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376:. The active region of the laser diode is in the intrinsic (I) region, and the carriers (electrons and holes) are pumped into that region from the N and P regions respectively. While initial diode laser research was conducted on simple P–N diodes, all modern lasers use the double-hetero-structure implementation, where the carriers and the photons are confined in order to maximize their chances for recombination and light generation. Unlike a regular diode, the goal for a laser diode is to recombine all carriers in the I region, and produce light. Thus, laser diodes are fabricated using
721:
Center) in
Yorktown Heights, NY. The priority is given to General Electric group who have obtained and submitted their results earlier; they also went further and made a resonant cavity for their diode. It was initially speculated, by MIT's Ben Lax among other leading physicists, that silicon or germanium could be used to create a lasing effect, but theoretical analyses convinced William P. Dumke that these materials would not work. Instead, he suggested Gallium Arsenide as a good candidate. The first visible wavelength laser diode was demonstrated by
656:
pointers, and fiber optics. Note that these lasers may still support multiple longitudinal modes, and thus can lase at multiple wavelengths simultaneously. The wavelength emitted is a function of the band-gap of the semiconductor material and the modes of the optical cavity. In general, the maximum gain will occur for photons with energy slightly above the band-gap energy, and the modes nearest the peak of the gain curve will lase most strongly. The width of the gain curve will determine the number of additional
560:
479:. Optically pumped semiconductor lasers (OPSL) use a III-V semiconductor chip as the gain medium, and another laser (often another diode laser) as the pump source. OPSLs offer several advantages over ILDs, particularly in wavelength selection and lack of interference from internal electrode structures. A further advantage of OPSLs is invariance of the beam parameters – divergence, shape, and pointing – as pump power (and hence output power) is varied, even over a 10:1 output power ratio.
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1114:(VCSELs) have the optical cavity axis along the direction of current flow rather than perpendicular to the current flow as in conventional laser diodes. The active region length is very short compared with the lateral dimensions so that the radiation emerges from the surface of the cavity rather than from its edge as shown in the figure. The reflectors at the ends of the cavity are
1081:-systems. To stabilize the lasing wavelength, a diffraction grating is etched close to the p–n junction of the diode. This grating acts like an optical filter, causing a single wavelength to be fed back to the gain region and lase. Since the grating provides the feedback that is required for lasing, reflection from the facets is not required. Thus, at least one facet of a DFB is
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36:
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592:, travelling in the same direction as the first photon. This means that stimulated emission will cause gain in an optical wave (of the correct wavelength) in the injection region, and the gain increases as the number of electrons and holes injected across the junction increases. The spontaneous and stimulated emission processes are vastly more efficient in
85:
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1628:. Areas of use include clock distribution for high-performance integrated circuits, high-peak-power sources for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy sensing, arbitrary waveform generation for radio-frequency waves, photonic sampling for analog-to-digital conversion, and optical code-division-multiple-access systems for secure communication.
528:. Other materials, the so-called compound semiconductors, have virtually identical crystalline structures as silicon or germanium but use alternating arrangements of two different atomic species in a checkerboard-like pattern to break the symmetry. The transition between the materials in the alternating pattern creates the critical
365:
902:—is confined to the thin middle layer. This means that many more of the electron-hole pairs can contribute to amplification—not so many are left out in the poorly amplifying periphery. In addition, light is reflected within the heterojunction; hence, the light is confined to the region where the amplification takes place.
499:— i.e., the electron may re-occupy the energy state of the hole, emitting a photon with energy equal to the difference between the electron's original state and hole's state. (In a conventional semiconductor junction diode, the energy released from the recombination of electrons and holes is carried away as
247:. Due to the drop of the electron from a higher energy level to a lower one, radiation, in the form of an emitted photon is generated. This is spontaneous emission. Stimulated emission can be produced when the process is continued and further generates light with the same phase, coherence and wavelength.
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Uses of laser diodes can be categorized in various ways. Most applications could be served by larger solid-state lasers or optical parametric oscillators, but the low cost of mass-produced diode lasers makes them essential for mass-market applications. Diode lasers can be used in a great many fields;
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interactions. This heats the cleaved mirror. In addition, the mirror may heat simply because the edge of the diode laser—which is electrically pumped—is in less-than-perfect contact with the mount that provides a path for heat removal. The heating of the mirror causes the bandgap of the semiconductor
635:
Some important properties of laser diodes are determined by the geometry of the optical cavity. Generally, the light is contained within a very thin layer, and the structure supports only a single optical mode in the direction perpendicular to the layers. In the transverse direction, if the waveguide
1209:
One of the most interesting features of any VECSEL is the small thickness of the semiconductor gain region in the direction of propagation, less than 100 nm. In contrast, a conventional in-plane semiconductor laser entails light propagation over distances of from 250 μm upward to 2 mm
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Additionally, because VCSELs emit the beam perpendicular to the active region of the laser as opposed to parallel as with an edge emitter, tens of thousands of VCSELs can be processed simultaneously on a three-inch gallium arsenide wafer. Furthermore, even though the VCSEL production process is more
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The threshold current of this DFB laser, based on its static characteristic, is around 11 mA. The appropriate bias current in a linear regime could be taken in the middle of the static characteristic (50 mA).Several techniques have been proposed in order to enhance the single-mode operation in these
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research center and by
Marshall Nathan at the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center. There has been ongoing debate as to whether IBM or GE invented the first laser diode which was largely based on theoretical work by William P. Dumke at IBM's Kitchawan Lab (currently known as the Thomas J. Watson Research
1591:. Soft tissue is not cut by the laser's beam, but is instead cut by contact with a hot charred glass tip. The laser's irradiation is highly absorbed at the distal end of the tip and heats it up to 500 °C to 900 °C. Because the tip is so hot, it can be used to cut soft-tissue and can cause
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The first diode lasers were homojunction diodes. That is, the material (and thus the bandgap) of the waveguide core layer and that of the surrounding clad layers, were identical. It was recognized that there was an opportunity, particularly afforded by the use of liquid phase epitaxy using aluminum
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Diode lasers of that era operated with threshold current densities of 1000 A/cm at 77 K temperatures. Such performance enabled continuous-lasing to be demonstrated in the earliest days. However, when operated at room temperature, about 300 K, threshold current densities were two orders of magnitude
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In the early 1960s liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) was invented by
Herbert Nelson of RCA Laboratories. By layering the highest quality crystals of varying compositions, it enabled the demonstration of the highest quality heterojunction semiconductor laser materials for many years. LPE was adopted by all
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must be used in order to form a collimated beam like that produced by a laser pointer. If a circular beam is required, cylindrical lenses and other optics are used. For single spatial mode lasers, using symmetrical lenses, the collimated beam ends up being elliptical in shape, due to the difference
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In applications where a small focused beam is needed, the waveguide must be made narrow, on the order of the optical wavelength. This way, only a single transverse mode is supported and one ends up with a diffraction-limited beam. Such single spatial mode devices are used for optical storage, laser
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as part of the diode structure, or grown separately and bonded directly to the semiconductor containing the active region. VECSELs are distinguished by a construction in which one of the two mirrors is external to the diode structure. As a result, the cavity includes a free-space region. A typical
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There are several advantages to producing VCSELs when compared with the production process of edge-emitting lasers. Edge-emitters cannot be tested until the end of the production process. If the edge-emitter does not work, whether due to bad contacts or poor material growth quality, the production
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consisting of an electrically or optically pumped gain region between two mirrors to provide feedback. One of the mirrors is a broadband reflector and the other mirror is wavelength selective so that gain is favored on a single longitudinal mode, resulting in lasing at a single resonant frequency.
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that may also lase, depending on the operating conditions. Single spatial mode lasers that can support multiple longitudinal modes are called Fabry Perot (FP) lasers. An FP laser will lase at multiple cavity modes within the gain bandwidth of the lasing medium. The number of lasing modes in an FP
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Reliability of high-power diode laser pump bars (used to pump solid-state lasers) remains a difficult problem in a variety of applications, in spite of these proprietary advances. Indeed, the physics of diode laser failure is still being worked out and research on this subject remains active, if
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Several workers demonstrated optically pumped VECSELs, and they continue to be developed for many applications including high power sources for use in industrial machining (cutting, punching, etc.) because of their unusually high power and efficiency when pumped by multi-mode diode laser bars.
