0 and 1.4 oz). Another study, of the aforementioned 5 European biomes, showed a drastically lower mean estimated prey size of 18.6 g (0.66 oz), even slightly lower than the mean prey size taken by an owl like the

198:, that can be anywhere in typical size from 20.3 to 67 mm (0.80 to 2.64 in) long with a diameter of 17 to 30 mm (0.67 to 1.18 in). The pellets are typically grey coloured and are found in groups under trees used for roosting or nesting. At least some tawny owl pellets can measure up to 84 mm (3.3 in) long and can include large objects such as an intact 10 cm (3.9 in) bill of a 202:. Undigested material coughed up often reveals different prey than pellets. Estimated daily food requirements for a tawny owl is 73.5 g (2.59 oz), which is proportionately lower (at about 14% of their own body mass) than the estimates for other medium-sized owls in Europe (at 23–26% of their own body mass), therefore tawny owls can appear to live off of relatively little food quite efficiently. 1368: 1740:

the latter's mean prey sizes averaging from 31 to 50% larger. However, the food niche breadth is up to two and a half times greater in the tawny than in the Ural owl. The Ural owl tends to dominate interspecific conflicts with tawny owls. On the contrary, in at least one case a tawny owl was observed to fiercely attack and drive off a Ural owl (although it may not be ruled out that this was a case of

988:) was artificially increased by researchers in the vicinity of tawny owl nests, it was found that, despite the tits not being common food, the owls did reduce the population of increased tit. Many more tits were taken during snow cover or while incubating, with male tits being often being taken in larger numbers, and tit numbers were further reduced when fewer rodents were available. In 325: 433:) adults roughly in proportion to their occurrence in the wild. On the other hand, per the Polish study, juvenile yellow-necks were taken much less and subadults much more than their occurrence in the wild. Here, the tawny owls took slightly larger specimens on average than the average recorded in wild, at an estimated mean size taken of 34 g (1.2 oz). In a study from 768: 1642:. As perhaps the most numerous and one of the most widely distributed in the continent of the 13 owl species regularly occurring in Europe, ecological interactions of some kind have been recorded with most other species. Given their medium-sized frame and general adaptability, of special interest is how they co-exist with other medium-sized owls such as 1623: 300:), which weighs about one-eighth as much as tawny owl. Individual dietary studies show that the mean prey mass taken by tawny owls can vary from 12.6 to 130 g (0.44 to 4.59 oz) depending on prey access. A central Italian study showed how habitat type and resulting prey composition can vary mean prey size considerably, with 449:) than were 24% heavier on average than those encountered in the wild, which averaged 16.45 g (0.580 oz) (thus including younger voles). More surprisingly, the long-eared owls were taking voles averaging some 9% larger than those taken by tawny owls. Wild mice, bank voles and, to a more pronounced extent, 1457:) was a fairly important prey resource, at 9.22% by number and 10.5% by biomass. The average size of frogs taken can be fairly variable, from an estimated 7 to 39.8 g (0.25 to 1.40 oz), as claimed for central Italy and England, respectively. There are now several instances known of tawny owls preying on 1247:, the latter taken frequently as adults and estimated to average at 480 g (1.06 lb) when taken in England by two different studies, can be very hearty prey. Other large avian prey reported taken as adults by tawny owls (many of which approach or exceed the owls themselves in body mass) includes 3945:. In In: Duncan, James R.; Johnson, David H.; Nicholls, Thomas H., eds. Biology and conservation of owls of the Northern Hemisphere: 2nd International symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-190. St. Paul, MN: US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 456–460. (Vol. 190). 865:

to an unprecedentedly high 130 g (4.6 oz). One Spanish study claimed that up to 23% of the vertebrate prey for the tawny owl was made up of by rabbits, making them the smallest known avian predator to show a dependence on them. Though generally a minor part of the diet, a wide diversity of

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region. In the latter study, the eagle-owl food niche breadth was listed as 2.4 and 3.3 in these regions, respectively (tawny owls were excluded from analysis in the Scandivanian region due to their marginal range there). The tawny owl mostly focuses on fairly small-sized prey. One estimation of the

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with relative frequency, as they often hear them apparently from below the surface and snatch them up from shallow dirt or below leaf litter. Their worm-hunting style recalls worm hunting techniques by most other birds and they were recorded to eat 0.39 worms per minute during an hour of observation

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in these areas. A relatively low territory overlap of 13.3% was detected in Slovakia between tawny and Ural owl territories due to their differing habitats. Depending on range, the prey sizes taken by tawny owls tend to be considerably smaller than those selected by the more powerful Ural owl, with

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genus). Tawny owls do opportunistically hunt birds through most of the range, however. When it comes to avian prey, there is little evidence that any particular kind is sought out and the owls are likely to randomly come across other birds as an alternate food choice. Usually, European studies show

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and urban bat roosts, and locally up to as much as 2% of the diet (and 5.3% of the mammalian foods) can consist of bats. Studies have indicated that bat species are more or less hunted in proportion to their occurrence in mixed colonies and are taken more so within urbanized environments as well as

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of jackdaws continuously visit, harass and place a new nest on top of the owl's eggs repeatedly. In other cases, the owls nestlings have been suffocated by the jackdaws building a nest directly on top of the still living owl broods. Mammalian predators are a fairly frequent threat to tawny owls as

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mice tend to be slightly preferred by tawny owls. When conflicts ensue, the tawny owl tends to dominate these other medium-sized owls. This is in part due to their size advantage, with the tawny being larger by an average of 32% (of 3 standards of measurements, two from the wing, one by body mass)

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and generally rarer within the forests and edges than common mice and vole prey. While many dormice are smallish (roughly vole or mouse sized), the edible species is often more than five times larger, being close in dimensions to the European water vole. Therefore, the prey biomass must have been

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In In: Duncan, James R.; Johnson, David H.; Nicholls, Thomas H., eds. Biology and conservation of owls of the Northern Hemisphere: 2nd International symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-190. St. Paul, MN: US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 315–324. (Vol.

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were attacked and eaten by both, though flying sparrows were avoided by long-eared owls and not by the tawnys. In the stated study, the tawny owls would kill and eat amphibians and fish, while the long-eared owls would rarely kill and never eat these types of prey. In a study of five European

1847:, in particular, appear to be persistent competitors for nest sites and sometimes are aggressive enough as to displace tawny owls from a disputed site. In extreme cases of competition with jackdaws, the owls may bring themselves to starvation trying to incubate their nests in the hole when a 711:

in Poland (wherein they accounted for 41.5% of the biomass) and in Algeria (wherein they accounted for about 20% of the biomass), although many rats taken are on the young side rather than large adults, especially of the large brown species. The tawny owl's prey spectrum also extends to less

40:, with owls often following an erratic hunting pattern, perhaps to sites where previous hunts were successful. When feeding young, hunting may need to be prolonged into daylight in the early morning. Based on hand-reared young owls that re-released into the wild, hunting behaviour is quite 1501:

are taken due to the high occurrence of encounters. Nearly 70 invertebrate prey species have been noted. In the more southerly parts of Europe, much stronger numbers of invertebrates tend to be detected. In central Italy, invertebrates constituted 53.3% of 654 prey items, in particular

473:) as food, constituting about 64.3% of 1220 prey items in the area, but the Kielder forest field vole population had an exceptional four-year drought whereas in the same time frame Kershope kept a more stable owl population seemingly because it retained the typical three-year cycle. In 1756:

in activity, the great grey species may nest in a broad variety of situations in the boreal habitat but never utilizes tree cavities as does the tawny. Due to the latter species' specialization, the tawny owl is spared from any known ecological interactions with the great grey owl.

544:, mammals led the food composition of owls by number, but in different areas and habitats of the nation, yellow-necked mice, common voles and bank voles could be at the top of the list. Of 43,000 mammal prey items in an older large study of central Europe, 66% were bank or 1558:(wherein they made up 21.8% of 514 prey items, but trailed by number the yellow-necked mouse). A strong dominance of insect prey was detected in food studies from Spain, with 64.3% of 1002 prey items from across the nation being invertebrates. In the Spanish region, the 52:. The tawny owl is capable of lifting and carrying off in flight individual prey weighing up to at least 320 g (11 oz). Their middle talon, the most enlarged claw on owls, measures an average of 19.1 mm (0.75 in). While not as large as those of the 736:), estimated to weigh an average of 150 to 300 g (5.3 to 10.6 oz) when taken, appear to recognize the tawny owl as a serious threat, with ones exposed to recordings of their calls recorded to interrupt feedings, engage in rapid movements and scold harshly. 1186:

A huge diversity of birds may be taken by tawny owls, although most are not numerically significant. Slightly over half of the avian prey spectrum for tawny owls are various passerines down to the size of Europe's smallest bird, the 5.2 g (0.18 oz)

861:. Mostly neonatal or scarcely older rabbits are taken, with a few studies estimating the mean weight as caught as only 100 to 350 g (3.5 to 12.3 oz). Access to European rabbit was said to cause the mean prey mass of tawny owls in parts of the 1036:

was also dominated by birds, with them making up 47.8% by number and 51.8% of the biomass against 39.8% of the number and 36.1% of the biomass by mammals. Here the diet was led by the house sparrow (25.9% by number, 22.6% biomass) and secondarily the

892:, it is estimated that tawny owls eliminate at minimum 140,000 individual bats annually. While most bats encountered (and hunted) are fairly small-bodied, tawny owls may hunt bats of all sizes available, from the roughly 4 g (0.14 oz) 185:

by leaving the head intact and peeling the skin back from the neck, apparently leaving bones in place while consuming the flesh. Indigestible items, including fur, feathers, bones (which sometimes visibly protrude out of the peller), sometimes

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that birds normally constitute less than 15% of the total foods of this owl. In central Europe within an older study, 6000 bird prey (or a little less than 10% of the recorded prey) items were recorded of nearly 100 species, 33% of which were

790:. More than 20 species of shrew are known in the foods of this owl. While usually secondary, shrews are widely present in the pellets and prey remains in most studies. Unlike some owls such as long-eared owls they do not seem to disdain these 1864:). In a food study in France, 9% of the diet of pine martens was found to consist of tawny owls, with the data indicating that owls using nest boxes are more vulnerable to martens. Especially once reaching or around the age of fledging, 1776:). There are at least a hundred cases of goshawks taking the owls and, unlike the eagle-owl, the habitats of the goshawks do fairly closely mirror those of tawny owls with the owls only spared by its different primary times of activity. 1658:. Although in the broad picture, the long-eared also feeds on other prey such as birds and insects, their food niche breadth is consistently lower than that of the tawny owls. For example, in a very large study of central Europe, the 822:, where the species made up 15.6% of the biomass. Although such prey is known to be relatively limited in the species' foods, tawny owls are known to hunt the smallest living mammal species (by weight), the 1.8 g (0.063 oz) 1752:, differs considerably in almost all respects of its life history from tawny owls. The great grey is adapted to taiga and other conifer based forests, both open and enclosed, and relies almost exclusively on voles for food. Almost 1432:

where they constituted 17.4% of the diet and in the northeasterly section of the country where they made up 23.4% of 2046 vertebrate prey items. Elsewhere frogs and amphibians are regular but secondary foods. Of 3194 prey items in

3553:. In Annales Zoologici Fennici (pp. 389–400). Finnish Zoological Publishing Board, formed by the Finnish Academy of Sciences, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica and Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo. 1726:

and similarly conifer based forests than are tawny owls and is also somewhat more likely to be active during daylight. In eastern Europe, the Ural species tends to occur more so at higher elevation in montane forest such as the

1461:, though they are not known to be a significant food source anywhere in the distribution. About eight species of wild fish are known to have been captured, including probably young or infirm specimens of large fish such as 595:), which weighs an estimated mean of 177 g (6.2 oz), and presumably a very nutritious prey resource to these owls. The easternmost food study thus far known was a small one of 201 prey items for the tawny owls in 283:, i.e. the estimated average by number of prey species per nest or study site, the tawny owl surpassed all European owls within the two of the three main regions of non-British Europe, with 5.84 mean food niche breadth in 1343:) as well as are some large birds of prey are sometimes found in the foods of tawny owls but it is not clear that these adults and may refer only to juvenile individuals. Reportage of tawny owls predation on much larger 1883:

The tawny owl is a considerable predator itself of smaller owls. Data indicates that it is second deadliest owl to the smaller species of owl in Europe, behind only the eagle owl. Among their known owl prey species are

1437:, amphibians (probably all frogs) were secondary to rodents, and could account for from 16.6% in good vole years to 19.5%, the leading prey type by number, in bad vole years, with an average 17.5%. from all years. In 972:. When capturing avian prey, the tawny owls not only pluck the prey but also often decapitate and inflict fairly extensive skeletal damage, especially when the victim is a relatively large bird. When a population of 1418:. Key to predation on frogs is the composition of the habitat, with frogs and toads being apparently much more accessible in remote and conserved areas rather than developed lands. In different areas of Poland, the 72:

around prey roosts. In the latter type of hunts, the tawny owls may strike branches and/or beat their wings together in front of denser foliage, bushes or conifers in order to disturb and flush prey such as small

699:, where they accounted for 35.3% by number of 351 prey items and 60.2% of the biomass, resulting in a relative high mean prey mass of 79.7 g (2.81 oz) here. Strong biomass contributions were noted of 413:

mice and bank voles could alternately take the primary food mantle, and that the variation of which was favorite was likely due to differing habitat and forest composition characteristics in the given regions.

