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defied the hegemonic "Zulu-centric" explanation at the time. This was followed by fierce discourse in the early 1990s prompted by
Cobbing's hypothesis. Many agree that Cobbing's analysis offered several key breakthroughs and insights into the nature of early Zulu society. The historian Elizabeth Eldredge challenged Cobbing's thesis on the grounds that there is scant evidence of the resumption of the Portuguese slave trade out of Delagoa Bay before 1823, a finding that undermines Cobbing's thesis that Shaka's early military activities were a response to
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activity, that drove the state formations and concomitant violence and displacement. She still agreed with
Cobbing's overall sentiment in that the Zulu-centric explanation for the Mfecane is not reliable. By the early 2000s, a new historical consensus had emerged, recognizing the Mfecane to be not simply a series of events resulting from the founding of the Zulu Kingdom but rather a multitude of factors caused before and after
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125:. The exact range of dates that comprise the Mfecane varies between sources. At its broadest, the period lasted from the late eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century, but scholars often focus on an intensive period from the 1810s to the 1840s. The concept first emerged in the 1830s and blamed the disruption on the actions of King
129:, who was alleged to have waged near-genocidal wars that depopulated the land and sparked a chain reaction of violence as fleeing groups sought to conquer new lands. Since the latter half of the 20th century, this interpretation has fallen out of favor among scholars due to a lack of historical evidence.
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these events led to making the region progressively more unstable. Missionary interference, internal politics, and raids by Dutch settlers also impacted the region. By the start of the 19th century, the most powerful Tswana chiefdom, the
Bahurutse, were increasingly being challenged by the Bangwaketse.
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who started to launch raids on other communities by the 1780s. The fact that many of them had access to firearms and horses likely exacerbated the devastation caused by their raiders. Xhosa who were escaping the already violent region of the
Eastern Cape often launched their own raids as well. All of
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gathered the mountain clans together in an alliance against the Zulus. Fortifying the easily defended hills and expanding his reach with cavalry raids, he fought against his enemies with some success, despite not adopting the Zulu tactics, as many clans had done. The territory of
Moshoeshoe I became
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To the east, refugee clans and tribes from the
Mfecane fled to the lands of the Xhosa people. Some of them such as the amaNgwane were driven back by force and defeated. Those who were accepted were obliged to be tributary to the Xhosas and lived under their protection. They were assimilated into the
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Cobbing's hypothesis generated an immense volume of polemics among historians; the discussions were termed the "Cobbing
Controversy". While historians had already embarked upon new approaches to the study of the Mfecane in the 1970s and 1980s, Cobbing's paper was the first major source that overtly
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Southern Tswana populations had experienced an increase in conflict as early as the 1780s. There was significant population growth in the region which lead to more competition for resources. There was an increasing amount of trade with the Cape colony and the
Portuguese; this had the consequence of
256:
Oral history says that after the death of
Mvulane, the younger brother of Phungashe, Mvulane's sons Khoboyela and Ngqengelele escaped being killed by Phungashe over their father Mvulane's estate and went to live with Senzangakhona in the Zulu royal court. Most of the members of the Buthelezi ethnic
132:
Traditional estimates for the death toll range from 1 million to 2 million; however, these numbers are controversial, and some recent scholars revise the mortality figure significantly downward and attribute the root causes to complex political, economic, and environmental developments. The
Mfecane
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and the Matebele who moved across Tswana territory in 1837. Both of these invading forces continued to travel north across Tswana territory without establishing any sort of state. In addition to these major kingdoms, a number of smaller groups also moved north into Tswana territory, where they met
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in Delagoa Bay, and the extent to which African groups and leaders sought to establish more centralised and complex state formations to control ivory routes and the wealth associated with the trade. She suggests these pressures created internal movements, as well as reactions against European
332:. The Zulu practice was to absorb only the women and young men of a clan or village. They killed the elderly and men of fighting age; the lucky ones escaped. Having learned Zulu tactics, the escapees in turn descended upon more distant clans unfamiliar with the new order.
601:-era politicians and historians. According to Cobbing, apartheid-era historians had mischaracterised the Mfecane as a period of internally induced Black-on-Black destruction. Instead, Cobbing argued that the roots of the conflicts lay in the labour needs of Portuguese
253:. The Ikhohlo side of the Buthelezi led by Mvulane became instrumental in the defeat of Phungashe by Shaka. Mvulane's son Ngqengelele became Shaka's induna and chief advisor. Ngqengele's son, Mbangambi led his section of the Buthelezis against Hhamu of Ngenetsheni.
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During this period, the Matebele left a trail of destruction in their wake. From 1837 to 1838, the arrival of Boer settlers and the subsequent battles of Vegtkop and Mosega, drove the Matebele north of the Limpopo. They settled in the area now known as
157:
from the Americas in the late 17th century, reaching the inland around 1750. While maize was more productive than the grains from native grasses, it required more water during cultivation. The agricultural surpluses and increased population enabled
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settlers to colonize large swaths of the region. Cobbing's views were echoed by historian Dan Wylie, who argued that colonial-era white writers such as Isaacs had exaggerated the brutality of the Mfecane to justify European colonialism.