519:
The difference between the photon-emitting semiconductor laser and a conventional phonon-emitting (non-light-emitting) semiconductor junction diode lies in the type of semiconductor used, one whose physical and atomic structure confers the possibility for photon emission. These photon-emitting
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Single spatial mode diode lasers can be designed so as to operate on a single longitudinal mode. These single frequency diode lasers exhibit a high degree of stability, and are used in spectroscopy and metrology, and as frequency references. Single frequency diode lasers are classed as either
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In the 1970s, this problem, which is particularly nettlesome for GaAs-based lasers emitting between 0.630 μm and 1 μm wavelengths (less so for InP-based lasers used for long-haul telecommunications which emit between 1.3 μm and 2 μm), was identified. Michael
Ettenberg, a
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kinds of lasers by inserting a onephase-shift (1PS) or multiple-phase-shift (MPS) in the uniform Bragg grating. However, multiple-phase-shift DFB lasers represent the optimal solution because they have the combination of higher side-mode suppression ratio and reduced spatial hole-burning.
788:-type layers beneath. It worked; the 300 K threshold currents went down by 10× to 10,000 amperes per square centimeter. Unfortunately, this was still not in the needed range and these single-heterostructure diode lasers did not function in continuous wave operation at room temperature.
1583:: medicine and especially dentistry have found many new uses for diode lasers. The shrinking size and cost of the units and their increasing user friendliness makes them very attractive to clinicians for minor soft tissue procedures. Diode wavelengths range from 810 to 1,100
1617:, generation of radio-frequency or terahertz waves, atomic clock state preparation, quantum key cryptography, frequency doubling and conversion, water purification (in the UV), and photodynamic therapy (where a particular wavelength of light would cause a substance such as
1085:. The DFB laser has a stable wavelength that is set during manufacturing by the pitch of the grating, and can only be tuned slightly with temperature. DFB lasers are widely used in optical communication applications where a precise and stable wavelength is critical.
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Since then, various other refinements have been employed. One approach is to create a so-called non-absorbing mirror (NAM) such that the final 10 μm or so before the light emits from the cleaved facet are rendered non-absorbing at the wavelength of interest.
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to form a laser. In the simplest form of laser diode, an optical waveguide is made on that crystal's surface, such that the light is confined to a relatively narrow line. The two ends of the crystal are cleaved to form perfectly smooth, parallel edges, forming a
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As type. The first external-cavity diode lasers used intracavity etalons and simple tuning
Littrow gratings. Other designs include gratings in grazing-incidence configuration, multiple-prism grating configurations and piezo-transduced diode laser configuration.
765:, while working at RCA Laboratories in the mid-1950s, as having unique advantages for several types of electronic and optoelectronic devices including diode lasers. LPE afforded the technology of making heterojunction diode lasers. In 1963 he proposed the
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were also involved in and received credit for their historic initial demonstrations of efficient light emission and lasing in semiconductor diodes in 1962 and thereafter. GaAs lasers were also produced in early 1963 in the Soviet Union by the team led by
1537:(LAS) for high-speed, low-cost assessment or monitoring of the concentration of various species in gas phase. High-power laser diodes are used in industrial applications such as heat treating, cladding, seam welding and for pumping other lasers, such as
1175:= λ/2 which then leads to the constructive interference of all partially reflected waves at the interfaces. But there is a disadvantage: because of the high mirror reflectivities, VCSELs have lower output powers when compared to edge-emitting lasers.
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The simple laser diode structure, described above, is inefficient. Such devices require so much power that they can only achieve pulsed operation without damage. Although historically important and easy to explain, such devices are not practical.
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with high reflectivity. The diffraction grating is within a non-pumped, or passive region of the cavity . A DBR laser is a monolithic single chip device with the grating etched into the semiconductor. DBR lasers can be edge emitting lasers or
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greater, or 100,000 A/cm in the best devices. The dominant challenge for the remainder of the 1960s was to obtain low threshold current density at 300 K and thereby to demonstrate continuous-wave lasing at room temperature from a diode laser.
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The problem with the simple quantum well diode described above is that the thin layer is simply too small to effectively confine the light. To compensate, another two layers are added on, outside the first three. These layers have a lower
1369:
As a result, when light propagates through the cleavage plane and transits to free space from within the semiconductor crystal, a fraction of the light energy is absorbed by the surface states where it is converted to heat by
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gallium arsenide, to introduce heterojunctions. Heterostructures consist of layers of semiconductor crystal having varying bandgap and refractive index. Heterojunctions (formed from heterostructures) had been recognized by
621:
resonator. Photons emitted into a mode of the waveguide will travel along the waveguide and be reflected several times from each end face before they exit. As a light wave passes through the cavity, it is amplified by
1505:. Both low and high-power diodes are used extensively in the printing industry both as light sources for scanning (input) of images and for very high-speed and high-resolution printing plate (output) manufacturing.
1422:
In the very early 1990s, SDL, Inc. began supplying high power diode lasers with good reliability characteristics. CEO Donald
Scifres and CTO David Welch presented new reliability performance data at, e.g.,
2220:
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Laser diodes can be arrayed to produce very high power outputs, continuous wave or pulsed. Such arrays may be used to efficiently pump solid-state lasers for high average power drilling, burning or for
803:-type) and a third melt of gallium arsenide. It had to be done rapidly since the gallium arsenide core region needed to be significantly under 1 μm in thickness. The first laser diode to achieve
524:
semiconductors. The properties of silicon and germanium, which are single-element semiconductors, have bandgaps that do not align in the way needed to allow photon emission and are not considered
1610:, certain applications utilize the coherence of laser diodes. These include interferometric distance measurement, holography, coherent communications, and coherent control of chemical reactions.
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nonlinearities in the diode laser gain region to be minimized. The result is a large-cross-section single-mode optical beam that is not attainable from in-plane ("edge-emitting") diode lasers.
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1059:. Alternative hybrid architectures that share the same topology include extended cavity diode lasers and volume Bragg grating lasers, but these are not properly called DBR lasers.
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The simple diode described above has been heavily modified in recent years to accommodate modern technology, resulting in a variety of types of laser diodes, as described below.
572:
In the absence of stimulated emission (e.g., lasing) conditions, electrons and holes may coexist in proximity to one another, without recombining, for a certain time, termed the
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to shrink in the warmer areas. The bandgap shrinkage brings more electronic band-to-band transitions into alignment with the photon energy causing yet more absorption. This is
1545:
since light has many different properties (power, wavelength, spectral and beam quality, polarization, etc.) it is useful to classify applications by these basic properties.
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The atomic states at the cleavage plane are altered compared to their bulk properties within the crystal by the termination of the perfectly periodic lattice at that plane.
791:
The innovation that met the room temperature challenge was the double heterostructure laser. The trick was to quickly move the wafer in the LPE apparatus between different
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Photonics West conferences of the era. The methods used by SDL to defeat COD were considered to be highly proprietary and were still undisclosed publicly as of June 2006.
1339:
Semiconductor lasers can be surface-emitting lasers such as VCSELs, or in-plane edge-emitting lasers. For edge-emitting lasers, the edge facet mirror is often formed by
1424:
580:(about a nanosecond for typical diode laser materials), before they recombine. A nearby photon with energy equal to the recombination energy can cause recombination by
460:-type semiconductors wherever they are in physical contact.) Due to the use of charge injection in powering most diode lasers, this class of lasers is sometimes termed
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Such dielectric mirrors provide a high degree of wavelength-selective reflectance at the required free surface wavelength λ if the thicknesses of alternating layers
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626:, but light is also lost due to absorption and by incomplete reflection from the end facets. Finally, if there is more amplification than loss, the diode begins to
780:-type gallium arsenide layers grown on the substrate by LPE. An admixture of aluminum replaced gallium in the semiconductor crystal and raised the bandgap of the
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3111:
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Laser diodes are numerically the most common laser type, with 2004 sales of approximately 733 million units, as compared to 131,000 of other types of lasers.
192:) image of a commercial laser diode with its case and window cut away. The anode connection on the right has been accidentally broken by the case cut process.
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987:, the difference between quantum well energy levels is used for the laser transition instead of the bandgap. This enables laser action at relatively long
468:(ILD). As diode lasers are semiconductor devices, they may also be classified as semiconductor lasers. Either designation distinguishes diode lasers from
180:
A laser diode with the case cut away. The laser diode chip is the small black chip at the front; a photodiode at the back is used to control output power.
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The broadband mirror is usually coated with a low reflectivity coating to allow emission. The wavelength selective mirror is a periodically structured
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511:. Spontaneous emission is necessary to initiate laser oscillation, but it is one among several sources of inefficiency once the laser is oscillating.
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than the centre layers, and hence confine the light effectively. Such a design is called a separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) laser diode.
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labor- and material-intensive, the yield can be controlled to a more predictable outcome. However, they normally show a lower power output level.
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function of electrons in the quantum well system has an abrupt edge that concentrates electrons in energy states that contribute to laser action.
3127:
1009:(ICL) is a type of laser diode that can produce coherent radiation over a large part of the mid-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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the leading laboratories, worldwide and used for many years. It was finally supplanted in the 1970s by molecular beam epitaxy and organometallic
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Electrically pumped VECSELs have also been demonstrated. Applications for electrically pumped VECSELs include projection displays, served by
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Romanos, Georgios E. (2013-12-01). "Diode laser soft-tissue surgery: advancements aimed at consistent cutting, improved clinical outcomes".