932:), weighing averages of up to 200 to 300 g (7.1 to 10.6 oz), despite the potential risk of counterattacking by these bold and powerful hunters. Traces of an even bigger mustelid have been found, the 870:

are taken by tawny owls, with over 30 species in their prey spectrum. Usually less than 1% of vertebrate prey consists of bats but in Poland, dietary relations have been studied between tawny owls living near

1650:. Many studies have contrasted particularly the food habits of long-eared owls living in proximity to tawny owls. Generally speaking, the long-eared owls in Europe are much more strongly disposed to being a 1880:) in some areas. However, in chance encounters during the day, tawny owls have been known to attack and successfully chase off pine martens and have been seen to do the same to red foxes, cats and dogs. 400:

mice are more likely to continue forage on open ground adjacent to woods and tend to be preferred at this time. It was found that bank voles become more vulnerable to tawny owls in areas where enlarged

1706:). However, in much of mainland Europe and elsewhere, tawny owls potentially overlap with larger owls and, depending on habitat composition and prey accessibilities, may be considered more correctly a 1968:. A successful reintroduction of Eurasian pygmies into the forest was followed by a natural range expansion back into the forest by tawnys, which again threatens the population growth of smaller owl. 44:

rather than learned. Normally this owl hunts from a perch. Perching bouts usually last from about 8 to 14 minutes depending largely on habitat. Tawny owl's hunting from a perch or pole can recall a

963:, owls in general seldom prefer avian prey, with most varieties preferring small mammals and/or insects, except on a local basis (the closest to a specialized hunter of other birds are some in the 48:

and the two take similar prey sizes as well. However, high initial speed and maneuvering among trees and bushes with great dexterity may allow it to surprise relatively large prey, more like a

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owls in Europe when it comes to prey selection and can broadly be described as extremely opportunistic. Tawny owls respond to access of prey concentrations of virtually any variety, including

940:), in the foods of tawny owls, though it is a considerable possibility that this was scavenged rather than killed by the owl, much like the verified case of tawny owls scavenging remains of 1662:

species alone constituted about 76% of 57,500 prey items for long-eared owls. Long-eared owls also differ strongly from tawny owls in selecting much more open hunting grounds, such as old

1073:, birds made up 89% and 93% of the foods, respectively. The most important avian foods to English tawny owls were the house sparrow (at 27% and 52% in Wythenshawe and Holland Park), the 587:, field voles were the main food amongst 578 prey items, at 30.5%, with bank voles being supplemental at 8.7%. However, the second most commonly taken prey in Sweden is the much larger 1057:

were favored instead. The urbanization effect was particularly strongly noted in England, where birds constituted only about 4% of the foods in the countryside per two studies, but in

516:, the same three main prey species led the foods amongst 17,433 prey items, with the yellow-necked at 33.4%, the common vole at 15.7% and the bank vole at 11.2%. Among prey groups in 1219:). Frequently, the largest prey item found in dietary studies for tawny owls are relatively outsized birds, such as the aforementioned crow, or an estimated 220 g (7.8 oz) 250:, by taking them in large numbers, sometimes equal or even (more infrequently) greater numbers than mammalian prey. The difference between the generalist tawny owl and a specialized 636:, where the edible dormouse was the main food, at 24.1% of 529 prey items. Other more easterly parts of Europe show relatively high balances of edible dormice as well, such as in 1394:

species. They are more or less taken incidentally, constituting always less than 2% of the foods in known European studies. An exceptional case was in Sahel, Algeria, where the

1666:, usually hunting on the wing rather than from a perch and in utilizing abandoned (and often rather open) bird nests rather than natural cavities as nesting sites. In terms of 3027:

Clutch size variation in Tawny Owls (Strix aluco) from adjacent valley systems: can this be used as a surrogate to investigate temporal and spatial variations in vole density?

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over a three-year (or sometimes four-year) span, which frequently requires the owls to alternate their foods when populations decline. This effect was studied in the British

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may too be taken despite favoring and occurring in more open habitats than those usually hunted by tawny owls. In the southerly parts of the range, as they've acclimated to

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Dietary Distinctive Features of Tawny Owl Strix aluco (Linn 1758) and Barn Owl Tyto alba (Scopoli 1759) in Gardens of Algerian Sahel El Harrach Jardin D'essai Du Hamma

1686:, the tawny owl is the largest and most powerful year-around native owl, ahead slightly of the long-eared and barn owls. Therefore, the tawny owl may be considered an 1004:

will increase the importance of avian prey. There was a fairly strong indication of local urban habitat causing the tawny owl to take a large quantity of bird prey in

1359:), which, at a mean weight of around 1,060 g (2.34 lb), is about twice a tawny owl's size and possibly the largest prey known to be tackled by the species. 388:

mice were preferred where available over bank voles as the latter was considered "somewhat diurnal", however bank voles like many voles are more correctly considered

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The tawny owl takes an extremely wide range of prey species. The global prey spectrum for tawny owls includes well over 400 prey species. They generally prefer small

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are also regularly decapitated (with the head often eaten separately) and nearly all avian prey is plucked before being consumed. One tawny owl was observed to eat a

1167:, a large portion of diet consisted of birds in summer (61% of the biomass but only 23.2% by number) while, in winter, voles almost completely dominated the foods. 1722:. The Ural owl has generally similar nesting and feeding habits but tends to occur in slightly different habitats. Generally, the Ural is more broadly adaptive to 437:, yellow-necked mice and bank voles that were caught by tawny owls were disproportionately large, adult males (55% and 73% of the time, respectively). In central 1211:. In some cases, tawny owls have apparently preyed on adult crows of around their own size or slightly larger, such as an estimated 572 g (1.261 lb) 1497:

than many of the more northerly European studies would indicate. Virtually, any variety of edible invertebrate would be eaten by these owls, though generally

1024:) and that avian prey was more reliable and productive in the area than rodent prey due to the cyclic populations of the latter. Elsewhere in Germany, in the 1542:

in Slovakia, keelback slugs were the most identified prey type among 13,912 prey items, accounting for 26.1%. Keelback slugs were also the main prey type in

3194:. Volkov, SV (ed.-in-chief), Sharikov, AV & Morozov, VV (eds) Owls of The Northern Eurasia: Ecology, spatial and habitat distribution. Moscow, 188, 204. 656:), as well as at least three further species. Another rodent of special interest due to its natural scarcity and its place in the diet of tawny owls is the 392:, potentially active any time of day or night, and may actually be readily accessible to hunting tawny owls. However, the bank voles favoring of heavier 540:, where the common vole was dominant in the foods at 53.3% of 8513 prey items. In a little over half of about 15 smaller prey studies for tawny owls in 109:

may too be taken from trees. Usually these hunting variations are correlated with poor weather hampering the capture of preferred prey. Tawny owls eat

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are often swallowed whole, while others may be torn into pieces. Often prey is dismembered in order to more easily ingest it whole, i.e. decapitating

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Krištín, A., Mihók, J., Danko, Š., Karaska, D., Pacenovský, S., Saniga, M., Boďová, M., Balázs, C., Šotnár, K., Korňan, J. & Olekšák, M. (2007).

1872:) are known to take several young tawny owls (and perhaps an unwary adult), at times taking up to 39% of young owls in a population, as are probably 1151:

mouse years to 62.7% in low mouse years in March–May. Smaller birds such as birds decrease from 21.1 to 3.1% in the spring while large birds such as

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All told, no less than 80 rodent species are known to be taken by tawny owls. While most of these are characteristic prey such as various voles and

477:, Britain, tawnys were thought to remove up to one-third of the local population of bank voles and one-third to three-quarters of the less numerous 81:, or may dive directly into said foliage. Hovering has also been recorded in differing circumstances, including one incidence of an owl hunting a 1105:, where small native rodents are scarce, birds account for about 39% of the diet tawny owls amongst 2472 prey items, in particular the house and 489:, tawny owls are thought to remove an estimated 2,213 rodents annually, or 15 rodents per ha each year, which was about the same rate of loss of 2832:

Implications of temporal changes in forest dynamics on density, nest-site selection, diet and productivity of Tawny Owls Strix aluco in the Alps

3353:. W: Fauna miast. Ochronić różnorodność biotyczną w miastach. P. Indykiewicz, L. Jerzak, T. Barczak (red.), SAR „Pomorze", Bydgoszcz, 501–505. 3965: 3812:

Patterns of bird bone fragmentation in pellets of the Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) and the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) and their taphonomic implications

2626: 2214: 1694:, here the long-eared owl is the largest year-around owl (in these island much larger owls are very rare winter visitors, in the case of the 3551:

Avian and mammalian predators of shrews in Europe: regional differences, between-year and seasonal variation, and mortality due to predation

4082:

Valkama, J., Korpimäki, E., Arroyo, B., Beja, P., Bretagnolle, V., Bro, E., Kenward, R., Manosa, S., Redpath, S. & Viñuela, J. (2005).

305: 85:

that was caught on the wing after a hovering flight. Tawny owls have also taken bats on the wing as well (such as ones snatched from near

16: 1690:

here (despite still being vulnerable occasionally to diurnal raptors and ground predators). However, since the tawny owl never colonized

3462:

Distribution and current status of Cricetulus migratorius (Mammalia: Cricetidae) in Bulgaria, with comments on its status in the Balkans

4332:

Erlinge, S., Goransson, G., Hogstedt, G., Jansson, G., Liberg, O., Loman, J., Nilsson, I.N., von Schantz, T. & Sylvén, M. (1984).

3101:

Wpływ pory roku i dostępności gryzoni leśnych na skład pokarmu puszczyka Strix aluco w warunkach mozaiki polno-leśnej środkowej Polski

1032:, the house sparrow was also the most regular prey species, at 19.2% of 1912 prey items. The diet of tawny owls in the Polish city of 271:, with about 45 prey species per biome, the tawny owl was estimated to have tied for the second most prey species per biome after the 4373:

Higher winter mortality of the Barn Owl compared to the Long-eared Owl and the Tawny Owl: Influence of lipid reserves and insulation?

2250: 1651: 1539: 1049:, birds were dominant in the city, at 73% of the food. However, much like Toruń, in the rural or outer suburban vicinity (i.e. the 425:

voles were taken more or less in equivalent occurrence to their observed populations in the field. Similarly, in Poland, they took

4595:

Long-term study on interactions between Tawny Owls Strix aluco, Jackdaws Corvus monedula and Northern Goshawks Accipiter gentilis

3577:

Diet of tawny owls (Strix aluco) in relation to field vole (Microtus agrestis) abundance in a conifer forest in northern England

3923:

What determines prey selection in owls? Roles of prey traits, prey class, environmental variables, and taxonomic specialization

3654:

Predation upon the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in Mediterranean habitats of Chile and Spain: a comparative analysis

114:

in England and were sometimes seen to feed on worms during daylight. Other hunting from the ground has been observed, often of

3643:

Adanez, A. V., & Hontanilla, C. T. M. (1983). Alimentación del cárabo (Strix aluco L. 1758) en España. Alytes, 1, 291–306.