170:. Declining rainfall and a ten-year drought in the early 19th century set off a competition for land and water resources among the peoples of the area. Another possible cause is the increased trade of ivory with the Portuguese in
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and other groups (rather than European missionaries as asserted by Cobbing) were primarily responsible for the slave raids coming from the Cape. Eldredge also asserts that Cobbing downplays the importance of the
121:(all meaning "crushing," "scattering," "forced dispersal," or "forced migration"), was a historical period of heightened military conflict and migration associated with state formation and expansion in
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of Mthethwa and were the most powerful ethnic groups. The language now known as Zulu was spoken by the Ndwandwe. At that time, the Zulus were a very weak ethnic group under the leadership of
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Zwide defeated the Mthethwa and executed Chief Dingiswayo. Dingiswayo was a mentor to King Shaka. He took him in together with his mother Queen Nandi and gave them refuge. Many of the
655:, due to the alleged similarity of the narratives of indigenous "self-vanishing" that were propagated by apologists for European colonialism about the Mfecane and the Beaver Wars.
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into the Northern Transvaal. In 1833, Soshangane invaded various Portuguese settlements, and was initially successful. But a combination of internal disputes and war against the
249:. These three ethnic groups are to this day found in the same areas. The Zulus were a weak minority occupying a small piece of land in the area now known as Makhosini near
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itself is also historically significant, with different versions having been employed to serve a range of political purposes since its inception as a historical concept.
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564:, plundering and killing many of the Tswana people in the way. They also took large numbers of captives north with them, finally settling north of the Zambezi River in
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Wright, John (2010). "Turbulent Times: Political Transformations in the North and East, 1760 – 1830s". In Carolyn Hamilton; Bernard K. Mbenga; Robert Ross (eds.).
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174:. This led to deepening inequality within African societies, which made people even more vulnerable in a region that was already being hit by multiple droughts.
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advanced a different hypothesis on the rise of the Zulu state; he contended the accounts of the Mfecane were a self-serving, constructed product of
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Theories vary as to the causes of the catastrophic warfare and migration of many ethnic groups in the area. Populations had greatly increased in
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Xhosa cultural way of life, becoming part of the Xhosa people. After years of oppression by the Xhosas, they later formed an alliance with the
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Eldredge, Elizabeth (1995). "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa c. 1800–1830: the 'Mfecane' Reconsidered". In Hamilton, Carolyn (ed.).
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of the region northward and forced them to pay tribute. This caused resentment that has continued to the current day in modern Zimbabwe.
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492:, a commander of the Ndwandwe army, fled north with Soshangane after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers were henceforth called
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group had left with Khoboyela and Ngqengelele. When Shaka attacked the Ngwane, Sobhuza's men were outnumbered by the combination of the
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is significant in that it saw the formation of new states, institutions, and ethnic identities in southeastern Africa. The Mfecane's
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The debate and controversy within Southern African historiography over the Mfecane has been compared to similar debates about the
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separate chiefdoms becoming more eager to conquer land for themselves in order to control trade routes. Dutch settlers from the
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1579:"A Tempest in a Teapot? Nineteenth-Century Contests For Land in South Africa's Caledon Valley and the Invention of the Mfecane"
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with defeat and ultimately vanished from history. Among those involved in these invasions were European adventurers such as
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under Shaka forced other chiefdoms and clans to flee across a wide area of southern Africa. Clans fleeing the Zulu war zone
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Beach, David N. (1983). "The Zimbabwe Plateau and its Peoples". In Birmingham, David; Martin, Phyllis M. (eds.).
1221:"A False Emptiness: How Historians May Have Been Misled by Early Nineteenth Century Maps of South-Eastern Africa"
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Epprecht, Marc (June 1994). "The Mfecane as Teaching Aid: History, Politics, and Pedagogy in Southern Africa".
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Epprecht, Marc (June 1994). "The Mfecane as Teaching Aid: History, Politics, and Pedagogy in Southern Africa".
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Epprecht, Marc (June 1994). "The Mfecane as Teaching Aid: History, Politics and Pedagogy in Southern Africa".
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Epprecht, Marc (June 1994). "The Mfecane as Teaching Aid: History, Politics and Pedagogy in Southern Africa".
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Terror and resistance: a study of political violence, with case studies of some primitive African communities
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encroaching upon the Khoikhoi and San into regions where Tswana people live resulted in the formation of the
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defied Shaka, and set up his own kingdom. He quickly made many enemies: not only the Zulu king, but also the
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Path of Blood: The Rise and Conquests of Mzilikazi, Founder of the Matebele ethnic group of Southern Africa
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1644:"Indigenous Self-Vanishing? Relating the North American "Iroquois Wars" and the Southern African Mfecane"
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rivers, Mzilikazi and his followers, the AmaNdebele, (called Matebele in English) established a
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This map illustrates the rise of the Zulu Empire under Shaka (1816–1828) in present-day
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Kamhlaza Hlathwayo who was married to Josiah of Gibisizungu, of Mbangambi of Ngengelele
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in 1818, the Ndwandwe were defeated by a Zulu force under the direct command of Shaka.
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The Tswana were pillaged by two large invading forces set on the move by the Mfecane.