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Laser diodes are used for their narrow spectral properties in the areas of range-finding, telecommunications, infra-red countermeasures,
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2652:"A Scoping Review of the Efficacy of Diode Lasers Used for Minimally Invasive Exposure of Impacted Teeth or Teeth with Delayed Eruption"
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light emission from a gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductor diode (a laser diode) was demonstrated in 1962 by two US groups led by
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The choice of the semiconductor material determines the wavelength of the emitted beam, which in today's laser diodes range from
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1572:(as power beaming), and directed energy weaponry. Some of these applications are well-established while others are emerging.
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677:, the beam diverges (expands) rapidly after leaving the chip, typically at 30 degrees vertically by 10 degrees laterally. A
2741:
Borzabadi-Farahani, A (2024). "Laser Use in Muco-Gingival
Surgical Orthodontics". In Coluzzi, D.J.; Parker, S.P.A. (eds.).
644:. These transversely multi-mode lasers are adequate in cases where one needs a very large amount of power, but not a small
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which conferred extraordinary resistance to COD in GaAs-based lasers. This process, too, was undisclosed as of June 2006.
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working in the United States. However, it is widely accepted that Zhores I. Alferov and team reached the milestone first.
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The first heterojunction diode lasers were single-heterojunction lasers. These lasers utilized aluminum gallium arsenide
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Extension of the lifetime of laser diodes is critical to their continued adaptation to a wide variety of applications.
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Fleming, M. W.; Mooradian, A. (1981). "Spectral characteristics of external-cavity controlled semiconductor lasers".
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the semiconductor wafer to form a specularly reflecting plane. This approach is facilitated by the weakness of the
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For their accomplishment and that of their co-workers, Alferov and
Kroemer shared the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics.
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bar-code readers, first diode-laser pointers (now obsolete, replaced by brighter 650 nm and 671 nm DPSS)
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Andreana, S (2005). "The use of diode lasers in periodontal therapy: literature review and suggested technique".
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Coherent white paper (2018-05). "Advantages of
Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers – Invariant Beam Properties"
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Many of the advances in reliability of diode lasers in the last 20 years remain proprietary to their developers.
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Further improvements in the laser efficiency have also been demonstrated by reducing the quantum well layer to a
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are all examples of compound semiconductor materials that can be used to create junction diodes that emit light.
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258:(UV) spectrum. Laser diodes are the most common type of lasers produced, with a wide range of uses that include
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Yeh, S; Jain, K; Andreana, S (2005). "Using a diode laser to uncover dental implants in second-stage surgery".
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1603:. Diode lasers when used on soft tissue can cause extensive collateral thermal damage to surrounding tissue.
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is not always able to reveal the differences between more-reliable and less-reliable diode laser products.
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Laser diodes are used for their ability to generate ultra-short pulses of light by the technique known as
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Following theoretical treatments of M.G. Bernard, G. Duraffourg and
William P. Dumke in the early 1960s
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at the cleaved plane have energy levels within the (otherwise forbidden) bandgap of the semiconductor.
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The advantage of a DH laser is that the region where free electrons and holes exist simultaneously—the
891:(DH) laser. The kind of laser diode described in the first part of the article may be referred to as a
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Diagram of front view of a separate confinement heterostructure quantum well laser diode; not to scale
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Iga, Kenichi (2000). "Surface-emitting laser—Its birth and generation of new optoelectronics field".
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2478:"Design of a Littrow-type diode laser with independent control of cavity length and grating rotation"
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452:, devoid of any charge carriers, forms as a result of the difference in electrical potential between
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to become chemically active as an anti-cancer agent only where the tissue is illuminated by light).
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was deposited on the facet. If the aluminum oxide thickness is chosen correctly, it functions as an
991:, which can be tuned simply by altering the thickness of the layer. They are heterojunction lasers.
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Nathan, Marshall I.; Dumke, William P.; Burns, Gerald; Dill, Frederick H.; Lasher, Gordon (1962).
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2104:"Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers: Green OPSLs poised to enter scientific pump-laser market"
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material is sandwiched between two high bandgap layers. One commonly-used pair of materials is
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blue laser multimode diode recently introduced (2010) for use in mercury-free high-brightness
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or longer. The significance of the short propagation distance is that it causes the effect of
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1077:(DFB) is a type of single frequency laser diode. DFBs are the most common transmitter type in
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Voumard, C. (1977). "External-cavity-controlled 32-MHz narrow-band cw GaA1As-diode lasers".
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However, because of their lack of p–n junction, optically pumped VECSELs are not considered
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junction diodes. Forward electrical bias across the laser diode causes the two species of
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1415:, reducing reflection at the surface. This alleviated the heating and COD at the facet.
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Borzabadi-Farahani A (2017). "The Adjunctive Soft-Tissue Diode Laser in Orthodontics".
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1580:
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1557:
1522:
1486:
1408:
1363:
1046:
1033:
Almost all commercial laser diodes since the 1990s have been SCH quantum well diodes.
1017:
947:
lasers. Multiple quantum wells improve the overlap of the gain region with the optical
814:
713:
661:
laser is usually unstable, and can fluctuate due to changes in current or temperature.
613:
593:
529:
449:
417:
385:
287:
283:
263:
139:
2132:
916:
853:
5122:
5105:
4928:
4844:
4663:
4490:
4458:
3824:
3784:
3769:
3395:
3375:
3316:
3242:
2958:
2692:
1787:
1731:
1600:
1596:
1565:
1553:
1502:
1478:
1238:
826:
742:
701:
683:
678:
649:
636:
is wide compared to the wavelength of light, then the waveguide can support multiple
589:
421:
368:
Semi-conductor lasers (Bottom to Top: 660 nm, 635 nm, 532 nm, 520 nm, 445 nm, 405 nm)
267:
244:
221:
143:
125:
106:
2727:
2120:
503:, i.e., lattice vibrations, rather than as photons.) Spontaneous emission below the
4986:
4974:
4862:
4829:
4658:
4643:
4226:
4210:
3834:
3829:
3779:
3543:
3538:
3415:
3284:
3279:
3220:
3054:
2446:
2041:
1794:
1777:
1723:
1659:
1530:
1118:
made from alternating high and low refractive index quarter-wave thick multilayer.
958:
929:
925:
830:
822:
397:
551:
2833:
2450:
2336:"Theorical analysis of a monolithic all-active three-section semiconductor laser"
2147:; Fenner, G. E.; Kingsley, J. D.; Soltys, T. J.; Carlson, R. O. (November 1962).
2077:
1712:
better red-laser pointers, same power subjectively twice as bright as 650 nm
5028:
4770:
4719:
4625:
4610:
4393:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3737:
3445:
3306:
3289:
1453:
1431:
966:
951:
674:
311:
255:
2236:
697:
665:
distributed-feedback (DFB) lasers or distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) lasers.
168:
5100:
5090:
5023:
4897:
4867:
4834:
4809:
4804:
4781:
4653:
4633:
4511:
4373:
4350:
4236:
4138:
4133:
4128:
3747:
3621:
3613:
3294:
3008:"Room temperature cw operation of GaAs vertical cavity surface emitting laser"
2750:
2711:
2173:
2148:
1592:
988:
682:
in the vertical and lateral divergences. This is easily observable with a red
291:
2676:
2651:
2501:
2431:
5063:
4907:
4902:
4892:
4819:
4699:
4533:
4528:
4453:
4378:
3850:
3591:
3410:
3252:
3232:
3215:
3102:
1618:
1584:
948:
686:. The long axis of the ellipse is at right-angles to the plane of the chip.
381:
373:
17:
3133:
2881:
2719:
2636:
2609:
2582:
2396:
1045:(DBR) is a type of single frequency laser diode. It is characterized by an
881:
As). Each of the junctions between different bandgap materials is called a
857:
Diagram of front view of a double heterostructure laser diode; not to scale
35:
3474:
2076:
Larry A. Coldren; Scott W. Corzine; Milan L. Mashanovitch (2 March 2012).