2952:

Selective predation of tawny owls (Strix aluco) on yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) and bank voles (Myodes glareolus)

4191:

Vertebrates in the diet of the tawny owl Strix aluco in northern Podlasie (NE Poland)–comparison of forest and rural habitats

4139:

Impact of anthropogenic landscape transformation on the diet composition of tawny owl Strix aluco L. in Biebrza National Park

384:

mice, and so are usually selected more so where the preferred rodent types are rare or absent. Previous studies claimed that

782:

are a common component of the foods of tawny owls, less so their larger but generally less numerous distant cousins such as

3299:

The Tawny owl Strix aluco as a material collector in faunistic investigations: the case study of small mammals in NE Poland

1856:

are known to be a considerable threat of all aged tawny owls at nests from nestlings to brooding females, as are probably

1608:

were the primary food type, at 40.4% of 926 prey items and 15.6% of the biomass. Strong numbers were detected here too of

1638:, with other owls presenting the strongest possibility for competition given their overlapping food selection and shared 3390:

New locality record of anatolian ground squirrel, Spermophilus xanthoprymnus (Bennett, 1835) in Isparta-Gencali province

1386:. Despite their scarcity about a dozen species are known to be hunted by this predator, including a couple species of 4424:

Breeding Density and Altitudinal Distribution of Ural, Tawny and Boreal Owls in North Dinaric Alps (Central Slovenia)

4230:

The role of forest age, habitat quality, food resources and weather conditions for Tawny Owl Strix aluco populations

3423:

Living at the limit: ecology and behaviour of Tawny Owls Strix aluco in a northern edge population in central Norway

380:

voles tend to forage in more open habitats such as fields than do the wooded edge-favoring bank vole and especially

153: 553: 486: 4826:. Holarctic Birds of Prey (Ed. by BU Meyburg, RD Chancellor & FF Ferrero), pp. 447e450. Badajoz: Adenex-WWGBP. 4852: 3436:

Anti-predator response of Eurasian red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) to predator calls of tawny owls (Strix aluco)

2887:

Predation by tawny owls (Strix aluco) on bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus)

2280:

Guía para la determinación de la edad y el sexo en las estrigiformes ibéricas- CÁRABO COMÚN TAWNY OWL Strix aluco

1741: 2954:. In Annales Zoologici Fennici (Vol. 49, No. 5, pp. 321–331). Finnish Zoological and Botanical Publishing Board. 4634:

Unexpected role of ungulate carcasses in the diet of Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos in Mediterranean mountains

4538:

Coexistence of a generalist owl with its intraguild predator: distance-sensitive or habitat-mediated avoidance?

2819:

Aantekeningen over de Verdeling van de Ruimte en de Voedeselbronnen onden de Roofvogels en Uilen in Onze Duinen

1589: 725: 720:), with more or less all the species of Europe and western Asia known to be taken by these owls despite their 3072:

Resource use by Tawny Owls Strix aluco in relation to rodent fluctuations in Białowieża National Park, Poland

1843:

may destroy and/or compromise tawny owl nests, either for food, anti-predator behaviour and/or competition.

1425: 1351:) is quite likely to refer to juvenile capercaillie. In at least one case, a tawny owl preyed upon an adult 498: 4842: 3362:

Dementiev, G. P., Gladkov, N. A., Ptushenko, E. S., Spangenberg, E. P., & Sudilovskaya, A. M. (1966).

3273:

Local impact of the Tawny owls (Strix aluco) on the common dormice (Muscardinus avellanarius) in Lithuania

1824: 1308: 1127:

species. In the northern stretches of the range, when birds are taken, slightly larger avian prey such as

680: 504:

In the largest known European diet studies, rodents usually are predominant. Amongst 68,070 prey items in

122:, but tawny owls have also been reported to "leap" upon from a ground vantage point in order to capture a 4523:

Lourenço, R., Goytre, F., del Mar Delgado, M., Thornton, M., Rabaça, J. E., & Penteriani, V. (2013).

1562:

was the identified single prey species (at 20% by number and 21% by biomass) but was closely followed by

4204:

Effects of variable feeding conditions on the Tawny Owl Strix aluco near the northern limit of its range

1676: 1395: 1179: 1038: 280: 4699:

Foraging by pine marten Martes marłeś in relation to food resources in Białowieża National Park, Poland

3779:

Avian predation on mustelids in Europe 1: occurrence and effects on body size variation and life traits

1139:, birds tended to dominate the biomass especially medium-sized passerines such as common starlings and 1131:, often averaging about 80 g (2.8 oz), tend to be taken instead of sparrows and the like. In 810:, to 29% of the biomass. Despite the low numbers of moles that are usually hunted, species such as the 210: 4785:

Teritorialni in plenilski odzivi kozače (Strix uralensis) na manjše sintopične tekmece: diplomsko delo

4746:

L'utilisation par la martre (Martes martes) des nichoirs chouettes dans quelques forêts bourguignonnes

2939:

Selection by size of the yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) by breeding Tawny Owl (Strix aluco)

370:) tends to be the most favored type over large portions of the range, though different species of the 4308:

Prey weight, food overlap, and reproductive output of potentially competing Long-eared and Tawny Owls

4113:

Datos sobre el régimen alimentario del cárabo (Strix aluco L.) en la provincia de León (NO de España)

3475:

Some aspects of the behavior and defensive vocalization of the romanian hamster, Mesocricetus newtoni

3286:

Northern birch mouse (Sicista betulina) in Lithuania, findings in the diet of Tawny owl (Strix aluco)

1917: 1853: 1736: 1728: 1568: 1344: 933: 657: 501:, tawny owls were estimated to remove in autumn 54% of the yellow-necked mice and 40% of bank voles. 195: 69: 32:) is an opportunistic and generalized predator. Peak hunting activity tends to occur largely between 3825:

Bird predation by tawny owls (Strix aluco L.) and its effect on the reproductive performance of tits

2845:

Analysis of Tawny owl (Strix aluco) food remains as a tool for long–term monitoring of small mammals

4660:

Nest dispersion, diet, and breeding success of Black Kites (Milvus migrans) in the Italian pre-Alps

3764:

Uhrin, M., Kanuch, P., Benda, P., Hapl, E., Verbeek, H. J., Kristin, A., & Andreas, M. (2006).

1663: 1597: 1450: 1429: 1017: 628: 588: 490: 426: 4621:

Using stable isotopes to determine dietary patterns in Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata) nestlings

3377:

The diet of tawny owls (Strix aluco) and kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) in the New Forest, Hampshire

3148:

Le régime alimentaire d'une population forestière de Chouettes hulottes (Strix aluco) en Bourgogne

2768:

Das Verhalten gefangener Waldohreulen (Asio otus otus) und Waldkäuze (Strix aluco aluco) zur Beute

1113:), at 16.6% by number and 17% by biomass. Birds strongly dominated the foods of tawny owls in the 4686:

The influence of pine marten on the number of yellow, clintukh and gray owl in the Lipetsk region

4295:

Diet of Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) and Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) in Lithuania as found from pellets

3910:

Territorial behaviour and habitat selection in an urban population of the tawny owl Strix aluco L

1949: 1893: 1885: 1765: 1703: 1573: 1244: 1005: 909: 893: 517: 301: 293: 272: 258:

was illustrated in a semi-captive experience where the two owl species were exposed to different

227: 1808: 1097:) of all ages, grabbing prey of the two species directly off their building ledge nests. In the 336:

Tawny owls will potentially take any small mammals that they encounter. This was illustrated in

1735:

trees, while the tawny owls tend to occur at lower elevations and more mixed forest with fewer

1170: 4847: 4097:

The effects of fluctuations in rodent numbers on breeding success in the Tawny Owl Strix aluco

3961: 2622: 2246: 2210: 2057:

Impact of habitat fragmentation on activity and hunting behavior in the tawny owl, Strix aluco

1667: 1581: 1304: 1248: 1156: 1008:. Here, among 13,359 prey items, bird constituted 35.9% with primary prey of this group being 981: 881: 839: 794:-tasting and slight insectivores. Certainly the most reported variety would be the widespread 741: 309: 178: 4152:

The Diet of the Tawny Owl (Strix Aluco) in South-Western Lithuania during the Breeding Period

537: 536:

voles of about four species made up a further 16.7%. The diet differed in the German area of

4727: 4406:

Niche relationships and life-history tactics of three sympatric Strix owl species in Finland

1953: 1800: 1779:

Other predators long known to have taken tawny owls have included their larger cousins, the

1769: 1316: 1280: 1163:) may increase from 16.2 to 37.7% during high and low years for mice. In a small study from 941: 608: 454: 49: 4824:

Ecology and population of pigmy owls Glaucidium passerinum in the Black Forest (SW Germany)

3740:

Real time observations of Strix aluco preying upon a maternity colony of Myotis emarginatus

3234:

Ecology of the edible dormouse (Glis glis) in a western edge population in southern Belgium

3070:

Jędrzejewski, W., Jędrzejewska, B., Zub, K., Ruprecht, A. L., & Bystrowski, C. (1994).

214:

Tawny owls are largely perch hunters but can be surprisingly agile while hunting in flight.

3683:

Bat predation by long-eared Owls in mediterranean and temperate regions of southern Europe

3179:

Why are the Ural Owl Strix uralensis and the Tawny Owl S. aluco parapatric in Scandinavia?

2968:

Selective predation on common voles by Tawny Owls and Long-eared Owls in winter and spring

1844: 1711: 1519: 1507: 1336: 1220: 1204: 1152: 1106: 1074: 1050: 901: 850: 772: 717: 616: 259: 90: 4293:

Balčiauskienė, L., Jovaišas, A., Naruševičius, V., Petraška, A., & Skuja, S. (2006).

1085:(at 22% in Holland Park). Some urban pairs in Italy derived about 50% of their food from 262:

of wild prey as they encountered it. In this experiment, only small mammals and roosting

4217:

Habitat determination of tawny owl (Strix aluco) prey composition during breeding period

1174:

Urban living tawny owls may come to live extensively especially off of sparrows such as

3014:

Ecology of the tawny owl Strix aluco in the spruce forests of Northumberland and Argyll

2994:

The influence of prey fluctuations on the breeding success of the Tawny Owl Strix aluco

2200: 1933: 1925: 1905: 1784: 1749: 1715: 1643: 1288: 1272: 1232: 831: 823: 649: 513: 458: 406: 284: 255: 45: 4796:

Michel, V. T., Jiménez-Franco, M. V., Naef-Daenzer, B., & Grüebler, M. U. (2016).

4632:

Sánchez-Zapata, J. A., Eguía, S., Blázquez, M., Moleón, M., & Botella, F. (2010).

3851:

Nahrungsspektrum beim Waldkauz (Strix aluco) im Schloßpark Buch (Bezirk Berlin-Pankow)

2388:

Die Ernahrung der Deutschen Raub- vogel und Eulen und ihre Bedeutung in der Heimischer

2070:

A population study of the Tawny Owl Strix aluco) and its main prey species in woodland

1630:, usually the tawny owl is behaviourly dominant and slightly larger than the barn owl. 1410:. Nearly 20 species of amphibian are known to be taken, which includes two species of 956:

Tawny owls do not take birds as commonly as mammals. Unlike the unrelated lineages of

4836: 4731: 4045:

Feeding ecology of tawny owl (Strix aluco) in Wigry national park (North east Poland)

3982:

The diet of Tawny Owls (Strix aluco) breeding in different woodlands of Central Italy

1965: 1941: 1753: 1687: 1683: 1635: 1601: 1563: 1535: 1511: 1462: 1296: 1175: 1128: 1009: 969: 960: 889: 811: 783: 462: 389: 340:

where the number of species taken by the owls was greater than the number of species

288: 263: 4468:

Distribution, abundance and conservation of the Ural Owl Strix uralensis in Slovakia

3877:

The effect of urbanization on the diet composition of the tawny owl (Strix aluco L.)

3351:

Porównanie składu pokarmu puszczyka Strix aluco w leśnej i miejskiej strefie Lublina

3260:

Common dormouse as a prey item of breeding tawny owls in five districts of Lithuania

2913:

Small mammals in the diet of the Tawny owl (Strix aluco) in Central European lowland

2858:

Seasonal changes in Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) diet in an oak forest in Eastern Ukraine

3312:

Regime alimentare dell'Allocco (Strix aluco) in Sicilia ed in Aspromonte (Calabria)

2788:

Trophic structure of raptor communities: a three-continent comparison and synthesis

1961: 1957: 1857: 1816: 1707: 1639: 1503: 1494: 1420: 1328: 1264: 1212: 1200: 1140: 1090: 1066: 1001: 795: 729: 508:, the main prey were the yellow-necked mouse (23.8%), the bank vole (9.9%) and the 393: 199: 182: 86: 82: 4512:

Rocks and trees: habitat response of Tawny Owls Strix aluco in semiarid landscapes

4165:

The Tawny Owl (Strix aluco L., 1758) Population in Belgrad Forest, Istanbul–Turkey

405:

herds consume more of the ground cover. A broad study of different nations within

3701:

Bat predation by tawny owls Strix aluco in differently human-transformed habitats

1534:, which together made up 28.6% of the prey items followed among invertebrates by 664:), which was found to constitute as much as 7% of the foods in some districts of 3493:

Diet of Barn Owl Tyto alba and Tawny Owl Strix aluco in central Anatolia, Turkey

3379:. Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club and Archaeological Society, 40, 21–26. 3336:

Tergou, S., Boukhemza, M., Marniche, F., Milla, A., & Doumandji, S. (2014).

3190:

Sharikov, A. V., Kholopova, N. S., Volkov, S. V., & Makarova, T. V. (2009).