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320:. The Zulus conquered and assimilated smaller clans in the area. Zwide attacked King
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Cobbing, Julian (1988). "The Mfecane as Alibi: Thoughts on Dithakong and Mbolompo".
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1390:. Vol. I. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 249, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217.
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1093:"Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa, C. 1800-30: The 'Mfecane' Reconsidered"
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The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History
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The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History
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Wits Institutional Repository African Studies Institute – Seminar Papers
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ethnic groups near modern Lesotho and wandered north across what is now
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A History of Ngamiland, 1750 to 1906: The Formation of an African State
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305:, and the Ndwandwe probably mark the start of what became the Mfecane.
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166:. By the end of the 18th century, the Zulus had occupied much of their
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301:. Battles between the allied forces of Chief Dingiswayo and of Chief
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The Zulu Aftermath: A Nineteenth-Century Revolution in Bantu Africa
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The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815–1854
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Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power
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1298:. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press. pp. 122–161.
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with the remainder of the Ndwandwe. There, they established the
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163:
1739:
1023:"Has the Mfecane a future? a response to the Cobbing critique"
29:
1490:(4). Pietermartizburg: The Natal Society Foundation: 19–22.
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alliance, who occupied the region in the north, near the
56:
1545:"Shaka Zulu's brutality was exaggerated, says new book"
1160:"Political Mythology and the Making of Natal's Mfecane"
858:"Political Mythology and the Making of Natal's Mfecane"
782:"Political Mythology and the Making of Natal's Mfecane"
293:). This alliance encroached on the routes used by the
1724:, Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1995:
617:, famine, and war in the interior, allowing waves of
27:
1815–1840 period of civil conflict in southern Africa
328:, which marked the start of Shaka's conquest of the
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963:Wright, John; Cobbing, Julian (12 September 1988).
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500:, they formed a state in the region between lakes
261:, the Buthelezis under Ngqengelele and the Zulus.
467:people living there, some of whom fled over the
97:An early painting of the first migration of the
2555:Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre
698:"General South African History Timeline: 1800s"
748:
746:
700:. South African History Online. Archived from
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8:
1321:Gatsha Buthelezi: Chief with a Double Agenda
101:, one of the affected peoples of the Mfecane
1629:The Creation of the Zulu Kingdom, 1815–1828
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651:of the seventeenth century in northeastern
2953:
2012:
1758:
1744:
1736:
1054:"Conference report: Mfecane afterthoughts"
581:(who was later accused of slave trading).
177:There were three major ethnic groups, the
59:. Please do not remove this message until
1183:
1052:Saunders, Christopher (1 December 1991).
881:
805:
524:Consequences for the Sotho-Tswana peoples
475:caused the downfall of the Gaza kingdom.
79:Learn how and when to remove this message
2628:Reconstruction and Development Programme
1631:. Cambridge University Press. p. 9.
339:
312:leaders formed a confederation with the
55:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2224:1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike
689:
669:
2705:2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike
436:. Mzilikazi set up his new capital in
229:. They were respectively led by kings
1622:
1620:
1388:The Cambridge History of South Africa
1381:
1379:
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1371:
1369:
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1270:. London: Longman. pp. 245–277.
975:from the original on 24 December 2019
630:. Moreover, Eldredge argues that the
285:, who controlled the trade routes to
189:that occupied the areas now known as
7:
1200:from the original on 3 February 2022
1139:from the original on 3 February 2022
965:"The Mfecane: Beginning the inquest"
923:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
898:from the original on 3 February 2022
281:, entered into an alliance with the
2635:Truth and Reconciliation Commission
2281:Coloured-vote constitutional crisis
1268:History of Central Africa, volume 1
1164:Canadian Journal of African Studies
1027:Journal of Southern African Studies
917:Hanson, Victor (18 December 2007).
862:Canadian Journal of African Studies
786:Canadian Journal of African Studies
455:, one of Zwide's generals, fled to
1323:. London: Zed Books. p. 107.
1008:10.1111/j.1467-6443.1994.tb00164.x
843:10.1111/j.1467-6443.1994.tb00164.x
767:10.1111/j.1467-6443.1994.tb00164.x
737:10.1111/j.1467-6443.1994.tb00164.x
25:
3787:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
3422:South African Party (Cape Colony)
1642:Dowd, Gregory Evans (July 2022).
1555:from the original on 7 April 2023
1497:from the original on 8 March 2012
1430:from the original on 6 March 2023
613:. The resulting pressures led to
3799:
3798:
1479:Herrman, Louis (December 1974).
336:Consequences for Nguni societies
34:
3436:South African Party (1977–1980)
3429:South African Party (1911–1934)
3345:Progressive Party (Cape Colony)
3142:Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners
1091:Eldredge, Elizabeth A. (1992).
1021:Omer-Cooper, J.D. (June 1993).
996:Journal of Historical Sociology
831:Journal of Historical Sociology
755:Journal of Historical Sociology
725:Journal of Historical Sociology
420:state northwest of the city of
2754:2019 service delivery protests
2740:#FeesMustFall student protests
2485:1983 constitutional referendum
1649:The William and Mary Quarterly
1583:The Journal of African History
1518:The Journal of African History
1097:The Journal of African History
944:Walter, Eugene Victor (1969).