1103:
648:
TEM00 beam; for example in printing, activating chemicals, microscopy, or
5085:
5033:
5013:
4991:
4877:
4872:
4760:
4749:
4678:
4448:
3819:
3752:
2743:
Lasers in Dentistry—Current Concepts. Textbooks in Contemporary Dentistry
2352:
1988:
1588:
1506:
1375:
425:
408:
Laser diodes form a subset of the larger classification of semiconductor
392:
substrate, and growing the I doped active layer, followed by the P doped
251:
4068:
3045:
2388:
932:, and thus a component of its energy, is quantized. The efficiency of a
920:
Diagram of front view of a simple quantum well laser diode; not to scale
172:
The laser diode chip removed and placed on the eye of a needle for scale
84:
4945:
4882:
4704:
4689:
4543:
4500:
4148:
3688:
3506:
3058:
1897:
1892:
1885:
1874:
1859:
1854:
1847:
1836:
1751:
1737:
1720:
1709:
1481:
communication. They are used in various measuring instruments, such as
1202:
862:
601:
336: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
279:
160:
3882:
2904:"Oral Soft Tissue Laser Ablative and Coagulative Efficiencies Spectra"
2493:
2476:
Duca, Lucia; Perego, Elia; Berto, Federico; Sias, Carlo (2021-06-15).
2216:
1587:, are poorly absorbed by soft tissue, and are not used for cutting or
5018:
4709:
4673:
4638:
4198:
4170:
4143:
4118:
2544:"Laser Marketplace 2005: Consumer applications boost laser sales 10%"
1822:
1815:
1807:
1797:(e.g., in green laser pointers or as arrays in higher-powered lasers)
1784:
1774:
1759:
1698:
1663:
1552:
property of an optical beam. In this category, one might include the
1526:
1514:
1371:
1198:
500:
487:
When an electron and a hole are present in the same region, they may
2477:
1201:, are similar to VCSELs. In VCSELs, the mirrors are typically grown
228:
in which a diode pumped directly with electrical current can create
1206:
distance from the diode to the external mirror would be 1 cm.
5095:
5006:
4765:
4538:
4331:
4193:
4188:
3804:
3168:
1917:
1702:
1694:
1687:
1680:
1670:
1655:
1498:
1452:
696:
558:
555:
Diagram of a simple laser diode, such as shown above; not to scale
550:
364:
294:
illumination. With the use of a phosphor like that found on white
183:
175:
167:
156:
94:
90:
3059:"Broadly tunable dispersive external-cavity semiconductor lasers"
5038:
4421:
4367:
4268:
4221:
4159:
3912:
1829:
1791:
1348:
1078:
943:
Lasers containing more than one quantum well layer are known as
704:, inventor of first visible wavelength semiconductor laser diode
440:
junction into the depletion region. Holes are injected from the
4072:
3854:
3478:
3141:
400:, which provide lower threshold current and higher efficiency.
396:, and a contact layer. The active layer most often consists of
2977:
1727:
1533:
technology. Diode lasers have also found many applications in
1518:
1494:
1396:
1257:
305:
295:
275:
29:
1690:
bluish-green laser; also became widely available in mid-2018.
2313:(Second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. p. 317.
1548:
Many applications of diode lasers primarily make use of the
1229:
of near-IR VECSEL emitters to produce blue and green light.
3132:
Application explaining how to design and test laser driver
928:. This means that the vertical variation of the electron's
475:
Another method of powering some diode lasers is the use of
271:
2693:"Laser applications in oral surgery and implant dentistry"
2190:"Stimulated Emission of Radiation from GaAs p–n Junctions"
612:
As in other lasers, the gain region is surrounded with an
3137:
1477:
as easily modulated and easily coupled light sources for
1241:
which use mainly double heterostructures diodes of the Al
725:
later in 1962; he used gallium arsenide-phosphide alloy.
3775:
ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System)
1387:, and the result can be melting of the facet, known as
1278:
584:. This generates another photon of the same frequency,
239:
Driven by voltage, the doped p–n-transition allows for
3026:
IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
2249:"After Glow". Illinois Alumni Magazine. May–June 2007.
1683:
green-blue laser; became widely available in mid-2018.
924:
If the middle layer is made thin enough, it acts as a
97:
green-blue laser; became widely available in mid-2018.
1560:, illuminators, designators, optical data recording,
1197:
Vertical external-cavity surface-emitting lasers, or
895:
laser, for contrast with these more popular devices.
298:, laser diodes can be used for general illumination.
2071:
2069:
2067:
1179:
time and the processing materials have been wasted.
5054:
4954:
4921:
4853:
4790:
4718:
4624:
4556:
4402:
4330:
4235:
4117:
4106:
4038:
4017:
3973:
3956:
3893:
3762:
3724:
3611:
3584:
3529:
3517:
3368:
3315:
3203:
1273:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
813:demonstrated in 1970 essentially simultaneously by
448:-doped semiconductor, and electrons vice versa. (A
150:
135:
116:
102:
3906:
2800:
2745:(2nd ed.). Springer, Cham. pp. 379–398.
1107:Diagram of a simple VCSEL structure; not to scale
936:is greater than that of a bulk laser because the
563:A simple and low power metal enclosed laser diode
2799:Wright, V. Cecil; Fisher, John C. (1993-01-01).
3987:Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser
3128:current and temperature control of laser diodes
2870:Compendium of Continuing Education in Dentistry
1193:Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser
1187:Vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting-laser
3093:Overview of available single mode diode lasers
2986:Saleh, Bahaa E.A.; Teich, Malvin Carl (1991).
1434:) announced that it had devised its so-called
1222:, and are classified as semiconductor lasers.
4084:
3866:
3490:
3153:
3121:Britney Spears Guide to Semiconductor Physics
2803:Laser Surgery in Gynecology: A Clinical Guide
2237:Oral History Transcript — Dr. Marshall Nathan
2149:"Coherent Light Emission From GaAs Junctions"
2121:"Optically Pumped Semiconductor Laser (OPSL)"
2079:Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits
1469:Telecommunications, scanning and spectrometry
8:
3109:Driving Diode Lasers. EuroPhotonics, 08/2004
2691:Deppe, Herbert; Horch, Hans-Henning (2007).
2285:. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 1.14.
1636:Laser diodes are used as a light source for
1568:, industrial sorting, industrial machining,
1430:In the mid-1990s, IBM Research (Ruschlikon,
77:
3126:Application and technical notes explaining
3006:Koyama, F.; Kinoshita, S.; Iga, K. (1988).
2517:"Diode-laser market grows at a slower rate"
2334:Bouchene, M.M.; Hamdi, R.; Zou, Q. (2017).
1013:Separate confinement heterostructure lasers
604:is not a common material for laser diodes.
4114:
4091:
4077:
4069:
3913:Separate confinement heterostructure laser
3873:
3859:
3851:
3497:
3483:
3475:
3160:
3146:
3138:
2542:Kincade, Kathy; Anderson, Stephen (2005).
1888:fiber-optic communication, service channel
1697:green diodes recently (2010) developed by
515:Direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors
83:
2675:
2351:
2172:
1347:in III-V semiconductor crystals (such as
1301:Learn how and when to remove this message
1285:, without removing the technical details.
352:Learn how and when to remove this message
3656:Neodymium-doped yttrium lithium fluoride
3098:Video showing laser bar assembly process
2304:
2302:
1102:
1016:
915:
852:
363:
60:of all important aspects of the article.
3421:Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator
2063:
1395:researcher and later Vice President at
1112:Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
388:techniques, usually starting from an N
3981:Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
1407:, devised a solution. A thin layer of
1099:Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
1093:Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser
76:
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
3674:Neodymium-doped yttrium orthovanadate
2978:"Principles of Semiconductor Devices"
2897:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2855:
1327:(COD) when operated at higher power.
1283:make it understandable to non-experts
7:
4523:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
384:structure is grown using one of the
334:adding citations to reliable sources
130:carrier generation and recombination
89:A packaged laser diode shown with a
4304:Programmable unijunction transistor
2982:(for direct and indirect band gaps)
2925:Lingrong Jian; et al. (2016).
1509:and red laser diodes are common in
4205:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
3077:(For external cavity diode lasers)
1606:As laser beam light is inherently
1359:, etc.) compared to other planes.
1321:. In addition they are subject to
1037:Distributed Bragg reflector lasers
507:produces similar properties to an
483:Generation of spontaneous emission
25:
4183:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
3919:Distributed Bragg reflector laser
3685:Yttrium calcium oxoborate (YCOB)
2835:Endoscopic Laser Surgery Handbook
2102:Arrigoni, M. et al. (2009-09-28)
1237:External-cavity diode lasers are
1043:distributed Bragg reflector laser
861:In these devices, a layer of low
568:Generation of stimulated emission
520:semiconductors are the so-called
5139:Heat-assisted magnetic recording
4427:Heterostructure barrier varactor
4154:Chemical field-effect transistor
3881:
3505:
3459:
3458:
1473:Laser diodes are widely used in
1262:
784:-type injector over that of the
380:semiconductors. The laser diode
372:A laser diode is electrically a
310:
34:
4475:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
4058:List of semiconductor materials
3810:Laboratory for Laser Energetics
3088:An Introduction to Laser Diodes
3065:. CRC Press. pp. 203–241.
2650:Borzabadi-Farahani, A. (2022).