2618:

Tracks and Signs of the Birds of Britain and Europe (Helm Identification Guides)

1659: 1470: 1442: 1375: 1136: 1132: 1058: 862: 573: 509: 442: 345: 106: 4455:

Habitat selection and patterns of distribution in a hierarchic forest owl guild

3297:Żmihorski, M., Gryz, J., Krauze-Gryz, D., Olczyk, A., & Osojca, G. (2011). 756:. Rodent prey may range up to the size of probable juveniles of the non-native 744:, tawny owls can sometimes partially off of quite different murid rodents like 352:

prey. Dietary staples in much of their range are in particular the long-tailed

324: 4269:Ökologische vergleiche zwischen Waldkauz Strix aluco und Waldohreule Asio otus 1909: 1897: 1832: 1559: 1515: 1406:

are generally much more prominent in the tawny owl's diet, almost exclusively

1367: 1256: 1062: 989: 957: 721: 633: 565: 525: 478: 466: 4442:

K medzidruhovým vzťahom Glaucidium passerinum, Strix uralensis a Strix aluco

4084:

Birds of prey as limiting factors of gamebird populations in Europe: a review

3057:

Ryszkowski, L., Wagner, C. K„ Goszczyński, J. & Truszkowski, J., (1971).

583:

The northernmost food study for tawny owls thus far conducted showed that in

3046:

Variation in diet of Tawny Owl Strix aluco L. along an urbanization gradient

1848: 1695: 1610: 1605: 1546:(accounting for 24.6% of 529 prey items), and detected in strong numbers in 1531: 1527: 1438: 1403: 1188: 1086: 1082: 973: 964: 767: 700: 688: 684: 665: 600: 438: 363: 358:, commonly called field or wood mice, and the short-tailed rodents known as 341: 329: 313: 235: 187: 139: 110: 65: 25: 4256:

Typy potravy sovy obyčajnej (Strix aluco) v Národnom parku Muránska planina

3223:. Trakya University Journal of Scientific Research Series B, 2(2), 145–150. 3044:

Goszczyński, J., Jabłoński, P., Lesiński, G., & Romanowski, J. (1993).

1852:

well, though tend to attack almost exclusively during the breeding season.

572:

followed by bank vole, at 20.4% by number and 15.6% by biomass. In western

3159:

Roulin, A., Ducret, B., Bize, P., Piault, R. & Ravussin, P.A. (2008).

2926:

Uneven sex ratio of voles in the food of Aegolius funereus and Strix aluco

4606:

Lourenço, R., Santos, S. M., Rabaça, J. E., & Penteriani, V. (2011).

3727:

The food of the tawny owl (Strix aluco L.) from near a bat cave in Poland

2950:

Sunde, P., Forsom, H. M., Al-Sabi, M. N. S., & Overskaug, K. (2012).

2729:

Spatial and temporal diversity of the diet of the tawny owl (Strix aluco)

1792: 1780: 1719: 1647: 1627: 1551: 1543: 1478: 1324: 1033: 917: 787: 713: 645: 637: 624: 604: 505: 372: 354: 191: 53: 41: 37: 3753:

The impact of predation by birds on bat populations in the British Isles

2466:

Nocturnal observations of tawny owls Strix aluco preying upon earthworms

1053:) outside the urbanized areas of Warsaw, other prey such as rodents and 4163:

Arslangündoğdu, Z., Beşkardeş, V., Smith, L., & Yüksel, U. (2013).

3161:

Régime alimentaire de la chouette hulotte Strix aluco en Suisse Romande

2981:

Predation and noncyclicity in a microtine population in southern Sweden

2536:. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal 39: 624–627 (in Russian with English summary). 1865: 1691: 1547: 1477:), with at least some instances of tawny owls also catching ornamental 1434: 1383: 1352: 1240: 1102: 877: 807: 803: 737: 676: 672: 641: 569: 521: 434: 418: 344:

could capture themselves. They primarily take and derive most of their

243: 131: 127: 3838:

Habitat quality, breeding success and density in Tawny Owl Strix aluco

3088:

14jährige Beobachtungen zur Vermehrung des Waldkauzes (Strix aluco L.)

2755:

Diet shifts of the tawny owl Strix aluco in central and northern Italy

1702:) or are probably accidentally introduced by humans, as is likely the 1622: 1916:). Additionally, they may hunt smaller diurnal birds of prey such as 1840: 1555: 1523: 1498: 1391: 1196: 1164: 1123: 1118: 1114: 1070: 1046: 1029: 1025: 921: 819: 757: 753: 749: 708: 696: 596: 584: 557: 541: 474: 349: 337: 251: 239: 223: 219: 166: 119: 115: 98: 94: 4716:

Predators control post-fledging mortality in tawny owls, Strix aluco

4619:

Resano, J., Hernández-Matías, A., Real, J., & Parés, F. (2011).

4536:

Sergio, F., Marchesi, L., Pedrini, P., & Penteriani, V. (2007).

4282:

Synthesis of 312 studies on the diet of the Long-eared Owl Asio otus

3738:

Spitzenberger, F., Engelberger, S., & Kugelschafter, K. (2014).

3421:

Sunde, P., Overskaug, K., Bolstad, J. P., & Øien, I. J. (2001).

3403:

Ecology of the Eurasian flying squirrel (Pteromys volans) in Finland

1807:). In addition, more reported raptorial predators have included the 4499:

Photographic Studies of Some Less Familiar Birds: LXXXIV. Eagle Owl

4358:

Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., Bauer, K. M., & Bezzel, E. (1980).

2615:

Brown, Roy; Ferguson, John; Lawrence, Michael; Lees, David (1987).

1526:

in Italy, 47.8% of 874 prey items were invertebrates, particularly

830:), up to the size of the largest mole, the 440 g (16 oz) 4798:

Intraguild predator drives forest edge avoidance of a mesopredator

3288:. Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 57(3), 277–289. 2350:

Pirates and Predators: The piratical and predatory habits of birds

1732: 1723: 1621: 1387: 1366: 1228: 1169: 1098: 925: 779: 766: 323: 268: 209: 170: 162: 152: 147: 143: 61: 57: 15: 4811:

Coexistence of owl species in the farmland of southeastern Poland

4772:

Sex-specific diet analysis of the Tawny Owl Strix aluco in Norway

4243:

Note sull'orientamento trofico dell'Allocco Strix aluco in Umbria

3766:

On the Greater noctule (Nyctalus lasiopterus) in central Slovakia

3192:

Review of the owls' diet in the Moscow City and the Moscow Region

668:, but only contributed 0.6% of the foods overall in the country. 580:

species at 74.3% and bank vole at 18.7% among 10,176 prey items.

4697:

Jędrzejewski, W., Zalewski, A., & Jędrzejewska, B. (1993).

4176:

Gryz, J., Lesiński, G., Kowalski, M., & Krrauze, D. (2012).

3875:

Grzędzicka, E., Krzysztof, K. U. S., & Nabielec, J. (2013).

2534:

Contribution to feeding habits of Strix aluco in the Tula Zaseki

1655: 1458: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1371: 1208: 1054: 997: 993: 872: 858: 791: 745: 402: 359: 247: 231: 174: 135: 123: 102: 74: 33: 4150:

Balčiauskienė, L., Juškaitis, R., & Atkočaitis, O. (2005).

4126:

Amphibians and reptiles as prey of birds in southwestern Europe

3810:

Bochenski, Z. M., Tomek, T., Boev, Z., & Mitev, I. (1993).

3284:

Balčiauskas, L., Balčiauskienė, L., & Alejunas, P. (2011).

2911:Żmihorski, M., Balčiauskienė, L., & Romanowski, J. (2008). 1243:. Although many species of dove are also taken, rock doves and 771:

Large prey for tawny owls can extend commonly in some areas to

130:

often do. There are now many accounts of tawny owls feeding on

4167:. İstanbul Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 63(1), 11–17. 3603:

Etude comparative du régime alimentaire de la Chouette hulotte

1873: 1449:) in particular accounting for 11.2%. In Sahel, Algeria, the 867: 78: 4470:. Tagungsbericht des Nationalparks Bayerischer Wald, 8, 8–15. 3275:. Ekologia (Bratislava)/Ecology (Bratislava), 23(3), 305–309. 2495:

Ernährung und Jagdbeute des Waldkauzes im Berliner Tiergarten

2109:

Post-release survival of hand-reared tawny owls (Strix aluco)

1402:) was the leading prey species at 16.75% of 2472 prey items. 1195:). At the other end of the size scale for passerine prey are 1121:, accounting for more than 70% of 229 prey items, especially 916:) outside of Europe. Other mammalian prey recorded have been 838:), as well as perhaps larger still, some small adults of the 818:) can be contribute heartily to the prey biomass, such as in 4347:

Osteologische Untersuchungen an einigen deutschen Eulenarten

4232:. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 19(5), 1039–1043. 3135:

Neue Ergebnisse fiber die Ernährung der Greifvögel und Eulen

2790:. In Current ornithology (pp. 47–137). Springer, Boston, MA. 599:, wherein the common vole was dominant at 72.6%. Of similar 316:

having a high mean prey mass of 73.1 g (2.58 oz).

4787:. univerzitetni študij (Doctoral dissertation, N. Žlender). 4647:

The food of the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Slovakia

4566:

Owls killing and killed by other owls and raptors in Europe

4219:. Acta biologica universitatis Daugavpiliensis, 6(2), 1–12. 4178:

Skład pokarmu puszczyka Strix aluco w Puszczy Białowieskiej

3614:

Queiroz, A. I., Bertrand, A., & Khakhin, G. V. (1996).

3247:

Prehrana lesne sove Strix aluco na Kozjanskem (V Slovenija)

2603:

Mode de dépouillement de mammifères moyens par deux rapaces

1839:) Outside of traditionally raptorial groups, birds such as 1718:, tawny owls sometimes co-exist with their larger cousins, 1634:

In every part of its range, tawny owls co-exist with other

4645:

Chavko, J., Danko, Š., Obuch, J., & Mihók, J. (2007).

2481:. In Earthworm ecology (pp. 393–414). Springer, Dordrecht. 2278:

Martinez, J.A., Zuberogoitia, I. & Alonso, R. (2002).

312:

having a mean prey mass of 40.3 g (1.42 oz) and

226:, where they are available. However, they are one are the 89:

when attempting to hunt themselves) and have been seen to

4525:

Tawny owl vocal activity is constrained by predation risk

3616:

Status and conservation of Desmaninae in Europe (Vol. 76)

3536:

Wilson, E. J., Newson, R. M., & Aliev, F. F. (1966).

3449:

Diet of the Eurasian Tawny Owl in farmland of east Poland

2786:

Marti, C. D., Korpimäki, E., & Jaksić, F. M. (1993).

1596:) (4.35% by number, 1% biomass). More locally within the 1382:

Little evidence has been found of tawny owl predation on

880:, 252 attacks by tawny owls were recorded at a colony of 4770:

Overskaug, K., Kristiansen, E., & Sunde, P. (1995).

4593:

Koning, F. J., Koning, H. J., & Baeyens, G. (2009).

4349:. Zool. Abhandl Staal. Mus. Tierk. Dresden, 30: 149–157. 4189:

Lesiński, G., Błachowski, G., & Siuchno, M. (2009).

4141:. Parki Narodowe i Rezerwaty Przyrody, 30(3/4), 109–118. 3943:

Comparative food niche analysis of Strix owls in Belarus

3681:

García, A. M., Cervera, F., & Rodríguez, A. (2005).

3392:. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 27(12 A), 9172–9178. 3366:. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem. 3059:

Operation of predators in a forest and cultivated fields

2801:

Food-niche and trophic relationships among European owls

1538:

subfamily of scarab beetles at about 7% of the prey. In

396:

does limit access to them in the warmer months, whereas

4228:

Wiącek, J., Polak, M., & Grzywaczewski, G. (2010).

4111:

Alegre, J., Hernández, A., & Purroy, F. J. (1989).

4013:. The ecology and conservation of European owls, 55–63. 3525:

Owl verebrate prey taxa in the southern Levant per site

1441:, frogs constituted 14.5% of 1125 prey items, with the 304:

having a mean prey mass of 26.6 g (0.94 oz),

4744:

Baudvin, H., Dessolin, J. L., & Riols, C. (1985).

4608:

Superpredation patterns in four large European raptors

3980:

Manganaro, A., Ranazzi, L., & Salvati, L. (2000).

2096:

Hunting ranges and feeding ecology of owls in farmland

1147:), with these contributing 54% of the biomass in high 576:, the diet was similar but far more homogeneous, with 2873:. Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior, 1–4. 4673:

Kauw Corvus monedula trekt in bij Bosuil Strix aluco

2830:

Marchesi, L., Sergio, F., & Pedrini, P. (2006).

4215:Balčiauskienė, L., & Dementavičius, D. (2006). 4137:Gryz, J., Góźdź, I., & Krauze-Gryz, D. (2011). 4058:

The food of birds of prey and owls in Fenno-Scandia

3960:by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), 3699:Lesiński, G., Gryz, J., & Kowalski, M. (2009). 3245:Kuhar, B., Kalan, G., & Janžekovič, F. (2006). 3117:

Comparative analysis of food of owls in agrocenoses

2554:

Kochan, W. (1979). Acta Zool. Cracovia, 23: 213–46.