605:operating out of Delagoa Bay,
388:Around 1821, the Zulu general
348:. The rise of the Zulu Empire
316:clan, under the leadership of
1:
3212:Johannesburg Reform Committee
2441:Israel–South Africa Agreement
1834:
1819:
1796:
1789:
1422:Segolodi, Moanaphuti (1940).
1396:10.1017/CHOL9780521517942.006
609:and European settlers in the
2867:Black Consciousness Movement
2621:Government of National Unity
1627:Eldredge, Elizabeth (2014).
1577:Etherington, Norman (2004).
1543:Rory Carroll (22 May 2006).
1219:Etherington, Norman (2004).
482:people lived in present-day
277:group in the south near the
2578:Saint James Church massacre
2464:Weapons of mass destruction
1237:10.1080/0308569032000172969
568:, where they conquered the
440:. The AmaNdebele drove the
61:conditions to do so are met
3866:
3840:Monarchies of South Africa
2318:1957 Alexandra bus boycott
2196:South West Africa campaign
2095:Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814
2060:French Huguenot settlement
952:. Oxford University Press.
496:. Continuing north of the
432:, in present-day southern
3796:
3773:African National Congress
3233:Liberal Party (1953–1968)
2571:1992 apartheid referendum
1595:10.1017/S0021853703008624
1530:10.1017/s0021853700030590
1109:10.1017/S0021853700031832
1070:10.1080/02533959108458518
1039:10.1080/03057079308708360
572:. The next force was the
3835:History of KwaZulu-Natal
3226:Labour Party (1969–1994)
3219:Labour Party (1910–1958)
2775:2020 Phala Phala Robbery
2733:#RhodesMustFall protests
2332:1960 republic referendum
449:Battle of Mhlatuze River
324:and was defeated at the
265:Rise of the Zulu Kingdom
3671:terrorist organisations
2761:2019 Johannesburg riots
2374:Constructive engagement
2339:International isolation
2157:Witwatersrand Gold Rush
3825:19th century in Africa
2684:Attack on Kennedy Road
2295:Congress of the People
1886:South African Republic
1458:. Macmillan Botswana.
1344:Becker, Peter (1979).
385:
102:
3254:Natal Indian Congress
2974:Afrikaner Broederbond
2828:Afrikaner nationalism
2614:1994 general election
2585:Bophuthatswana crisis
2478:Church Street bombing
2258:Apartheid legislation
2251:1948 general election
2171:South Africa Act 1909
1966:Union of South Africa
1786:Kingdom of Mapungubwe
1766:Political history of
1662:10.1353/wmq.2022.0030
1452:Tlou, Thomas (1985).
1158:Wright, John (1989).
856:Wright, John (1989).
780:Wright, John (1989).
463:. They oppressed the
343:
326:Battle of Gqokli Hill
269:In about 1817, Chief
96:
2888:Greater South Africa
2726:2014 platinum strike
2592:Shell House massacre
2520:Transkei coup d'état
2325:Sharpeville massacre
2088:Battle of Blaauwberg
2081:Battle of Muizenberg
2033:Battle of Salt River
1816:Mthethwa Paramountcy
1424:"Ditso Tsa Batawana"
109:, also known by the
3830:Genocides in Africa
3780:Democratic Alliance
2957:Civic and political
2821:Afrikaner Calvinism
2814:African nationalism
2663:African Renaissance
2353:UNSC Resolution 591
2274:Internal resistance
2175:National Convention
2143:Transvaal Civil War
2067:Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars
1950:Orange River Colony
1686:J. D. Omer-Cooper,
615:forced displacement
48:of this article is
2527:Ciskei coup d'état
2346:UN Resolution 1761
2311:Women's March 1956
2164:South African Wars
2150:Mineral Revolution
1701:Norman Etherington
1690:, Longmans, 1978:
1481:"Nathaniel Isaacs"
386:
103:
3812:
3811:
3765:political parties
3758:
3757:
3735:Orde van die Dood
3352:Progressive Party
3058:Congress Alliance
2874:Cape Independence
2806:Political culture
2801:
2800:
2768:COVID-19 pandemic
2698:Marikana massacre
2534:Venda coup d'état
2288:Defiance Campaign
1878:Orange Free State
1808:Dutch Cape Colony
1707:, Longman, 2001:
1680:Further resources
1357:978-0-14-004978-7
1330:978-0-86232-792-7
1305:978-1-86814-252-1
1277:978-0-582-64673-5
930:978-0-307-42518-8
644:came into power.