2445:Zorabedian, P. (1995). "8". In
2239:, American Institute of Physics
1539:diode-pumped solid-state lasers
321:needs additional citations for
48:may be too short to adequately
3732:Diode-pumped solid-state laser
3330:Amplified spontaneous emission
3012:IEICE Transactions (1976-1990)
2951:10.1088/1674-4926/37/11/111001
2927:"GaN-based green laser diodes"
2832:Shapshay, S. M. (1987-06-16).
795:of aluminum gallium arsenide (
776:-type injectors situated over
608:Optical cavity and laser modes
404:Electrical and optical pumping
58:provide an accessible overview
1:
2838:. CRC Press. pp. 1–130.
2774:Feuerstein, Paul (May 2011).
1535:laser absorption spectrometry
1401:David Sarnoff Research Center
849:Double heterostructure lasers
817:and collaborators (including
4506:Silicon controlled rectifier
4368:Organic light-emitting diode
4258:Diffused junction transistor
3907:Double heterostructure laser
1233:External-cavity diode lasers
640:, and the laser is known as
190:scanning electron microscope
4310:Static induction transistor
4247:Bipolar junction transistor
4199:MOS field-effect transistor
4171:Fin field-effect transistor
3386:Chirped pulse amplification
2340:Photonics Letters of Poland
1850:pump for optical amplifiers
1485:. Another common use is in
1460:inertial confinement fusion
1389:catastrophic optical damage
1324:catastrophic optical damage
1313:Laser diodes have the same
1063:Distributed-feedback lasers
432:from opposite sides of the
5175:
4517:Static induction thyristor
4030:Laser diode rate equations
4025:Semiconductor laser theory
3925:Distributed-feedback laser
3190:List of laser applications
3063:Tunable Laser Applications
2515:Steele, Robert V. (2005).
1190:
1096:
1075:distributed-feedback laser
1069:Distributed-feedback laser
1066:
998:
976:
909:
871:aluminium gallium arsenide
600:semiconductors; therefore
260:fiber-optic communications
232:conditions at the diode's
4686:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
4438:Hybrid integrated circuit
4281:Light-emitting transistor
3454:
3175:
3002:(For Stimulated Emission)
2988:Fundamentals of Photonics
2931:Journal of Semiconductors
2751:10.1007/978-3-031-43338-2
2712:10.1007/s10103-007-0440-3
2700:Lasers in Medical Science
2174:10.1103/PhysRevLett.9.366
2082:. John Wiley & Sons.
1881:fiber-optic communication
1843:fiber-optic communication
1826:fiber-optic communication
1638:maskless photolithography
1632:Maskless photolithography
751:chemical vapor deposition
82:
4733:Backward-wave oscillator
4443:Light emitting capacitor
4299:Point-contact transistor
4269:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
4004:Semiconductor ring laser
3650:Yttrium lithium fluoride
3531:Yttrium aluminium garnet
2677:10.3390/photonics9040265
2625:Compend Contin Educ Dent
2432:10.1109/JQE.1981.1070634
2412:IEEE J. Quantum Electron
1135:with refractive indices
995:Interband cascade lasers
638:transverse optical modes
282:disc reading/recording,
4744:Crossed-field amplifier
4263:Field-effect transistor
3998:Interband cascade laser
3840:List of petawatt lasers
3105:by Samuel M. Goldwasser
2876:(10): 752–7, quiz 758.
2452:Tunable Lasers Handbook
2197:Applied Physics Letters
2153:Physical Review Letters
1570:wireless power transfer
1413:anti-reflective coating
1007:Interband cascade laser
1001:Interband cascade laser
669:Formation of laser beam
652:other types of lasers.
596:semiconductors than in
152:Pin configuration
93:for scale*488 nm:
4913:Voltage-regulator tube
4480:MOS integrated circuit
4345:Constant-current diode
4321:Unijunction transistor
3633:Terbium gallium garnet
3180:List of laser articles
2052:Superluminescent diode
2047:List of laser articles
1658:blue-violet laser, in
1462:
1345:crystallographic plane
1317:and failure issues as
1108:
1083:anti-reflection coated
1022:
973:Quantum cascade lasers
921:
889:double heterostructure
858:
811:double heterostructure
767:double heterostructure
730:MIT Lincoln Laboratory
705:
564:
556:
466:injection laser diodes
369:
243:of an electron with a
193:
181:
173:
4982:Electrolytic detector
4755:Inductive output tube
4571:Low-dropout regulator
4486:Organic semiconductor
4417:Printed circuit board
4253:Darlington transistor
4100:Electronic components
3947:External-cavity laser
3941:Quantum-cascade laser
3664:Yttrium orthovanadate
3644:Solid-state dye laser
2976:Van Zeghbroeck, B.J.
2807:. Saunders. pp.
2281:Chatak, Ajoy (2009).
1705:for laser projectors.
1615:spectroscopic sensing
1456:
1405:Princeton, New Jersey
1319:light-emitting diodes
1106:
1020:
985:quantum cascade laser
979:Quantum cascade laser
945:multiple quantum well
919:
856:
700:
562:
554:
367:
206:injection laser diode
187:
179:
171:
5129:Semiconductor lasers
4800:Beam deflection tube
4469:Metal-oxide varistor
4362:Light-emitting diode
4216:Thin-film transistor
4177:Floating-gate MOSFET
3993:Hybrid silicon laser
3964:Volume Bragg grating
3887:Semiconductor lasers
3355:Population inversion
3123:Edge-emitting lasers
2631:(eBook 5): e18–e31.
2353:10.4302/plp.v9i4.785
2309:Hecht, Jeff (1992).
1832:laser pump frequency
574:upper-state lifetime
497:spontaneous emission
330:improve this article
226:light-emitting diode
224:device similar to a
111:light-emitting diode
5149:American inventions
4776:Traveling-wave tube
4576:Switching regulator
4412:Printed electronics
4389:Step recovery diode
4166:Depletion-load NMOS
3627:Yttrium iron garnet
3523:Semiconductor laser
3406:Laser beam profiler
3325:Active laser medium
3265:Free-electron laser
3185:List of laser types
3046:10.1109/2944.902168
3038:2000IJSTQ...6.1201I
2943:2016JSemi..37k1001L
2908:Implant Practice US
2902:Vitruk, PP (2015).
2776:"Cuts Like A Knife"
2668:2022Photo...9..265B
2554:(1). Archived from
2527:(2). Archived from
2424:1981IJQE...17...44F
2389:10.1364/OL.1.000061
2381:1977OptL....1...61V
2311:The Laser Guidebook
2209:1962ApPhL...1...62N
2165:1962PhRvL...9..366H
2123:, Sam's Laser FAQs.
1562:combustion ignition
1556:, barcode readers,
1525:lasers are used in
1333:Reverse engineering
1052:diffraction grating
906:Quantum well lasers
646:diffraction-limited
624:stimulated emission
582:stimulated emission
214:semiconductor laser
79:
27:Semiconductor laser
5154:1962 introductions
5081:Crystal oscillator
4941:Variable capacitor
4616:Switched capacitor
4558:Voltage regulators
4432:Integrated circuit
4316:Tetrode transistor
4294:Pentode transistor
4287:Organic LET (OLET)
4274:Organic FET (OFET)
3931:Quantum well laser
3511:Solid-state lasers
3114:2021-04-24 at the
2604:(11): 130, 132–5.
2455:. Academic Press.
2261:"Nicolay G. Basov"
1812:optical amplifiers
1730:drives, cheap red
1644:Common wavelengths
1493:lasers, typically
1463:
1227:frequency doubling
1116:dielectric mirrors
1109:
1023:
934:quantum well laser
922:
912:Quantum well laser
859:
819:Dmitri Z. Garbuzov
723:Nick Holonyak, Jr.
706:
578:recombination time
565:
557:
542:gallium antimonide
470:solid-state lasers
370:
194:
182:
174:
144:Nick Holonyak, Jr.
5116:
5115:
5076:Ceramic resonator
4888:Mercury-arc valve
4840:Video camera tube
4792:Cathode-ray tubes
4552:
4551:
4160:Complementary MOS
4066:
4065:
3936:Quantum dot laser
3848:
3847:
3646:(SSDL/SSOL/SSDPL)
3639:Ti:sapphire laser
3518:Distinct subtypes
3472:
3471:
3426:Optical amplifier
3275:Solid-state laser
3072:978-1-4822-6106-6
2760:978-3-031-43338-2
2571:General Dentistry
2558:on June 28, 2006.
2548:Laser Focus World
2521:Laser Focus World
2494:10.1364/OL.423813
2488:(12): 2840–2843.