2267:

Hvor tungt bytte klarer rovfuglene å fly avsted med

2041:. Birds of Western Palearctic. Update, 3(1), 43–77. 1424:genus of frogs led the prey composition such as in 695:) were noted to be the main prey for tawny owls in 4510:Sánchez-Zapata, J. A., & Calvo, J. F. (1999). 3473:Simeonovska-Nikolova, D., & Dekov, O. (2013). 2479:Predation on earthworms by terrestrial vertebrates 1964:after the smaller species was already depleted by 308:having a mean mass of 37.7 g (1.33 oz), 4128:. Smithsonian Herpetological Information Service. 3258:Balčiauskienė, L., & Balčiauskas, L. (2008). 2966:Balciauskas, L., & Balciauskiene, L. (2014). 2937:Balčiauskas, L., & Balčiauskienė, L. (2014). 1952:, to such an extent that they may have cause the 465:. Here tawny owls are exceptionally dependent on 4321:North American owls: biology and natural history 2900:Impacts of woodland deer on small mammal ecology 1731:, especially those with extensive old growth of 908:) in Europe and to the 140 g (4.9 oz) 4029:Dietary separation of owls in the Peak District 3129: 3127: 3125: 3111: 3109: 2898:Flowerdew, J. R., & Ellwood, S. A. (2001). 2648:. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2427:Tawny Owl taking Juvenile Sand Martin in Flight 2344: 2342: 1654:than the tawny owl, relying almost entirely on 1614:beetles, contributing 14% of the prey numbers. 1378:are a common component of the tawny owl's diet. 607:, amongst 1236 prey items, the main foods were 4480: 4478: 4476: 4436: 4434: 4432: 4011:Habitat use by farmland Tawny Owls Strix aluco 3937: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3814:. Acta zoologica cracoviensia, 36(2), 313–328. 3601:Delmee, E., Dachy, P. & Simon, P. (1979). 3221:Dormice in the diet of owls in the Middle East 3040: 3038: 3036: 2962: 2960: 2885:Southern, H. N., & Lowe, V. P. W. (1982). 2497:. Beitr. Fortpflanzungsbiol. Vög, 10, 206–213. 2382: 2380: 2378: 2376: 2374: 623:) at 15%. The tawny owl takes many species of 4623:. Journal of Raptor Research, 45(4), 342–353. 4484:Penteriani, V. & Delgado, M.d.M. (2019). 4400: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4388:. Crossley Books, Princeton University Press. 4334:Can vertebrate predators regulate their prey? 3976: 3974: 3866:. Journal of Raptor Research, 28(4), 246–252. 3703:. Italian Journal of Zoology, 76(4), 415–421. 3652:Jaksic, F. M., & Soriguer, R. C. (1981). 3538:Enemies and competitors of the nutria in USSR 3464:. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 40(6), 925–932. 3016:(Doctoral dissertation, The Open University). 2970:. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 38(2), 242–249. 2860:. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 41(1), 130–137. 920:. The tawny owl is known to hunt both common 222:in their diet, especially various species of 8: 4579:Intraguild predation by eagle owls in Europe 4560: 4558: 4556: 4554: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4386:The Crossley ID Guide: Britain & Ireland 4180:. Chrońmy Przyrodę Ojczystą, 68(2), 100–108. 4039: 4037: 3714:Bats in the diet of owls in Northern Eurasia 3695: 3693: 3691: 3509:On the diet of owls (Strigiformes) in Jordan 3487: 3485: 3483: 3090:. Journal für Ornithologie, 113(3), 276–286. 3082: 3080: 2881: 2879: 2532:Gruzdev, L.V. & Likhachev, G.N. (1960). 2508:Zur mannigfaltigen Fangmethode des Wadkauzes 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2308: 1428:, where they made up 21.1% of the foods, in 802:). Exceptionally, in a large food study for 157:A partially dissected pellet of a tawny owl. 4527:. Journal of avian biology, 44(5), 461–468. 4418: 4416: 4414: 4047:. Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 17(3), 234–241. 3912:. Italian Journal of Zoology, 57(1), 59–66. 3664: 3662: 3631:. Shire Natural History Series: Mammals 32. 3301:. Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 21(3), 185–191. 3173: 3171: 3169: 2924:Lagerström, M., & Häkkinen, I. (1978). 2757:. Italian Journal of Zoology, 67(1), 73–79. 2571: 2569: 2489: 2487: 2366:Hunting in flight by Tawny Owls Strix aluco 2360: 2358: 2306: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2107:Bennett, J. A., & Routh, A. D. (2000). 849:On occasion, tawny owls will prey on young 568:, made up 51.1% by number and 48.8% of the 376:genus can become locally rather prominent. 4774:. Journal of Raptor Research, 29, 137–140. 4709: 4707: 4662:. Journal of Raptor Research, 33, 207–217. 4589: 4587: 4107: 4105: 4023: 4021: 4019: 3777:Korpimäki, E., & Norrdahl, K. (1989). 3712:Sharikov A.V. & Makarova T.V. (2014). 3549:Korpimäki, E., & Norrdahl, K. (1989). 3025:Petty, S. J., & Fawkes, B. L. (1997). 2941:. North-Western Journal of Zoology, 10(2). 2813: 2811: 2809: 2799:Herrera, C. M., & Hiraldo, F. (1976). 2749: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2245:(2nd ed.). London: Christopher Helm. 2051: 2049: 2047: 20:The fairly powerful talons of a tawny owl. 4371:Massemin, S., & Handrich, Y. (1997). 4336:The American Naturalist, 123(1), 125–133. 4297:. Acta zoologica lituanica, 16(1), 37–45. 4154:. Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 15(1), 13–20. 4043:Zawadzka, D., & Zawadzki, J. (2007). 3925:. Ecology and evolution, 8(6), 3382–3392. 3725:Kowalski, M., & Lesinski, G. (1990). 3656:. The Journal of Animal Ecology, 269–281. 3639: 3637: 3571: 3569: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3559: 3503: 3501: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3349:Wiącek, J., & Niedźwiedź, M. (2008). 3332: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3262:. Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 18(1), 61–65. 3215: 3213: 3203:Scaravelli, D., & Aloise, G. (1995). 3008: 3006: 3004: 3002: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2707: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2675: 279:). Another European study found the mean 4384:Crossley, R., & Couzens, D. (2014). 4202:Solonen, T., & Karhunen, J. (2002). 3992: 3990: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3885: 3849:Schulz, V. W., & Massow, S. (1998). 3793: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3519: 3517: 3447:Kitowski, I., & Pitucha, G. (2007). 3099:Gryz, J., & Krauze-Gryz, D. (2016). 2869:Eppley, T. M., & Donati, G. (2019). 2856:Yatsiuk, Y., & Filatova, Y. (2017). 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2139: 2137: 1493:The tawny owl feeds more extensively on 497:) per ha in the Warsaw area as well. In 485:). On a 148 ha (370 acres) plot of 362:. Amongst voles, the widely distributed 134:from a wide range of sources, including 4577:Lourenço, R., & Rabaça, J. (2006). 4115:. Miscel· lània Zoològica, 13, 209–211. 3953: 3951: 3540:. Journal of Mammalogy, 47(2), 353–355. 3150:. Rev. Sci. Bourgogne-Nature, 4, 85–89. 3146:Baudvin, H., & Jouaire, S. (2006). 2545:Vásárhelyi, I. (1967). Aquila, 73: 196. 2239:König, Claus; Weick, Friedhelm (2008). 2234: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2226: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2072:. D. Phil Thesis, University of Oxford. 1977: 615:) at 48.1% of the prey composition and 532:species made up 25.7% of the foods and 3579:. Journal of Zoology, 248(4), 451–465. 3491:Nedyalkov, N., & Boev, Z. (2016). 3232:Hürner, H., & Michaux, J. (2009). 2563:Raber, H. (1950). Animal Behaviour, 2. 2416:. Beitr. Fortpfl. Biol. Vogel, 12: 79. 2033: 2031: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2011: 2009: 2007: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1414:outside of the more typical frogs and 724:, as well as the nocturnal but scarce 648:. Another widely taken species is the 4813:. Acta ornithologica, 37(2), 121–125. 4671:Buker, J.B. & Hartog, A. (1985). 4610:. Population Ecology, 53(1), 175–185. 4258:. Reussia, 1 (Supplement 1), 299–309. 4245:. Gli Uccelli d'Italia. XXXIV. 35–49. 4086:. Biological Reviews, 80(2), 171–203. 3864:Diet of urban and suburban Tawny owls 3853:. Berl. ornithol. Berlin, 8: 147–167. 3823:Sasvári, L., & Hegyi, Z. (1998). 3511:. Slovak Raptor Journal, 12(1), 9–40. 3388:Aksan, Ş., & Cohadar, H. (2018). 3340:. Pakistan Journal of Zoology, 46(4). 3249:. Acrocephalus, 27(130/131), 147–154. 3048:. Acta ornithologica, 27(2), 113–123. 2889:. Journal of Zoology, 198(1), 83–102. 2209:. London, Collins. pp. 209–219. 1999: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1981: 564:species, presumably dominated by the 7: 4701:. Acta Theriologica, 38(4), 405–426. 4658:Sergio, F.., & Boto, A. (1999). 3438:. Mammalian Biology, 71(5), 315–318. 3405:. Biology of gliding mammals, 67–86. 3074:. Journal of Avian Biology, 308–318. 3061:. Ann. Zool. Fennici, 8, 1: 160—168. 2579:. Nos oiseaux, 26(289–290), 124–131. 2203:; Cameron, Ad (illustrator) (1988). 2098:. Ph.D. thesis, Aberdeen University. 2083:Tawny Owl taking prey during the day 2059:. Behavioral Ecology, 6(4), 410–413. 1618:Interspecies predatory relationships 4540:Animal Behaviour, 74(6), 1607–1616. 4453:Vrezec, A., & Tome, D. (2004). 3998:Diet changes in Breeding Tawny Owls 3921:Comay, O., & Dayan, T. (2018). 2642:Cramp, S.; Simmons, K.E.L. (1985). 888:), 31 of which were successful. In 876:when staple rodent prey is low. In 3827:. Acta Oecologica, 19(6), 483–490. 3523:Comay, O. & Dayan, T. (2018). 3310:Sarà, M., & Zanca, L. (1989). 2847:. Acta Zool. Lituanica, 15, 85–89. 2731:. Slovak Raptor Journal, 5, 1–120. 1572:(10.76% by number, 0.5% biomass), 1239:) of the same estimated weight in 1081:) (at 33% in Wythenshawe) and the 924:in Europe, including fairly large 287:and 4.3 food niche breadth in the 14: 4649:. Slovak Raptor Journal, 1, 1–18. 4241:Gaggi, A. & Paci, A. (2009). 3958:CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses 3685:. J. Rapt. Res., 39 (4): 445–453. 3364:Birds of the Soviet Union, vol. 1 3137:. Eugen Umer, Stuttgart, Germany. 2455:. London Bird Reports, 29: 56–72. 2429:. British Birds, 72(11), 552–552. 1744:). A third and much larger still 1626:A captive tawny owl with a large 1580:) (8.85% by number, 1% biomass), 900:) to the 59 g (2.1 oz) 441:, tawny and long-eared owls took 4732:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.14069.x 4714:Sunde, Peter (September 2005). " 4688:. Biological Sciences, 2: 20–22. 4457:. Ornis Fennica, 81(3), 109–118. 4360:Handbuch der vögel mitteleuropas 4206:. Ornis Fennica, 79(3), 121–131. 4099:. Mammal Review, 12(4), 155–157. 3236:. Vie et Milieu, 59(2), 243–250. 2621:. Christopher Helm. p. 86. 2453:The food of Tawny Owls in London 2390:. Natur. Verl. Neumann, Neudamm. 2111:. Animal Welfare, 9(3), 317–321. 1764:species to the tawny owl is the 1760:Much more dangerous than larger 548:voles, while a further 24% were 4071:Owls feeding on young sea-birds 4000:. J Raptor Res, 26(4), 239–242. 