591:Rhodes University
469:Lebombo Mountains
241:of Ndwandwe, and
89:
88:
81:
16:(Redirected from
3857:
3802:
3801:
3789:
3782:
3775:
3751:
3744:
3737:
3730:
3723:
3716:
3709:
3702:
3695:
3688:
3681:
3669:Paramilitary and
3661:
3659:Umkosi Wezintaba
3654:
3647:
3640:
3633:
3626:
3619:
3612:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3570:
3563:
3556:
3549:
3542:
3535:
3528:
3521:
3514:
3504:social movements
3502:Trade unions and
3494:
3487:
3480:
3473:
3466:
3459:
3452:
3445:
3438:
3431:
3424:
3417:
3410:
3403:
3396:
3389:
3382:
3375:
3368:
3361:
3354:
3347:
3340:
3333:
3326:
3319:
3312:
3305:
3298:
3291:
3284:
3277:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3249:
3242:
3235:
3228:
3221:
3214:
3207:
3200:
3193:
3186:
3179:
3172:
3165:
3158:
3151:
3144:
3137:
3130:
3123:
3116:
3109:
3102:
3095:
3088:
3081:
3074:
3067:
3060:
3053:
3046:
3039:
3032:
3025:
3023:Boerestaat Party
3018:
3011:
3004:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2976:
2969:
2954:
2940:
2931:
2922:
2913:
2906:
2897:
2890:
2883:
2876:
2869:
2862:
2853:
2844:
2837:
2830:
2823:
2816:
2794:
2784:
2777:
2770:
2763:
2756:
2749:
2742:
2735:
2728:
2721:
2714:
2707:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2665:
2658:
2651:
2644:
2637:
2630:
2623:
2616:
2594:
2587:
2580:
2573:
2566:
2557:
2550:
2543:
2536:
2529:
2522:
2515:
2513:Dakar Conference
2508:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2480:
2473:
2466:
2459:
2452:
2443:
2436:
2434:Israeli alliance
2429:
2422:
2415:
2404:
2397:
2390:
2388:Sporting boycott
2383:
2376:
2369:
2362:
2360:Academic boycott
2355:
2348:
2341:
2334:
2327:
2320:
2313:
2304:
2297:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2267:
2260:
2253:
2233:
2226:
2219:
2217:Great Depression
2212:
2205:
2203:Maritz rebellion
2198:
2178:
2166:
2159:
2152:
2145:
2138:
2131:
2124:
2117:
2097:
2090:
2083:
2076:
2069:
2062:
2055:
2053:Dutch settlement
2035:
2028:
2026:Bantu migrations
2013:
2001:
1993:
1985:
1977:
1969:
1961:
1958:Transvaal Colony
1953:
1945:
1937:
1929:
1926:Nieuwe Republiek
1921:
1913:
1905:
1897:
1889:
1881:
1873:
1865:
1862:Natalia Republic
1857:
1849:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1831:Ndwandwe Kingdom
1826:
1824:
1821:
1811:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1760:
1753:
1746:
1737:
1718:Carolyn Hamilton
1673:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1639:
1633:
1632:
1624:
1615:
1614:
1574:
1565:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1496:
1485:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1449:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1419:
1410:
1409:
1383:
1362:
1361:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1316:
1310:
1309:
1291:
1282:
1281:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1187:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1018:
1012:
1011:
991:
985:
984:
982:
980:
960:
954:
953:
951:
941:
935:
934:
914:
908:
907:
905:
903:
885:
853:
847:
846:
826:
820:
819:
809:
777:
771:
770:
750:
741:
740:
720:
714:
713:
711:
709:
704:on 21 April 2019
694:
677:
674:
579:Nathaniel Isaacs
383:
355:
351:
153:introduction of
84:
77:
73:
70:
64:
38:
37:
30:
21:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3855:
3854:
3815:
3814:
3813:
3808:
3792:
3785:
3778:
3771:
3764:
3754:
3747:
3740:
3733:
3726:
3719:
3712:
3705:
3698:
3691:
3684:
3677:
3670:
3664:
3657:
3650:
3643:
3636:
3629:
3622:
3615:
3608:
3601:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3573:
3566:
3559:
3552:
3545:
3538:
3531:
3524:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3497:
3490:
3483:
3476:
3469:
3462:
3455:
3448:
3441:
3434:
3427:
3420:
3413:
3406:
3399:
3392:
3385:
3378:
3371:
3364:
3357:
3350:
3343:
3336:
3329:
3322:
3315:
3308:
3301:
3294:
3287:
3280:
3273:
3266:
3259:
3252:
3245:
3238:
3231:
3224:
3217:
3210:
3203:
3196:
3189:
3182:
3175:
3170:HNP (Herstigte)
3168:
3163:HNP (Herenigde)
3161:
3154:
3147:
3140:
3133:
3126:
3119:
3112:
3105:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3077:
3070:
3063:
3056:
3049:
3042:
3035:
3028:
3021:
3014:
3007:
3000:
2993:
2986:
2981:Afrikaner Party
2979:
2972:
2965:
2958:
2949:
2943:
2934:
2925:
2916:
2909:
2900:
2895:Honorary whites
2893:
2886:
2879:
2872:
2865:
2856:
2847:
2840:
2833:
2826:
2819:
2812:
2797:
2787:
2780:
2773:
2766:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2738:
2731:
2724:
2717:
2710:
2703:
2696:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2668:
2661:
2656:Soweto bombings
2654:
2647:
2640:
2633:
2626:
2619:
2612:
2604:
2597:
2590:
2583:
2576:
2569:
2562:
2553:
2546:
2539:
2532:
2525:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2497:
2490:
2483:
2476:
2469:
2462:
2457:Soweto Uprising
2455:
2448:
2439:
2432:
2425:
2418:
2411:
2400:
2393:
2386:
2381:Tar Baby Option
2379:
2372:
2365:
2358:
2351:
2344:
2337:
2330:
2323:
2316:
2309:
2302:Freedom Charter
2300:
2293:
2286:
2279:
2272:
2263:
2256:
2249:
2236:
2229:
2222:
2215:
2208:
2201:
2194:
2181:
2169:
2162:
2155:
2148:
2141:
2134:
2127:
2120:
2113:
2100:
2093:
2086:
2079:
2072:
2065:
2058:
2051:
2038:
2031:
2024:
2004:
1996:
1988:
1980:
1972:
1964:
1956:
1948:
1940:
1932:
1924:
1916:
1908:
1902:Griqualand West
1900:
1894:Griqualand East
1892:
1884:
1876:
1868:
1860:
1852:
1844:
1837:
1829:
1822:
1814:
1806:
1799:
1792:
1784:
1770:
1764:
1734:
1682:
1677:
1676:
1666:
1664:
1641:
1640:
1636:
1626:
1625:
1618:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1558:
1556:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1473:
1466:
1451:
1450:
1443:
1433:
1431:
1421:
1420:
1413:
1406:
1385:
1384:
1365:
1358:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1318:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1293:
1292:
1285:
1278:
1265:
1264:
1260:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1203:
1201:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1142:
1140:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1058:Social Dynamics
1051:
1050:
1046:
1020:
1019:
1015:
993:
992:
988:
978:
976:
962:
961:
957:
943:
942:
938:
931:
916:
915:
911:
901:
899:
855:
854:
850:
828:
827:
823:
779:
778:
774:
752:
751:
744:
722:
721:
717:
707:
705:
696:
695:
691:
686:
681:
680:
675:
671:
666:
661:
587:
545:the kingdom of
526:
381:
353:
349:
338:
267:
143:
123:Southern Africa
85:
74:
68:
65:
54:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3863:
3861:
3853:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3817:
3816:
3810:
3809:
3797:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3783:
3776:
3768:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3752:
3745:
3738:
3731:
3728:Ossewabrandwag
3724:
3717:
3710:
3703:
3696:
3689:
3682:
3674:
3672:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3655:
3648:
3641:
3634:
3627:
3620:
3613:
3606:
3599:
3592:
3585:
3578:
3571:
3564:
3557:
3550:
3543:
3536:
3529:
3522:
3515:
3507:
3505:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3488:
3481:
3474:
3471:Unionist Party
3467:
3460:
3453:
3450:Torch Commando
3446:
3439:
3432:
3425:
3418:
3411:
3404:
3397:
3390:
3383:
3376:
3369:
3362:
3355:
3348:
3341:
3334:
3327:
3324:Orde Boerevolk
3320:
3313:
3306:
3299:
3292:
3285:
3278:
3271:
3264:
3257:
3250:
3243:
3236:
3229:
3222:
3215:
3208:
3201:
3194:
3187:
3180:
3173:
3166:
3159:
3152:
3145:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3117:
3110:
3103:
3100:DP (1989–2000)
3096:
3093:DP (1973–1977)
3089:
3086:Dominion Party
3082:
3075:
3068:
3061:
3054:
3047:
3040:
3033:
3026:
3019:
3012:
3005:
2998:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2970:
2967:Afrikaner Bond
2962:
2960:
2951:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2932:
2923:
2914:
2907:
2898:
2891:
2884:
2881:Day of the Vow
2877:
2870:
2863:
2854:
2845:
2838:
2831:
2824:
2817:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2795:
2785:
2778:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2701:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2673:
2666:
2659:
2652:
2649:Floor crossing
2645:
2638:
2631:
2624:
2617:
2609:
2607:
2599:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2588:
2581:
2574:
2567:
2564:Bisho massacre
2560:
2559:
2558:
2544:
2537:
2530:
2523:
2516:
2509:
2506:Operation Vula
2502:
2499:Rubicon speech
2495:
2492:Langa massacre
2488:
2481:
2474:
2467:
2460:
2453:
2446:
2445:
2444:
2430:
2423:
2416:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2398:
2384:
2377:
2370:
2363:
2356:
2349:
2335:
2328:
2321:
2314:
2307:
2306:
2305:
2291:
2284:
2277:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2254:
2246:
2244:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2227:
2220:
2213:
2210:Rand Rebellion
2206:
2199:
2191:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2167:
2160:
2153:
2146:
2139:
2136:Boer Republics
2132:
2125:
2118:
2110:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2091:
2084:
2077:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2048:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2036:
2029:
2021:
2019:
2010:
2006:
2005:
2003:
2002:
1994:
1986:
1982:Bophuthatswana
1978:
1970:
1962:
1954:
1946:
1942:Klein Vrystaat
1938:
1930:
1922:
1914:
1906:
1898:
1890:
1882:
1874:
1866:
1858:
1850:
1842:
1827:
1812:
1804:
1781:
1779:
1772:
1771:
1765:
1763:
1762:
1755:
1748:
1740:
1733:
1732:
1715:
1698:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1656:(3): 393–424.
1634:
1616:
1589:(2): 203–219.
1566:
1535:
1524:(3): 487–519.
1508:
1471:
1464:
1441:
1411:
1404:
1363:
1356:
1336:
1329:
1319:Mzala (1988).