2292:978-0-07-026215-7
2217:10.1063/1.1777371
2109:Laser Focus World
2089:978-1-118-14817-4
1715:650–660 nm:
1693:510–525 nm:
1669:445–465 nm:
1475:telecommunication
1385:positive feedback
1311:
1310:
1303:
938:density of states
887:, hence the name
734:Texas Instruments
362:
361:
354:
166:
165:
118:Working principle
75:
74:
16:(Redirected from
5166:
4970:electrical power
4855:Gas-filled tubes
4739:Cavity magnetron
4566:Linear regulator
4115:
4093:
4086:
4079:
4070:
4052:Gallium arsenide
3885:
3875:
3868:
3861:
3852:
3509:
3499:
3492:
3485:
3476:
3462:
3461:
3436:Optical isolator
3401:Injection seeder
3381:Beam homogenizer
3360:Ultrashort pulse
3350:Lasing threshold
3162:
3155:
3148:
3139:
3076:
3049:
3019:
3001:
2981:
2963:
2962:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2899:
2886:
2885:
2865:
2850:
2849:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2806:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2786:
2780:Dental Economics
2771:
2765:
2764:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2697:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2679:
2647:
2641:
2640:
2620:
2614:
2613:
2593:
2587:
2586:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2306:
2297:
2296:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2268:
2263:. Nobelprize.org
2257:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2219:. Archived from
2194:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2141:
2135:
2130:
2124:
2118:
2112:
2100:
2094:
2093:
2073:
2037:Collimating lens
2026:
2025:
2024:
2008:
2006:
2005:
1997:
1996:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1961:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1870:
1868:
1867:
1770:
1768:
1767:
1501:, are common as
1306:
1299:
1295:
1292:
1286:
1266:
1265:
1258:
1028:refractive index
867:gallium arsenide
809:operation was a
738:RCA Laboratories
718:General Electric
598:indirect bandgap
538:indium phosphide
534:Gallium arsenide
522:"direct bandgap"
505:lasing threshold
462:injection lasers
450:depletion region
444:-doped into the
357:
350:
346:
343:
337:
314:
306:
153:
122:
121:
87:
80:
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
5174:
5173:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5165:
5164:
5163:
5159:1962 neologisms
5119:
5118:
5117:
5112:
5050:
4965:audio and video
4950:
4917:
4849:
4786:
4714:
4695:Photomultiplier
4620:
4548:
4496:Quantum circuit
4404:
4398:
4340:Avalanche diode
4326:
4238:
4231:
4120:
4109:
4102:
4097:
4067:
4062:
4046:Indium arsenide
4034:
4013:
4009:Polariton laser
3969:
3952:
3889:
3879:
3849:
3844:
3815:Laser Mégajoule
3763:Specific lasers
3758:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3679:
3669:
3607:
3580:
3525:
3513:
3503:
3473:
3468:
3450:
3364:
3345:Laser linewidth
3335:Continuous wave
3311:
3204:Types of lasers
3199:
3171:
3166:
3116:Wayback Machine
3103:Sam's Laser FAQ
3084:
3073:
3053:
3023:
3005:
2998:
2985:
2975:
2972:
2970:Further reading
2967:
2966:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2901:
2900:
2889:
2867:
2866:
2853:
2846:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2819:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2784:
2782:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2740:
2739:
2735:
2695:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2598:Dentistry Today
2595:
2594:
2590:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2409:
2408:
2404:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2308:
2307:
2300:
2293:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2266:
2264:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2248:
2247:
2243:
2235:
2231:
2223:
2192:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2145:Hall, Robert N.
2143:
2142:
2138:
2131:
2127:
2119:
2115:
2101:
2097:
2090:
2075:
2074:
2065:
2060:
2033:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2011:3,330 nm:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1982:3,030 nm:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1964:2,680 nm:
1957:
1952:2,330 nm:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1940:
1937:
1932:2,004 nm:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1919:
1916:
1911:1,877 nm:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1896:
1891:1,654 nm:
1884:1,625 nm:
1873:1,550 nm:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1853:1,512 nm:
1846:1,480 nm:
1835:1,310 nm:
1821:1,064 nm:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1758:
1747:
1675:data projectors
1651:
1646:
1634:
1578:
1550:directed energy
1497:but later also
1487:barcode readers
1471:
1451:
1381:thermal runaway
1307:
1296:
1290:
1287:
1279:help improve it
1276:
1267:
1263:
1256:
1248:
1244:
1235:
1195:
1189:
1174:
1168:
1161:
1155:
1148:
1141:
1134:
1127:
1101:
1095:
1071:
1065:
1039:
1015:
1003:
997:
981:
975:
914:
908:
884:heterostructure
880:
876:
851:
842:
806:continuous wave
763:Herbert Kroemer
728:Other teams at
695:
671:
610:
570:
546:gallium nitride
517:
485:
477:optical pumping
406:
378:direct band-gap
358:
347:
341:
338:
327:
315:
304:
264:barcode readers
151:
119:
117:
98:
71:
65:
62:
55:
43:This article's
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5172:
5170:
5162:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5134:Optical diodes
5131:
5121:
5120:
5114:
5113:
5111:
5110:
5109:
5108:
5103:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5072:
5071:
5060:
5058:
5052:
5051:
5049:
5048:
5047:
5046:
5044:Wollaston wire
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5010:
5009:
5004:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4978:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4958:
4956:
4952:
4951:
4949:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4937:
4936:
4925:
4923:
4919:
4918:
4916:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4865:
4859:
4857:
4851:
4850:
4848:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4825:Selectron tube
4822:
4817:
4815:Magic eye tube
4812:
4807:
4802:
4796:
4794:
4788:
4787:
4785:
4784:
4779:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4752:
4747:
4741:
4736:
4729:
4727:
4716:
4715:
4713:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4630:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4562:
4560:
4554:
4553:
4550:
4549:
4547:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4520:
4514:
4509:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4477:
4472:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4440:
4435:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4408:
4406:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4384:Schottky diode
4381:
4376:
4371:
4365:
4359:
4353:
4348:
4342:
4336:
4334:
4328:
4327:
4325:
4324:
4318:
4313:
4307:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4290:
4289:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4243:
4241:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4213:
4208:
4202:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4180:
4174:
4168:
4163:
4157:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4125:
4123:
4112:
4104:
4103:
4098:
4096:
4095:
4088:
4081:
4073:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4055:
4049:
4042:
4040:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4032:
4027:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4011:
4006:
4001:
3995:
3990:
3984:
3977:
3975:
3971:
3970:
3968:
3967:
3960:
3958:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3950:
3944:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3922:
3916:
3910:
3904:
3897:
3895:
3891:
3890:
3880:
3878:
3877:
3870:
3863:
3855:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3766:
3764:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3756:
3750:
3745:
3743:Figure-8 laser
3740:
3735:
3728:
3726:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3718:
3715:
3712:
3709:
3706:
3703:
3700:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3692:
3683:
3682:
3681:
3677:
3667:
3661:
3660:
3659:
3647:
3641:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3616:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3605:
3602:
3599:
3594:
3588:
3586:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3573:
3570:
3567:
3564:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3552:
3549:
3546:
3541:
3535:
3533:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3504:
3502:
3501:
3494:
3487:
3479:
3470:
3469:
3467:
3466:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3443:
3441:Output coupler
3438:
3433:
3431:Optical cavity
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3391:Gain-switching
3388:
3383:
3378:
3372:
3370:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3340:Laser ablation
3337:
3332:
3327:
3321:
3319:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3238:Carbon dioxide
3230:
3229:
3228:
3226:Liquid-crystal
3223:
3213:
3211:Chemical laser
3207:
3205:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3197:
3195:Laser acronyms
3192:
3187:
3182:
3176:
3173:
3172:
3167:
3165:
3164:
3157:
3150:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3124:
3118:
3106:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3083:
3082:External links
3080:
3079:
3078:
3071:
3051:
3032:(6): 1201–15.
3021:
3018:(11): 1089–90.
3003:
2996:
2983:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2937:(11): 111001.
2917:
2887:
2851:
2844:
2824:
2817:
2791:
2766:
2759:
2733:
2706:(4): 217–221.
2683:
2642:
2615:
2588:
2561:
2534:
2531:on 2006-04-08.
2507:
2482:Optics Letters
2468:
2461:
2437:
2402:
2369:Optics Letters
2359:
2326:
2319:
2298:
2291:
2273:
2252:
2241:
2229:
2226:on 2011-05-03.