3897:Bird prey taken by British owls 3879:. Pol. J. Ecol, 61(2), 391–400. 3477:. Acta Zool. Bulg, 65, 462–468. 3207:. Italian Journal of Mammalogy. 2915:. Pol. J. Ecol, 56(4), 693–700. 2645:Birds of the Western Palearctic 2577:Les pelotes de quelques rapaces 2206:Owls of the Northern Hemisphere 627:, which are nocturnal, largely 4514:. Ornis Fennica, 76(2), 79–87. 4426:. J. Raptor Res, 37(1), 55–62. 4408:. Ornis Scandinavica, 126–132. 4310:. Ornis Scandinavica, 176–182. 3801:. Running Press, Philadelphia. 3768:. Vespertilio, 9(10), 183–192. 3670:Taphonomy of bats (Chiroptera) 3592:. Ed. Elsevier Sequoïa, Paris. 2414:Uber das Rutteln des Walkauzes 1566:(at 19.76% and 1.5% biomass), 1540:Muránska planina National Park 1133:Amsterdamse-Waterleidingduinen 161:Upon capture, small prey like 93:large, relatively slow-flying 1: 4636:. Bird Study, 57(3), 352–360. 4568:. British Birds, 69, 144–154. 4060:. British Birds, 54, 307–320. 4031:. Bird study, 32(2), 122–131. 3840:. Ornis Svecica, 13, 137–143. 3205:Predation on dormice in Italy 3119:. Ekol. Pol., 29(3), 431–439. 2928:. Ornis Fennica, 55, 149–153. 2834:. Bird Study, 53(3), 310–318. 2601:de Brichambaut, J.P. (1978). 1363:Reptiles, amphibians and fish 560:, amongst 51,743 prey items, 4501:. British Birds, L: 486–490. 3755:. Mammal Review, 21:123–142. 3181:Ornis Scandinavica, 116–120. 2605:. Alauda, 46 : 271: 27. 2442:. British Museum of Natural. 1588:) (7.92% #, 1% biomass) and 687:, other rodents also taken. 679:from the smallest available 194:, are regurgitated in large 4684:Zemlyanukhin, A.I. (1995). 4375:The Condor, 99(4), 969–971. 3899:. Bird Study, 19(2), 91–96. 3742:. Vespertilio, 17, 185–196. 3163:. Nos Oiseaux, 55, 149–156. 2902:. Forestry, 74(3), 277–287. 4869: 4800:. Ecosphere, 7(3), e01229. 4759:Tawny Owl attacking Marten 4323:. Smithsonian Institution. 3941:Tishechkin, A. K. (1997). 2843:Balciauskiene, L. (2005). 2510:. Beitr. Vogelkd, 25: 364. 2085:. British Birds 30, 173–4. 1451:Mediterranean painted frog 4319:Johnsgard, P. A. (1988). 4193:. Fragm. faun, 52, 51–59. 4095:Hirons, G. J. M. (1982). 4073:. British Birds, 55: 591. 3451:. Berkut, 16(2), 225–231. 3375:Hirons, G. J. M. (1984). 2477:Macdonald, D. W. (1983). 2464:Macdonald, D. W. (1976). 2399:Fitter, R. S. R. (1949). 2348:Meinerzhagen, R. (1959). 2265:Bernhoft-Osa, A. (1973). 1522:(5%). In the vicinity of 898:Pipistrellus pipistrellus 752:as well as the non-murid 683:to the largest available 302:broadleaf highland forest 173:, removing the legs from 4748:. Ciconia, 9(2), 61–104. 4597:. Ardea, 97(4), 453–457. 4284:. Ardea, 97(4), 615–625. 4069:Saunders, D. R. (1962). 3605:. Rev. Gerfaut, 45 – 77. 3590:La hulotte et son régime 3425:. Ardea, 89(3), 495–508. 3133:Uttendorfer, O. (1952). 3115:Goszczynski, J. (1981). 3103:. Sylwan, 160(1), 57–63. 2996:. Ibis, 126(3), 284–295. 2803:. Ornis Scand, 7(1), 29. 2575:Thiollay, J. M. (1963). 2523:. British Birds, 38: 56. 2521:Tawny Owl taking carrion 2468:. Ibis, 118(4), 579–580. 2386:Uttendorfer, O. (1939). 2368:. Ibis, 120(4), 528–531. 1594:Anoplotrupes stercorosus 1327:have been taken such as 857:) as well as very young 654:Muscardinus avellanarius 4444:. Tichodroma, 8, 61–73. 4440:Pačenovský, S. (1995). 4306:Nilsson, I. N. (1984). 4271:. Ardea, 60(1–2), 1–71. 3751:Speakman, J.R. (1991). 3672:. Geobios, 28, 251–256. 2821:. Graspieper, 2: 43–53. 2592:. Orn. Beob. 7: 37–40. 2364:Nilsson, I. N. (1978). 2068:Hirons, G.J.R. (1976). 2055:Redpath, S. M. (1995). 1261:Lagopus lagopus scotica 1117:area, such as northern 707:) elsewhere such as in 554:Bourgogne-Franche-Comté 4422:Vrezec, A. L. (2003). 4404:Korpimäki, E. (1986). 4027:Yalden, D. W. (1985). 3716:. Plecotus, 17: 30–36. 3460:Nedyalkov, N. (2016). 3401:Hanski, I. K. (2000). 3314:. Avocetta, 13, 31–39. 3271:Juskaitis, R. (2004). 2506:Schneider, W. (1979). 1825:eastern imperial eagle 1631: 1574:European field cricket 1379: 1309:black-legged kittiwake 1183: 1180:Eurasian tree sparrows 776: 333: 215: 158: 21: 4809:Kitowski, I. (2002). 4009:Hardy, A. R. (1992). 3984:. Bueto, 11, 115–124. 3908:Galeotti, P. (1990). 3862:Zalewski, A. (1994). 3668:Kowalski, K. (1995). 3627:Morris, P.A. (1997). 3575:Petty, S. J. (1999). 3177:Lundberg, A. (1980). 3086:Wendland, V. (1972). 3012:Petty, S. J. (1992). 2992:Wendland, V. (1984). 2817:Koning, F.J. (1982). 2588:Bütikofer, E (1909). 2519:Robert, E.L. (1944). 2493:Schnurre, O. (1934). 2440:A study of blackbirds 2336:. T. & AD Poyser. 2039:Strix aluco Tawny Owl 2037:Galeotti, P. (2001). 1918:Eurasian sparrowhawks 1854:European pine martens 1710:. Mainly in parts of 1625: 1400:Tarentola mauritanica 1370: 1173: 1111:Passer hispaniolensis 1039:Eurasian tree sparrow 914:Rousettus aegyptiacus 855:Oryctolagus cuniculus 770: 712:accessible prey like 327: 298:Glaucidium passerinum 242:as well as sometimes 213: 156: 19: 4783:Žlender, N. (2016). 4757:Szomjas, L. (1955). 4564:Mikkola, H. (1976). 4488:. Poyser Monographs. 4056:Bergman, G. (1961). 3996:Kirk, D. A. (1992). 3895:Glue, D. E. (1972). 3836:Persson, M. (2003). 3618:. Council of Europe. 3434:Randler, C. (2006). 2979:Erlinge, S. (1987). 2753:Capizzi, D. (2000). 2438:Snow, D. W. (1958). 2332:Mikkola, H. (1983). 2282:. Monticola: 95–102. 2269:. Sterna, 12, 73–83. 2094:Hardy, A.R. (1977). 2081:Brown, R.H. (1936). 1956:of the pygmy around 1729:Carpathian Mountains 1604:of England, wherein 1569:Rhizotrogus aestivus 1345:western capercaillie 934:European pine marten 906:Nyctalus lasiopterus 658:northern birch mouse 528:prey items studied, 431:Apodemus flavicollis 4280:Birrer, S. (2009). 4267:Smeenk, C. (1972). 4124:Martin, J. (1990). 3729:. Myotis, 44, 10–3. 3588:Guerin, G. (1932). 2425:Mather, J. (1979). 2412:Ruthke, P. (1935). 2352:. Oliver & Boyd 1954:regional extinction 1950:Eurasian pygmy owls 1894:Eurasian pygmy owls 1886:Eurasian scops owls 1455:Discoglossus pictus 1430:Wigry National Park 1341:Phasianus colchicus 1293:Gallinula chloropus 1145:Garrulus glandarius 1018:European greenfinch 986:Cyanistes caeruleus 844:Erinaceus europaeus 589:European water vole 491:striped field mouse 4822:König, C. (1998). 4761:. Aquila, 59: 450. 4581:. Airo, 16, 63–68. 4497:Curry-Lindahl, K. 4362:. Aula, Wiesbaden. 4345:Winde, H. (1970). 4254:Obuch, J. (2004). 3507:Obuch, J. (2018). 3219:Obuch, J. (2001). 2770:. Behaviour, 1–95. 2766:Räber, H. (1949). 2727:Obuch, J. (2011). 2451:Beven, G. (1965). 1774:Accipiter gentilis 1766:Eurasian eagle-owl 1704:Eurasian eagle-owl 1677:lipid fat reserves 1652:specialist species 1632: 1578:Gryllus campestris 1380: 1357:Anas platyrhynchos 1245:common wood pigeon 1184: 1161:Scolopax rusticola 1157:Eurasian woodcocks 982:Eurasian blue tits 910:Egyptian fruit bat 894:common pipistrelle 886:Myotis emarginatus 777: 613:Apodemus uralensis 593:Arvicola amphibius 483:Apodemus sylvatica 427:yellow-necked mice 334: 294:Eurasian pygmy owl 281:food niche breadth 273:Eurasian eagle-owl 216: 159: 22: 4675:. Limosa, 58: 74. 3966:978-0-8493-4258-5 3799:Owls of the world 3797:Hume, R. (1991). 3781:. Oikos, 205–215. 2983:. Oikos, 347–352. 2628:978-0-7470-0201-7 2242:Owls of the World 2216:978-0-00-219493-8 1946:Falco columbarius 1930:Falco tinnunculus 1914:Aegolius funereus 1821:Aquila chrysaetos 1801:peregrine falcons 1668:peri-urbanisation 1590:common dor beetle 1586:Typhaeus typhoeus 1483:Carassius auratus 1426:Białowieża Forest 1321:Dryocopus martius 1305:black-headed gull 1269:Tetrastes bonasia 1249:green-winged teal 1014:Passer domesticus 942:European polecats 840:European hedgehog 728:. The widespread 705:Rattus norvegicus 499:Białowieża Forest 495:Apodemus agrarius 455:population cycles 332:is a common prey. 254:-hunter like the 228:least specialized 190:and invertebrate 177:while birds like 4860: 4853:Eating behaviors 4827: 4820: 4814: 4807: 4801: 4794: 4788: 4781: 4775: 4768: 4762: 4755: 4749: 4742: 4736: 4735: 4711: 4702: 4695: 4689: 4682: 4676: 4669: 4663: 4656: 4650: 4643: 4637: 4630: 4624: 4617: 4611: 4604: 4598: 4591: 4582: 4575: 4569: 4562: 4541: 4534: 4528: 4521: 4515: 4508: 4502: 4495: 4489: 4482: 4471: 4464: 4458: 4451: 4445: 4438: 4427: 4420: 4409: 4402: 4389: 4382: 4376: 4369: 4363: 4356: 4350: 4343: 4337: 4330: 4324: 4317: 4311: 4304: 4298: 4291: 4285: 4278: 4272: 4265: 4259: 4252: 4246: 4239: 4233: 4226: 4220: 4213: 4207: 4200: 4194: 4187: 4181: 4174: 4168: 4161: 4155: 4148: 4142: 4135: 4129: 4122: 4116: 4109: 4100: 4093: 4087: 4080: 4074: 4067: 4061: 4054: 4048: 4041: 4032: 4025: 4014: 4007: 4001: 3994: 3985: 3978: 3969: 3955: 3946: 3939: 3926: 3919: 3913: 3906: 3900: 3893: 3880: 3873: 3867: 3860: 3854: 3847: 3841: 3834: 3828: 3821: 3815: 3808: 3802: 3795: 3782: 3775: 3769: 3762: 3756: 3749: 3743: 3736: 3730: 3723: 3717: 3710: 3704: 3697: 3686: 3679: 3673: 3666: 3657: 3650: 3644: 3641: 3632: 3625: 3619: 3612: 3606: 3599: 3593: 3586: 3580: 3573: 3554: 3547: 3541: 3534: 3528: 3521: 3512: 3505: 3496: 3489: 3478: 3471: 3465: 3458: 3452: 3445: 3439: 3432: 3426: 3419: 3406: 3399: 3393: 3386: 3380: 3373: 3367: 3360: 3354: 3347: 3341: 3334: 3315: 3308: 3302: 3295: 3289: 3282: 3276: 3269: 3263: 3256: 3250: 3243: 3237: 3230: 3224: 3217: 3208: 3201: 3195: 3188: 3182: 3175: 3164: 3157: 3151: 3144: 3138: 3131: 3120: 3113: 3104: 3097: 3091: 3084: 3075: 3068: 3062: 3055: 3049: 3042: 3031: 3023: 3017: 3010: 2997: 2990: 2984: 2977: 2971: 2964: 2955: 2948: 2942: 2935: 2929: 2922: 2916: 2909: 2903: 2896: 2890: 2883: 2874: 2867: 2861: 2854: 2848: 2841: 2835: 2828: 2822: 2815: 2804: 2797: 2791: 2784: 2771: 2764: 2758: 2751: 2732: 2725: 2650: 2649: 2639: 2633: 2632: 2612: 2606: 2599: 2593: 2586: 2580: 2573: 2564: 2561: 2555: 2552: 2546: 2543: 2537: 2530: 2524: 2517: 2511: 2504: 2498: 2491: 2482: 2475: 2469: 2462: 2456: 2449: 2443: 2436: 2430: 2423: 2417: 2410: 2404: 2397: 2391: 2384: 2369: 2362: 2353: 2346: 2337: 2330: 2283: 2276: 2270: 2263: 2257: 2256: 2236: 2221: 2220: 2197: 2112: 2105: 2099: 2092: 2086: 2079: 2073: 2066: 2060: 2053: 2042: 2035: 1934:Eurasian hobbies 1878:Felis silvestris 1845:Western jackdaws 1805:Falco peregrinus 1770:Eurasian goshawk 1598:Province of León 1520:longhorn beetles 1349:Tetrao urogallus 1317:black woodpecker 1313:Rissa tridactyla 1285:Alectoris chukar 1237:Falco tinniculus 1182:, both pictured. 