1311:
1304:
1283:
1276:
1258:
1211:
1176:10.2307/485525
1150:
1083:
1064:(2): 171–177.
1044:
1033:(2): 273–294.
1013:
1002:(2): 113–130.
986:
955:
936:
929:
909:
874:10.2307/485525
848:
821:
798:10.2307/485525
772:
742:
731:(2): 113–130.
715:
688:
687:
685:
682:
679:
678:
668:
667:
665:
662:
660:
657:
595:Julian Cobbing
586:
583:
525:
522:
337:
334:
266:
263:
162:to field more
149:following the
142:
139:
135:historiography
87:
86:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3862:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3807:
3806:
3795:
3788:
3784:
3781:
3777:
3774:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3761:
3750:
3746:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3722:
3718:
3715:
3711:
3708:
3704:
3701:
3697:
3694:
3690:
3687:
3683:
3680:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3667:
3660:
3656:
3653:
3649:
3646:
3645:Die Spoorbund
3642:
3639:
3635:
3632:
3628:
3625:
3621:
3618:
3614:
3611:
3607:
3604:
3600:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3572:
3569:
3565:
3562:
3558:
3555:
3551:
3548:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3500:
3493:
3489:
3486:
3485:Workers Party
3482:
3479:
3475:
3472:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3454:
3451:
3447:
3444:
3440:
3437:
3433:
3430:
3426:
3423:
3419:
3416:
3412:
3409:
3405:
3402:
3398:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3384:
3381:
3377:
3374:
3370:
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653:North America
650:
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603:slave traders
600:
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495:
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299:Pongola River
296:
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247:Senzangakhona
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95:
91:
83:
80:
72:
62:
58:
52:
51:
47:
41:
32:
31:
19:
18:Difaqane wars
3845:Zulu culture
3803:
3763:Histories of
3464:United Party
3373:Reform Party
3310:Orangia Unie
2935:
2926:
2919:Swart gevaar
2917:
2901:
2857:
2848:
2789:
2691:Blikkiesdorp
2114:
2017:Pre-colonial
1870:Natal Colony
1854:Zulu Kingdom
1768:South Africa
1721:
1704:
1687:
1665:. Retrieved
1653:
1647:
1637:
1628:
1586:
1582:
1557:. Retrieved
1549:The Guardian
1548:
1538:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1499:. Retrieved
1487:
1474:
1454:
1432:. Retrieved
1387:
1346:
1339:
1320:
1314:
1295:
1267:
1261:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1202:. Retrieved
1167:
1163:
1153:
1141:. Retrieved
1100:
1096:
1086:
1061:
1057:
1047:
1030:
1026:
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999:
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968:
958:
947:
939:
919:
912:
900:. Retrieved
865:
861:
851:
834:
830:
824:
789:
785:
775:
758:
754:
728:
724:
718:
708:12 September
706:. Retrieved
702:the original
692:
672:
646:
624:
588:
551:
542:Moshoeshoe I
540:
527:
514:
488:
477:
461:Gaza kingdom
446:
430:Matabeleland
426:
394:Khumalo clan
387:
346:South Africa
307:
279:Tugela River
268:
255:
227:Mahlabathini
176:
144:
131:
118:
114:
106:
104:
90:
75:
66:
44:
2903:Rooi gevaar
2782:2021 unrest
2712:Nkandlagate
2541:Third Force
2402:Rugby union
2000:(1981–1994)
1992:(1979–1994)
1984:(1977–1994)
1976:(1976–1994)
1968:(1910–1961)
1960:(1902–1910)
1952:(1902–1910)
1944:(1886–1891)
1936:(1885–1887)
1928:(1884–1888)
1920:(1882–1885)
1912:(1882–1883)
1904:(1870–1873)
1896:(1861–1879)
1888:(1856–1902)
1880:(1854–1902)
1872:(1843–1910)
1864:(1839–1843)
1856:(1816–1897)
1848:(1795–1910)
1846:Cape Colony
1838: 1780
1823: 1780
1810:(1652–1806)
1800: 1220
1793: 1075
1350:. Penguin.
1225:Imago Mundi
1185:10539/10253
1103:(1): 1–35.
883:10539/10253
807:10539/10253
649:Beaver Wars
637:ivory trade
628:slave raids
611:Cape Colony
585:Controversy
570:Lozi people
566:Barotseland
531:Cape Colony
518:Cape Colony
490:Zwangendaba
362:Zwangendaba
287:Delagoa Bay
172:Delagoa Bay
168:arable land
3819:Categories
3714:Greyshirts
3478:Volksparty
3016:Black Sash
2677:Xenophobia
2670:Travelgate
2427:Border War
2231:Bantustans
2129:Great Trek
2074:Xhosa Wars
1934:Upingtonia
1918:Stellaland
1667:27 January
1204:3 February
1170:(2): 286.
1143:3 February
902:3 February
868:(2): 287.
837:(2): 115.
792:(2): 286.
761:(2): 114.