2180:
2136:
2125:
2113:
2095:
2088:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2021:
2009:
2002:
1993:
1980:
1974:
1962:
1950:
1943:
1930:
1922:
1909:
1902:
1889:
1882:
1871:
1864:
1851:
1844:
1833:
1819:
1804:
1798:
1781:
1771:
1764:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1741:
1734:
1732:laser pointers
1713:
1706:
1691:
1684:
1677:
1667:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1633:
1630:
1581:Laser medicine
1577:
1574:
1558:image scanning
1554:laser printers
1503:laser pointers
1470:
1467:
1450:
1447:
1409:aluminum oxide
1399:Laboratories'
1364:Surface states
1309:
1308:
1270:
1268:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1246:
1242:
1239:tunable lasers
1234:
1231:
1191:Main article:
1188:
1185:
1172:
1166:
1159:
1153:
1149:are such that
1146:
1139:
1132:
1125:
1097:Main article:
1094:
1091:
1067:Main article:
1064:
1061:
1047:optical cavity
1038:
1035:
1014:
1011:
999:Main article:
996:
993:
977:Main article:
974:
971:
910:Main article:
907:
904:
878:
874:
850:
847:
841:
838:
815:Zhores Alferov
714:Robert N. Hall
694:
691:
670:
667:
614:optical cavity
609:
606:
594:direct bandgap
569:
566:
530:direct bandgap
516:
513:
484:
481:
418:charge carrier
405:
402:
386:crystal growth
360:
359:
318:
316:
309:
303:
300:
288:laser scanning
284:laser printing
268:laser pointers
164:
163:
154:
148:
147:
140:Robert N. Hall
137:
133:
132:
123:
114:
113:
104:
100:
99:
88:
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5171:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5144:Dental lasers
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5126:
5124:
5107:
5106:mercury relay
5104:
5102:
5099:
5098:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5070:
5067:
5066:
5065:
5062:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5053:
5045:
5042:
5041:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4999:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4959:
4957:
4953:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4935:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4929:Potentiometer
4927:
4926:
4924:
4920:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4874:
4871:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4856:
4852:
4846:
4845:Williams tube
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4793:
4789:
4783:
4780:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4734:
4731:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4664:Fleming valve
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4564:
4563:
4561:
4559:
4555:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4524:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4491:Photodetector
4489:
4487:
4484:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4459:Memtransistor
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4409:
4407:
4401:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4369:
4366:
4363:
4360:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4288:
4285:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4234:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4206:
4203:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4175:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:Semiconductor
4105:
4101:
4094:
4089:
4087:
4082:
4080:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4059:
4056:
4053:
4050:
4047:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4037:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4016:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3972:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3955:
3948:
3945:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3923:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3911:
3908:
3905:
3902:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3876:
3871:
3869:
3864:
3862:
3857:
3856:
3853:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3825:Mercury laser
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3785:Cyclops laser
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3770:Trident laser
3768:
3767:
3765:
3761:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3701:
3698:
3695:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3675:
3672:
3671:
3665:
3662:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3631:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3610:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3583:
3577:
3574:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3556:
3553:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3500:
3495:
3493:
3488:
3486:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3465:
3457:
3456:
3453:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3396:Gaussian beam
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3376:Beam expander
3374:
3373:
3371:
3367:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3317:Laser physics
3314:
3308:
3305:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3231:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3202:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3163:
3158:
3156:
3151:
3149:
3144:
3143:
3140:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3081:
3074:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3050:(for VECSELS)
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2997:0-471-83965-5
2993:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2921:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2856:
2852:
2847:
2845:9780824777111
2841:
2837:
2836:
2828:
2825:
2820:
2818:9780721640075
2814:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2795:
2792:
2781:
2777:
2770:
2767:
2762:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2737:
2734:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2694:
2687:
2684:
2678:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2646:
2643:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2619:
2616:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2562:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2538:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2472:
2469:
2464:
2462:0-12-222695-X
2458:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2360:
2354:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2327:
2322:
2320:0-07-027738-9
2316:
2312:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2288:
2284:
2277:
2274:
2262:
2256:
2253:
2245:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2184:
2181:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2110:
2105:
2099:
2096:
2091:
2085:
2081:
2080:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2015:gas sensing:
2014:
2010:
2007:
1986:gas sensing:
1985:
1981:
1968:gas sensing:
1967:
1963:
1960:
1956:gas sensing:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1936:gas sensing:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1915:gas sensing:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1895:gas sensing:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1857:gas sensing:
1856:
1852:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1827:
1824:
1820:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1806:980 nm:
1805:
1803:
1800:848 nm:
1799:
1796:
1795:Nd:YAG lasers
1793:
1789:
1786:
1783:808 nm:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:785 nm:
1772:
1769:
1756:
1753:
1750:760 nm:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1736:670 nm:
1735:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1708:635 nm:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1686:505 nm:
1685:
1682:
1679:488 nm:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1654:405 nm:
1653:
1652:
1649:Visible light
1648:
1643:
1641:
1639:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1611:
1609:
1604:
1602:
1601:carbonization
1598:
1597:cauterization
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1566:laser surgery
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1468:
1466:
1461:
1455:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1442:proprietary.
1439:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1420:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1373:
1367:
1365:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1328:
1326:
1325:
1320:
1316:
1305:
1302:
1294:
1284:
1280:
1274:
1271:This section
1269:
1260:
1259:
1253:
1251:
1240:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1215:
1213:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1194:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1165:
1158:
1152:
1145:
1138:
1131:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1105:
1100:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1070:
1062:
1060:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1044:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1019:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1002:
994:
992:
990:
986:
980:
972:
970:
968:
964:
960:
955:
953:
950:
946:
941:
939:
935:
931:
927:
918:
913:
905:
903:
901:
900:active region
896:
894:
890:
886:
885:
872:
868:
864:
855:
848:
846:
839:
837:
834:
832:
828:
827:Morton Panish
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
807:
802:
798:
794:
789:
787:
783:
779:
775:
770:
768:
764:
758:
754:
752:
746:
744:
743:Nikolay Basov
739:
735:
731:
726:
724:
719:
715:
711:
703:
702:Nick Holonyak
699:
692:
690:
687:
685:
684:laser pointer
680:
676:
668:
666:
662:
659:
653:
651:
647:
643:
639:
633:
631:
630:
625:
620:
615:
607:
605:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
567:
561:
553:
549:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
514:
512:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
482:
480:
478:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
403:
401:
399:
398:quantum wells
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
366:
356:
353:
345:
335:
331:
325:
324:
319:This section
317:
313:
308:
307:
301:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
248:
246:
242:
241:recombination
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
222:semiconductor
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
191:
186:
178:
170:
162:
158:
155:
149:
145:
141:
138:
134:
131:
127:
126:semiconductor
124:
115:
112:
108:
107:semiconductor
105:
101:
96:
92:
86:
81:
69:
66:November 2016
59:
53:
51:
46:
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
4863:Cold cathode
4830:Storage tube
4720:Vacuum tubes
4669:Neutron tube
4644:Beam tetrode
4626:Vacuum tubes
4355:
4211:Power MOSFET
3957:Hybrid types
3900:
3835:Vulcan laser
3780:Nova (laser)
3544:Er:YAG laser
3539:Nd:YAG laser
3522:
3416:Mode locking
3369:Laser optics
3269:
3062:
3055:Duarte, F.J.
3029:
3025:
3020:(for VCSELS)
3015:
3011:
2987:
2934:
2930:
2920:
2911:
2907:
2873:
2869:
2834:
2827:
2802:
2794:
2783:. Retrieved
2779:
2769:
2742:
2736:
2703:
2699:
2686:
2659:
2655:
2645:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2601:
2597:
2591:
2577:(6): 414–7.
2574:
2570:
2564:
2556:the original
2551:
2547:
2537:
2529:the original
2524:
2520:
2510:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2451:
2447:F. J. Duarte
2440:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2346:(4): 131–3.
2343:
2339:
2329:
2310:
2282:
2276:
2265:. Retrieved
2255:
2244:
2232:
2221:the original
2200:
2196:
2183:
2159:(9): 366–8.
2156:
2152:
2139:
2128:
2116:
2107:
2098:
2078:
2042:Laser safety
1778:compact disc
1660:Blu-ray Disc
1635:
1626:mode-locking
1625:
1623:
1612:
1605:
1579:
1576:Medical uses
1549:
1547:
1543:
1521:technology.