1107:Spanish sparrows 1079:Sturnus vulgaris 1000:habitats and/or 946:Mustela putorius 851:European rabbits 836:Desmana moschata 762:Myocastor coypus 734:Sciurus vulgaris 726:flying squirrels 718:ground squirrels 675:and any type of 662:Sicista betulina 609:Ural field mouse 512:(9.14%). In the 471:Microtus agretis 447:Microtus arvalis 368:Myodes glareolus 314:coppice woodland 4868: 4867: 4863: 4862: 4861: 4859: 4858: 4857: 4833: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4821: 4817: 4808: 4804: 4795: 4791: 4782: 4778: 4769: 4765: 4756: 4752: 4743: 4739: 4713: 4712: 4705: 4696: 4692: 4683: 4679: 4670: 4666: 4657: 4653: 4644: 4640: 4631: 4627: 4618: 4614: 4605: 4601: 4592: 4585: 4576: 4572: 4563: 4544: 4535: 4531: 4522: 4518: 4509: 4505: 4496: 4492: 4483: 4474: 4465: 4461: 4452: 4448: 4439: 4430: 4421: 4412: 4403: 4392: 4383: 4379: 4370: 4366: 4357: 4353: 4344: 4340: 4331: 4327: 4318: 4314: 4305: 4301: 4292: 4288: 4279: 4275: 4266: 4262: 4253: 4249: 4240: 4236: 4227: 4223: 4214: 4210: 4201: 4197: 4188: 4184: 4175: 4171: 4162: 4158: 4149: 4145: 4136: 4132: 4123: 4119: 4110: 4103: 4094: 4090: 4081: 4077: 4068: 4064: 4055: 4051: 4042: 4035: 4026: 4017: 4008: 4004: 3995: 3988: 3979: 3972: 3956: 3949: 3940: 3929: 3920: 3916: 3907: 3903: 3894: 3883: 3874: 3870: 3861: 3857: 3848: 3844: 3835: 3831: 3822: 3818: 3809: 3805: 3796: 3785: 3776: 3772: 3763: 3759: 3750: 3746: 3737: 3733: 3724: 3720: 3711: 3707: 3698: 3689: 3680: 3676: 3667: 3660: 3651: 3647: 3642: 3635: 3626: 3622: 3613: 3609: 3600: 3596: 3587: 3583: 3574: 3557: 3548: 3544: 3535: 3531: 3522: 3515: 3506: 3499: 3495:. Crex, 1, 2–6. 3490: 3481: 3472: 3468: 3459: 3455: 3446: 3442: 3433: 3429: 3420: 3409: 3400: 3396: 3387: 3383: 3374: 3370: 3361: 3357: 3348: 3344: 3335: 3318: 3309: 3305: 3296: 3292: 3283: 3279: 3270: 3266: 3257: 3253: 3244: 3240: 3231: 3227: 3218: 3211: 3202: 3198: 3189: 3185: 3176: 3167: 3158: 3154: 3145: 3141: 3132: 3123: 3114: 3107: 3098: 3094: 3085: 3078: 3069: 3065: 3056: 3052: 3043: 3034: 3024: 3020: 3011: 3000: 2991: 2987: 2978: 2974: 2965: 2958: 2949: 2945: 2936: 2932: 2923: 2919: 2910: 2906: 2897: 2893: 2884: 2877: 2868: 2864: 2855: 2851: 2842: 2838: 2829: 2825: 2816: 2807: 2798: 2794: 2785: 2774: 2765: 2761: 2752: 2735: 2726: 2653: 2641: 2640: 2636: 2629: 2614: 2613: 2609: 2600: 2596: 2587: 2583: 2574: 2567: 2562: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2544: 2540: 2531: 2527: 2518: 2514: 2505: 2501: 2492: 2485: 2476: 2472: 2463: 2459: 2450: 2446: 2437: 2433: 2424: 2420: 2411: 2407: 2398: 2394: 2385: 2372: 2363: 2356: 2347: 2340: 2331: 2286: 2277: 2273: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2238: 2237: 2224: 2217: 2201:Voous, Karel H. 2199: 2198: 2115: 2106: 2102: 2093: 2089: 2080: 2076: 2067: 2063: 2054: 2045: 2036: 1979: 1974: 1926:common kestrels 1922:Accipiter nisus 1906:long-eared owls 1813:Aquila fasciata 1809:Bonelli's eagle 1785:common buzzards 1700:Bubo scandiacus 1644:long-eared owls 1620: 1582:minotaur beetle 1532:roundback slugs 1491: 1447:Rana temporaria 1365: 1337:common pheasant 1225:Corvus monedula 1221:western jackdaw 1193:Regulus regulus 1075:common starling 1051:Kampinos Forest 1043:Passer montanus 1022:Chloris chloris 954: 930:Mustela erminea 902:greater noctule 882:Geoffroy's bats 828:Suncus etruscus 754:blind mole rats 617:edible dormouse 461:and the nearby 322: 208: 12: 11: 5: 4866: 4864: 4856: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4835: 4834: 4829: 4828: 4815: 4802: 4789: 4776: 4763: 4750: 4737: 4726:(3): 461–472. 4703: 4690: 4677: 4664: 4651: 4638: 4625: 4612: 4599: 4583: 4570: 4542: 4529: 4516: 4503: 4490: 4472: 4459: 4446: 4428: 4410: 4390: 4377: 4364: 4351: 4338: 4325: 4312: 4299: 4286: 4273: 4260: 4247: 4234: 4221: 4208: 4195: 4182: 4169: 4156: 4143: 4130: 4117: 4101: 4088: 4075: 4062: 4049: 4033: 4015: 4002: 3986: 3970: 3947: 3927: 3914: 3901: 3881: 3868: 3855: 3842: 3829: 3816: 3803: 3783: 3770: 3757: 3744: 3731: 3718: 3705: 3687: 3674: 3658: 3645: 3633: 3620: 3607: 3594: 3581: 3555: 3542: 3529: 3513: 3497: 3479: 3466: 3453: 3440: 3427: 3407: 3394: 3381: 3368: 3355: 3342: 3316: 3303: 3290: 3277: 3264: 3251: 3238: 3225: 3209: 3196: 3183: 3165: 3152: 3139: 3121: 3105: 3092: 3076: 3063: 3050: 3032: 3018: 2998: 2985: 2972: 2956: 2943: 2930: 2917: 2904: 2891: 2875: 2862: 2849: 2836: 2823: 2805: 2792: 2772: 2759: 2733: 2651: 2634: 2627: 2607: 2594: 2581: 2565: 2556: 2547: 2538: 2525: 2512: 2499: 2483: 2470: 2457: 2444: 2431: 2418: 2405: 2401:London's birds 2392: 2370: 2354: 2338: 2334:Owls of Europe 2284: 2271: 2258: 2251: 2222: 2215: 2113: 2100: 2087: 2074: 2061: 2043: 1976: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1938:Falco subbuteo 1837:Milvus migrans 1829:Aquila heliaca 1750:great grey owl 1716:eastern Europe 1619: 1616: 1528:keelback slugs 1512:ground beetles 1504:scarab beetles 1490: 1487: 1364: 1361: 1289:common moorhen 1273:grey partridge 1233:common kestrel 953: 950: 832:Russian desman 824:Etruscan shrew 816:Talpa europaea 773:edible dormice 650:hazel dormouse 524:, with 13,359 514:Czech Republic 459:Kielder Forest 453:voles undergo 407:central Europe 321: 318: 285:central Europe 256:long-eared owl 207: 204: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4865: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4843:Strix (genus) 4841: 4840: 4838: 4825: 4819: 4816: 4812: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4793: 4790: 4786: 4780: 4777: 4773: 4767: 4764: 4760: 4754: 4751: 4747: 4741: 4738: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4710: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4694: 4691: 4687: 4681: 4678: 4674: 4668: 4665: 4661: 4655: 4652: 4648: 4642: 4639: 4635: 4629: 4626: 4622: 4616: 4613: 4609: 4603: 4600: 4596: 4590: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4574: 4571: 4567: 4561: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4553: 4551: 4549: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4533: 4530: 4526: 4520: 4517: 4513: 4507: 4504: 4500: 4494: 4491: 4487: 4486:The Eagle-Owl 4481: 4479: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4463: 4460: 4456: 4450: 4447: 4443: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4401: 4399: 4397: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4381: 4378: 4374: 4368: 4365: 4361: 4355: 4352: 4348: 4342: 4339: 4335: 4329: 4326: 4322: 4316: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4300: 4296: 4290: 4287: 4283: 4277: 4274: 4270: 4264: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4225: 4222: 4218: 4212: 4209: 4205: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4166: 4160: 4157: 4153: 4147: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4131: 4127: 4121: 4118: 4114: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4092: 4089: 4085: 4079: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4063: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4046: 4040: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4006: 4003: 3999: 3993: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3977: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3918: 3915: 3911: 3905: 3902: 3898: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3872: 3869: 3865: 3859: 3856: 3852: 3846: 3843: 3839: 3833: 3830: 3826: 3820: 3817: 3813: 3807: 3804: 3800: 3794: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3774: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3754: 3748: 3745: 3741: 3735: 3732: 3728: 3722: 3719: 3715: 3709: 3706: 3702: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3678: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3649: 3646: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3624: 3621: 3617: 3611: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3546: 3543: 3539: 3533: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3467: 3463: 3457: 3454: 3450: 3444: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3428: 3424: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3398: 3395: 3391: 3385: 3382: 3378: 3372: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3307: 3304: 3300: 3294: 3291: 3287: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3239: 3235: 3229: 3226: 3222: 3216: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3200: 3197: 3193: 3187: 3184: 3180: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3156: 3153: 3149: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3096: 3093: 3089: 3083: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3064: 3060: 3054: 3051: 3047: 3041: 3039: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3022: 3019: 3015: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2989: 2986: 2982: 2976: 2973: 2969: 2963: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2947: 2944: 2940: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2914: 2908: 2905: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2888: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2866: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2850: 2846: 2840: 2837: 2833: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2796: 2793: 2789: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2763: 2760: 2756: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2644: 2638: 2635: 2630: 2624: 2620: 2617: 2611: 2608: 2604: 2598: 2595: 2591: 2585: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2570: 2566: 2560: 2557: 2551: 2548: 2542: 2539: 2535: 2529: 2526: 2522: 2516: 2513: 2509: 2503: 2500: 2496: 2490: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2474: 2471: 2467: 2461: 2458: 2454: 2448: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2432: 2428: 2422: 2419: 2415: 2409: 2406: 2402: 2396: 2393: 2389: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2361: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2272: 2268: 2262: 2259: 2254: 2252:9781408108840 2248: 2244: 2241: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2227: 2223: 2218: 2212: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2104: 2101: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2084: 2078: 2075: 2071: 2065: 2062: 2058: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2032: 2030: 2028: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1971: 1969: 1967: 1966:deforestation 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1902:Athene noctua 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1881: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1870:Vulpes vulpes 1867: 1863: 1859: 1858:stone martens 1855: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1797:Milvus milvus 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1758: 1755: 1751: 1748:species, the 1747: 1743: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1688:apex predator 1685: 1684:British Isles 1680: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1636:birds of prey 1629: 1624: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1612: 1607: 1603: 1602:Peak District 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1570: 1565: 1564:bush crickets 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1536:Melolonthinae 