659:References
642:Shaka Zulu
607:Mozambique
593:professor
506:Tanganyika
457:Mozambique
453:Soshangane
400:, and the
376:, and the
358:Soshangane
271:Dingiswayo
243:Dingiswayo
151:Portuguese
46:neutrality
2937:Volkstaat
2928:Uitlander
2859:Boerehaat
2835:Anarchism
2642:Arms Deal
2605:apartheid
2265:Pass laws
2242:Apartheid
2187:1910–1948
2106:1815–1910
2044:1652–1815
1611:162838180
1603:0021-8537
1501:10 August
1253:128461624
1231:(1): 68.
1133:153554467
1117:0021-8537
1078:0253-3952
684:Citations
619:Afrikaner
599:apartheid
589:In 1988,
574:Mzilikazi
554:Sebitwane
390:Mzilikazi
259:Mthethwas
251:Babanango
203:Mtubatuba
199:Empangeni
195:Babanango
69:July 2021
57:talk page
3805:Category
3707:Boeremag
3205:Jeugkrag
3156:Het Volk
2850:Baasskap
2792:incident
2395:Olympics
1974:Transkei
1777:polities
1775:Defunct
1553:Archived
1492:Archived
1428:Archived
1245:40233902
1198:Archived
1137:Archived
973:Archived
896:Archived
562:Botswana
484:Eswatini
438:Bulawayo
434:Zimbabwe
422:Pretoria
412:and the
330:Ndwandwe
310:Mthethwa
295:Ndwandwe
275:Mthethwa
187:Mthethwa
185:and the
183:Ndwandwe
147:Zululand
119:Lifaqane
115:Difaqane
50:disputed
3850:Mfecane
3610:SAAPAWU
2948:Defunct
2911:Slavery
2115:Mfecane
1559:25 June
1488:Natalia
979:6 March
547:Lesotho
447:At the
442:MaShona
418:Ndebele
414:Limpopo
392:of the
366:Ndebele
283:Tsongas
273:of the
231:Sobhuza
223:Melmoth
219:Vryheid
215:Pongola
211:Nongoma
207:Hlabisa
111:Sesotho
107:Mfecane
3561:FOSATU
3415:SAYRCO
3387:SADECO
3303:Occupy
2842:Azania
2790:Lady R
2719:Racism
2548:CODESA
2009:Events
1998:Ciskei
1910:Goshen
1840:–1819)
1825:–1817)
1728:
1711:
1694:
1609:
1601:
1462:
1402:
1354:
1327:
1302:
1274:
1251:
1243:
1194:485525
1192:
1131:
1125:182273
1123:
1115:
1076:
927:
892:485525
890:
816:485525
814:
632:Griqua
558:Kololo
535:Korana
510:Maseko
502:Malawi
480:Ngwane
465:Tsonga
406:Tswana
402:Griqua
382:
378:Mfengu
374:Ngwane
354:
350:
291:Maputo
235:Ngwane
225:, and
191:Nquthu
181:, the
179:Ngwane
141:Causes
113:names
3742:PAGAD
3638:SATUC
3631:SARHU
3617:SACTU
3596:NURHS
3554:FNETU
3540:CTSWU
3533:CNETU
3526:BLATU
3408:SAYCO
3296:NUSAS
3177:IDASA
2988:AITUP
2603:Post-
1990:Venda
1607:S2CID
1495:(PDF)
1484:(PDF)
1434:1 May
1249:S2CID
1241:JSTOR
1190:JSTOR
1129:S2CID
1121:JSTOR
888:JSTOR
812:JSTOR
664:Notes
494:Ngoni
473:Swazi
398:Boers
370:Hlubi
322:Shaka
318:Shaka
303:Zwide
289:(now
239:Zwide
164:impis
160:Shaka
155:maize
127:Shaka
99:Fengu
3749:SANF
3679:APLA
3624:SAIF
3603:PAWE
3589:NEUM
3582:MUSA
3547:FCWU
3492:WOSA
3443:TNIP
3401:SASO
3394:SAIC
3380:SABP
3331:PAVN
3065:COSG
3044:CTEG
3037:CNIP
1726:ISBN
1709:ISBN
1692:ISBN
1669:2023
1599:ISSN
1561:2010
1503:2010
1460:ISBN
1436:2015
1400:ISBN
1352:ISBN
1325:ISBN
1300:ISBN
1272:ISBN
1206:2022
1145:2022
1113:ISSN
1074:ISSN
981:2018
925:ISBN
904:2022
710:2014
504:and
478:The
410:Vaal
404:and
314:Zulu
105:The
43:The
3700:BBB
3693:AWB
3686:ARM
3652:UDF
3575:IWW
3568:ICU
3519:BCM
3512:APF
3457:UFP
3359:PRP
3338:PFP
3289:NRP
3282:NPP
3268:NNP
3261:NLP
3247:NCP
3198:ISL
3149:GNP
3121:ECC
3114:DSM
3107:DPP
3079:DLF
3051:COD
3030:CDA
3009:BPC
3002:AVF
2995:APO
1658:doi
1591:doi
1526:doi
1392:doi
1233:doi
1180:hdl
1172:doi
1105:doi
1066:doi
1035:doi
1004:doi
878:hdl
870:doi
839:doi
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794:doi
763:doi
733:doi
233:of
117:or
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3275:NP
3240:NA
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3184:ID
3135:FD
3128:FA
3072:CP
1835:c.
1820:c.
1797:c.
1790:c.
1720:,
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1333:.
1308:.
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