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1500: 1496: 1495:invertebrates 1489:Invertebrates 1488: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1463:northern pike 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1422: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1396:Moorish gecko 1393: 1389: 1385: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1362: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1333:Tetrao tetrix 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1297:Eurasian coot 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1277:Perdix perdix 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1227:) in central 1226: 1222: 1218: 1217:Corvus corone 1214: 1210: 1207:and assorted 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1181: 1177: 1172: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1141:Eurasian jays 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1125: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1091:common swifts 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1010:house sparrow 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 966: 962: 961:birds of prey 959: 951: 949: 947: 943: 939: 938:Martes martes 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 890:Great Britain 887: 883: 879: 874: 869: 864: 860: 856: 852: 847: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 812:European mole 809: 805: 801: 800:Sorex araneus 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 774: 769: 765: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 693:Rattus rattus 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 552:species. In 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 502: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 463:Kershope Burn 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 415: 412: 408: 404: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 374: 369: 365: 361: 357: 356: 351: 347: 343: 339: 331: 326: 319: 317: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 290: 289:Mediterranean 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 212: 206:Prey spectrum 205: 203: 201: 197: 193: 189: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 155: 151: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 126:, quite like 125: 121: 117: 112: 108: 104: 100: 97:such as some 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 35: 31: 27: 18: 4823: 4818: 4810: 4805: 4797: 4792: 4784: 4779: 4771: 4766: 4758: 4753: 4745: 4740: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4698: 4693: 4685: 4680: 4672: 4667: 4659: 4654: 4646: 4641: 4633: 4628: 4620: 4615: 4607: 4602: 4594: 4578: 4573: 4565: 4537: 4532: 4524: 4519: 4511: 4506: 4498: 4493: 4485: 4467: 4462: 4454: 4449: 4441: 4423: 4405: 4385: 4380: 4372: 4367: 4359: 4354: 4346: 4341: 4333: 4328: 4320: 4315: 4307: 4302: 4294: 4289: 4281: 4276: 4268: 4263: 4255: 4250: 4242: 4237: 4229: 4224: 4216: 4211: 4203: 4198: 4190: 4185: 4177: 4172: 4164: 4159: 4151: 4146: 4138: 4133: 4125: 4120: 4112: 4096: 4091: 4083: 4078: 4070: 4065: 4057: 4052: 4044: 4028: 4010: 4005: 3997: 3981: 3957: 3942: 3922: 3917: 3909: 3904: 3896: 3876: 3871: 3863: 3858: 3850: 3845: 3837: 3832: 3824: 3819: 3811: 3806: 3798: 3778: 3773: 3765: 3760: 3752: 3747: 3739: 3734: 3726: 3721: 3713: 3708: 3700: 3682: 3677: 3669: 3653: 3648: 3629:The Hedgehog 3628: 3623: 3615: 3610: 3602: 3597: 3589: 3584: 3576: 3550: 3545: 3537: 3532: 3524: 3508: 3492: 3474: 3469: 3461: 3456: 3448: 3443: 3435: 3430: 3422: 3402: 3397: 3389: 3384: 3376: 3371: 3363: 3358: 3350: 3345: 3337: 3311: 3306: 3298: 3293: 3285: 3280: 3272: 3267: 3259: 3254: 3246: 3241: 3233: 3228: 3220: 3204: 3199: 3191: 3186: 3178: 3160: 3155: 3147: 3142: 3134: 3116: 3100: 3095: 3087: 3071: 3066: 3058: 3053: 3045: 3026: 3021: 3013: 2993: 2988: 2980: 2975: 2967: 2951: 2946: 2938: 2933: 2925: 2920: 2912: 2907: 2899: 2894: 2886: 2870: 2865: 2857: 2852: 2844: 2839: 2831: 2826: 2818: 2800: 2795: 2787: 2767: 2762: 2754: 2728: 2646: 2643: 2637: 2619: 2616: 2610: 2602: 2597: 2590:Der Waldkauz 2589: 2584: 2576: 2559: 2550: 2541: 2533: 2528: 2520: 2515: 2507: 2502: 2494: 2478: 2473: 2465: 2460: 2452: 2447: 2439: 2434: 2426: 2421: 2413: 2408: 2400: 2395: 2387: 2365: 2349: 2333: 2279: 2274: 2266: 2261: 2243: 2240: 2207: 2204: 2108: 2103: 2095: 2090: 2082: 2077: 2069: 2064: 2056: 2038: 1962:Black Forest 1958:World War II 1945: 1937: 1929: 1921: 1913: 1901: 1889: 1882: 1877: 1869: 1862:Martes foina 1861: 1836: 1828: 1820: 1817:golden eagle 1812: 1804: 1796: 1788: 1778: 1773: 1761: 1759: 1745: 1708:mesopredator 1699: 1681: 1671: 1640:nocturnality 1633: 1609: 1593: 1585: 1577: 1567: 1518:(5.14%) and 1492: 1482: 1475:Salmo trutta 1474: 1466: 1454: 1446: 1419: 1399: 1390:and several 1381: 1376:common frogs 1356: 1348: 1340: 1332: 1329:black grouse 1320: 1312: 1300: 1292: 1284: 1276: 1268: 1265:hazel grouse 1260: 1252: 1236: 1224: 1216: 1213:carrion crow 1199:, including 1192: 1185: 1160: 1148: 1144: 1135:area of the 1122: 1110: 1094: 1078: 1067:Holland Park 1042: 1021: 1013: 1002:urbanization 985: 977: 955: 945: 937: 929: 913: 905: 897: 885: 854: 848: 843: 835: 827: 815: 799: 796:common shrew 778: 761: 733: 730:red squirrel 704: 692: 677:murid rodent 670: 661: 653: 620: 612: 592: 582: 577: 561: 549: 545: 533: 529: 503: 494: 487:Wielkopolska 482: 470: 450: 446: 443:common voles 430: 422: 416: 410: 397: 394:ground cover 385: 381: 377: 371: 367: 353: 335: 306:mixed forest 297: 276: 217: 160: 107:Caterpillars 87:streep lamps 29: 23: 1910:boreal owls 1898:little owls 1789:Buteo buteo 1783:as well as 1660:common vole 1508:land snails 1485:) as well. 1471:brown trout 1467:Esox lucius 1443:common frog 1301:Fulica atra 1253:Anas crecca 1137:Netherlands 1059:Wythenshawe 1028:borough of 978:Parus major 863:Netherlands 742:semi-desert 716:(including 574:Switzerland 510:common vole 467:field voles 421:, bank and 409:found that 346:food energy 310:urban areas 105:in flight. 30:Strix aluco 4837:Categories 2871:Cathemeral 2403:. Collins. 1972:References 1890:Otus scops 1833:black kite 1754:cathemeral 1606:earthworms 1560:wood mouse 1516:Orthoptera 1404:Amphibians 1323:). Larger 1257:red grouse 1087:rock doves 1063:Manchester 994:snow cover 990:Gothenburg 722:diurnality 701:brown rats 689:Black rats 634:Montenegro 632:hearty in 566:wood mouse 526:vertebrate 479:wood mouse 390:cathemeral 342:biologists 236:amphibians 188:intestines 83:small bird 1866:red foxes 1793:red kites 1781:Ural owls 1720:Ural owls 1696:snowy owl 1648:barn owls 1611:Geotrupes 1510:(12.1%), 1506:(15.8%), 1439:Lithuania 1325:gamebirds 1189:goldcrest 1095:Apus apus 1083:rock dove 1006:Grunewald 965:pygmy owl 918:mustelids 873:bat caves 788:hedgehogs 714:squirrels 666:Lithuania 621:Glis glis 603:, in the 601:longitude 518:Grunewald 439:Lithuania 364:bank vole 330:bank vole 277:Bubo bubo 192:carapaces 66:grassland 26:tawny owl 4848:Ethology 3527:. Dryad. 1712:northern 1672:Apodemus 1628:barn owl 1552:Caucasus 1544:Bulgaria 1514:(5.3%), 1479:goldfish 1384:reptiles 1374:such as 1149:Apodemus 1129:thrushes 1061:part of 970:sparrows 738:Hamsters 673:lemmings 646:Slovenia 638:Bulgaria 629:arboreal 625:dormouse 605:Caucasus 578:Apodemus 562:Apodemus 550:Apodemus 546:Microtus 534:Microtus 530:Apodemus 506:Slovakia 451:Microtus 423:Microtus 411:Apodemus 398:Apodemus 386:Apodemus 382:Apodemus 378:Microtus 373:Microtus 355:Apodemus 264:sparrows 244:reptiles 183:squirrel 179:sparrows 118:such as 54:Ural owl 38:midnight 1960:in the 1942:merlins 1841:corvids 1742:mobbing 1692:Ireland 1682:In the 1548:Romania 1499:insects 1435:Finland 1353:mallard 1241:Suffolk 1205:magpies 1197:corvids 1153:pigeons 1103:Algeria 958:diurnal 922:weasels 878:Austria 808:Oignies 804:Belgium 750:gerbils 642:Romania 570:biomass 538:Herrnut 522:Germany 435:Denmark 419:Finland 320:Mammals 260:classes 240:insects 220:mammals 196:pellets 167:rodents 132:carrion 120:beetles 116:insects 99:beetles 95:insects 50:goshawk 46:buzzard 3964: 2625: 2249: 2213: 1940:) and 1849:murder 1831:) and 1799:) and 1737:glades 1664:fields 1556:Crimea 1550:, the 1524:Umbria 1469:) and 1392:lizard 1335:) and 1315:) and 1281:chukar 1231:and a 1165:Norway 1124:Passer 1119:Israel 1115:Levant 1071:London 1047:Warsaw 1045:). In 1030:Berlin 1026:Pankow 1016:) and 980:) and 926:stoats 820:Wytham 780:Shrews 758:nutria 709:Lublin 697:Sicily 597:Moscow 585:Sweden 558:France 542:Poland 475:Wytham 350:rodent 338:Poland 269:biomes 252:rodent 224:rodent 163:shrews 146:, and 58:bushes 42:innate 4720:Oikos 3030:190). 1762:Strix 1746:Strix 1733:beech 1724:taiga 1656:voles 1416:toads 1408:frogs 1388:snake 1372:Frogs 1229:Italy 1209:crows 1176:house 1099:Sahel 1055:frogs 1034:Toruń 974:great 952:Birds 859:hares 792:musky 784:moles 746:jirds 360:voles 348:from 232:birds 200:snipe 175:frogs 148:trout 144:sheep 136:hares 128:foxes 111:worms 103:moths 75:birds 70:hover 62:marsh 3962:ISBN 2623:ISBN 2247:ISBN 2211:ISBN 1908:and 1874:cats 1714:and 1646:and 1554:and 1530:and 1459:fish 1421:Rana 1412:newt 1201:jays 1178:and 1155:and 1089:and 1065:and 998:arid 868:bats 786:and 748:and 685:rats 681:mice 644:and 403:deer 328:The 248:fish 246:and 238:and 171:mice 165:and 140:rats 124:vole 101:and 91:hawk 79:bats 77:and 34:dusk 24:The 4728:doi 4724:110 4718:". 1932:), 1924:), 1904:), 1892:), 1823:), 1815:), 1791:), 1303:), 1295:), 1279:), 1271:), 1263:), 1255:), 1101:of 1069:in 948:). 846:). 764:). 417:In 150:. 64:or 36:to 4839:: 4722:. 4706:^ 4586:^ 4545:^ 4475:^ 4431:^ 4413:^ 4393:^ 4104:^ 4036:^ 4018:^ 3989:^ 3973:^ 3950:^ 3930:^ 3884:^ 3786:^ 3690:^ 3661:^ 3636:^ 3558:^ 3516:^ 3500:^ 3482:^ 3410:^ 3319:^ 3212:^ 3168:^ 3124:^ 3108:^ 3079:^ 3035:^ 3001:^ 2959:^ 2878:^ 2808:^ 2775:^ 2736:^ 2654:^ 2568:^ 2486:^ 2373:^ 2357:^ 2341:^ 2287:^ 2225:^ 2116:^ 2046:^ 1980:^ 1896:, 1679:. 1307:, 1287:) 1203:, 996:, 640:, 556:, 520:, 234:, 142:, 138:, 60:, 4734:. 4730:: 3968:. 2631:. 2255:. 2219:. 1944:( 1936:( 1928:( 1920:( 1912:( 1900:( 1888:( 1876:( 1868:( 1860:( 1835:( 1827:( 1819:( 1811:( 1803:( 1795:( 1787:( 1772:( 1698:( 1592:( 1584:( 1576:( 1481:( 1473:( 1465:( 1453:( 1445:( 1398:( 1355:( 1347:( 1339:( 1331:( 1319:( 1311:( 1299:( 1291:( 1283:( 1275:( 1267:( 1259:( 1251:( 1235:( 1223:( 1215:( 1191:( 1159:( 1143:( 1109:( 1093:( 1077:( 1041:( 1020:( 1012:( 984:( 976:( 944:( 936:( 928:( 912:( 904:( 896:( 884:( 853:( 842:( 834:( 826:( 814:( 798:( 775:. 760:( 732:( 703:( 691:( 660:( 652:( 619:( 611:( 591:( 493:( 481:( 469:( 445:( 429:( 366:( 296:( 275:( 28:(

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Knowledge

Dietary biology of the tawny owl

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