1483:rangefinders
1472:
1464:
1449:Applications
1444:
1440:
1435:
1429:
1421:
1417:
1393:
1388:
1383:, a form of
1368:
1361:
1338:
1331:
1329:
1322:
1312:
1297:
1288:
1272:
1236:
1224:
1220:diode lasers
1219:
1216:
1211:
1208:
1196:
1181:
1177:
1169:
1163:
1156:
1150:
1143:
1136:
1129:
1122:
1120:
1110:
1087:
1072:
1040:
1032:
1024:
1004:
982:
967:quantum dots
962:
959:quantum wire
956:
944:
942:
930:wavefunction
926:quantum well
923:
897:
893:homojunction
892:
888:
882:
869:(GaAs) with
860:
843:
835:
831:Izuo Hayashi
823:Soviet Union
804:
800:
796:
792:
790:
785:
781:
777:
773:
771:
759:
755:
747:
727:
707:
688:
672:
663:
657:
654:
641:
634:
627:
611:
586:polarization
577:
573:
571:
525:
518:
495:producing a
492:
486:
474:
465:
461:
457:
453:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
413:
409:
407:
371:
348:
339:
328:Please help
323:verification
320:
249:
238:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
195:
63:
47:
45:lead section
18:Diode lasers
5029:Transformer
4771:Sutton tube
4611:Charge pump
4464:Memory cell
4394:Zener diode
4356:Laser diode
4239:transistors
4121:transistors
3974:Other Types
3901:Laser diode
3894:Basic types
3800:Shiva laser
3795:Argus laser
3790:Janus laser
3738:Fiber laser
3601:Er:Yb:glass
3446:Q-switching
3307:X-ray laser
3300:Ti-sapphire
3270:Laser diode
3248:Helium–neon
2914:(6): 19–27.
2375:(2): 61–3.
1818:DPSS lasers
1755:gas sensing
1479:fiber-optic
1432:Switzerland
1315:reliability
1254:Reliability
1212:antiguiding
1203:epitaxially
989:wavelengths
675:diffraction
619:Fabry–Pérot
256:ultraviolet
218:diode laser
198:laser diode
78:Laser diode
5123:Categories
5101:reed relay
5091:Parametron
5024:Thermistor
5002:resettable
4961:Connector
4922:Adjustable
4898:Nixie tube
4868:Crossatron
4835:Trochotron
4810:Iconoscope
4805:Charactron
4782:X-ray tube
4654:Compactron
4634:Acorn tube
4591:Buck–boost
4512:Solaristor
4374:Photodiode
4351:Gunn diode
4347:(CLD, CRD)
4129:Transistor
3748:Disk laser
3725:Structures
3622:Ruby laser
3614:gain media
2785:2016-04-12
2662:(4): 265.
2267:2009-06-06
2058:References
1802:laser mice
1593:hemostasis
1511:CD players
1436:E2 process
1391:, or COD.
658:side modes
642:multi-mode
532:property.
493:annihilate
292:light beam
5064:Capacitor
4908:Trigatron
4903:Thyratron
4893:Neon lamp
4820:Monoscope
4700:Phototube
4684:Pentagrid
4649:Barretter
4534:Trancitor
4529:Thyristor
4454:Memristor
4379:PIN diode
4156:(ChemFET)
4039:Materials
3572:Ce:Gd:YAG
3554:Nd:Ce:YAG
3548:Nd:Cr:YAG
3411:M squared
3233:Gas laser
3216:Dye laser
2990:. Wiley.
2959:114572097
2656:Photonics
2502:1539-4794
2418:: 44–59.
2203:(3): 62.
1879:InGaAsNSb
1810:pump for
1619:porphyrin
1291:July 2011
949:waveguide
821:) of the
489:recombine
426:electrons
382:epitaxial
374:PIN diode
342:July 2011
50:summarize
5086:Inductor
5056:Reactive
5034:Varistor
5014:Resistor
4992:Antifuse
4878:Ignitron
4873:Dekatron
4761:Klystron
4750:Gyrotron
4679:Nuvistor
4596:Split-pi
4482:(MOS IC)
4449:Memistor
4207:(MuGFET)
4201:(MOSFET)
4173:(FinFET)
3989:(VECSEL)
3820:LULI2000
3753:F-center
3699:Ce:LiCAF
3696:Ce:LiSAF
3658:(Nd:YLF)
3604:Yb:glass
3597:Er:glass
3592:Nd:glass
3464:Category
3258:Nitrogen
3112:Archived
3057:(2016).
2882:24571504
2728:23606690
2720:17268764
2637:28509563
2610:16358809
2583:16366049
2397:19680331
2031:See also
2013:GaInAsSb
1984:GaInAsSb
1966:GaInAsSb
1954:GaInAsSb
1934:GaInAsSb
1913:GaInAsSb
1745:Infrared
1608:coherent
1595:through
1589:ablation
1507:Infrared
1376:electron
1341:cleaving
961:or to a
710:coherent
430:injected
428:– to be
394:cladding
252:infrared
234:junction
142:, 1962;
136:Invented
4987:Ferrite
4955:Passive
4946:Varicap
4934:digital
4883:Krytron
4705:Tetrode
4690:Pentode
4544:Varicap
4525:(3D IC)
4501:RF CMOS
4405:devices
4179:(FGMOS)
4110:devices
3983:(VCSEL)
3830:ISKRA-6
3734:(DPSSL)
3717:Yb:SFAP
3702:Cr:ZnSe
3689:Nd:YCOB
3676:(Nd:YVO
3243:Excimer
3034:Bibcode
2939:Bibcode
2664:Bibcode
2449:(ed.).
2420:Bibcode
2377:Bibcode
2205:Bibcode
2161:Bibcode
1893:InGaAsP
1886:InGaAsP
1875:InGaAsP
1855:InGaAsP
1848:InGaAsP
1841:InGaAsN
1837:InGaAsP
1752:AlGaInP
1738:AlGaInP
1721:AlGaInP
1710:AlGaInP
1531:Blu-ray
1515:CD-ROMs
1491:Visible
1277:Please
1199:VECSELs
863:bandgap
769:laser.
716:at the
693:History
673:Due to
650:pumping
602:silicon
501:phonons
280:Blu-ray
254:to the
220:) is a
204:, also
161:cathode
120:
5019:Switch
4710:Triode
4674:Nonode
4639:Audion
4519:(SITh)
4403:Other
4370:(OLED)
4332:Diodes
4283:(LET)
4265:(FET)
4237:Other
4185:(IGBT)
4162:(CMOS)
4149:BioFET
4144:BiCMOS
4054:(GaAs)
4048:(InAs)
4018:Theory
3711:Sm:CaF
3652:(YLF)
3612:Other
3576:Gd:YAG
3569:Ce:YAG
3566:Tb:YAG
3563:Sm:YAG
3560:Dy:YAG
3557:Ho:YAG
3551:Yb:YAG
3285:Nd:YAG
3280:Er:YAG
3221:Bubble
3169:Lasers
3069:
2994:
2957:
2880:
2842:
2815:
2757:
2726:
2718:
2635:
2608:
2581:
2500:
2459:
2395:
2317:
2289:
2283:Optics
2086:
1823:AlGaAs
1816:Yb:YAG
1814:, for
1808:InGaAs
1785:GaAlAs
1780:drives
1775:GaAlAs
1699:Nichia
1666:drives
1664:HD DVD
1527:HD DVD
1523:Violet
1372:phonon
1057:VCSELs
825:, and
799:- and
736:, and
588:, and
544:, and
526:direct
456:- and
302:Theory
230:lasing
146:, 1962
5096:Relay
5069:types
5007:eFUSE
4778:(TWT)
4766:Maser
4757:(IOT)
4746:(CFA)
4735:(BWO)
4659:Diode
4606:SEPIC
4586:Boost
4539:TRIAC
4508:(SCR)
4471:(MOV)
4445:(LEC)
4364:(LED)
4323:(UJT)
4312:(SIT)
4306:(PUT)
4249:(BJT)
4218:(TFT)
4194:LDMOS
4189:ISFET
4000:(ICL)
3966:laser
3949:(ECL)
3943:(QCL)
3927:(DFB)
3921:(DBR)
3915:(SCH)
3805:HiPER
3755:laser
3705:U:CaF
3691:laser
3635:(TGG)
3629:(YIG)
3585:Glass
3290:Raman
2955:S2CID
2811:–81.
2724:S2CID
2696:(PDF)
2224:(PDF)
2193:(PDF)
1788:pumps
1717:GaInP
1703:OSRAM
1695:InGaN
1688:InGaN
1681:InGaN
1671:InGaN
1656:InGaN
1499:green
1247:(1-x)
983:In a
879:(1-x)
840:Types
793:melts
590:phase
464:, or
422:holes
390:doped
188:SEM (
157:Anode
95:InGaN
91:penny
5039:Wire
4997:Fuse
4581:Buck
4434:(IC)
4422:DIAC
4358:(LD)
4227:UMOS
4222:VMOS
4139:PMOS
4134:NMOS
4119:MOS
3909:(DH)
3903:(LD)
3666:(YVO
3295:Ruby
3067:ISBN
2992:ISBN
2878:PMID
2840:ISBN
2813:ISBN
2755:ISBN
2716:PMID
2633:PMID
2606:PMID
2579:PMID
2498:ISSN
2457:ISBN
2393:PMID
2315:ISBN
2287:ISBN
2084:ISBN
1830:DPSS
1792:DPSS
1726:and
1701:and
1662:and
1599:and
1529:and
1517:and
1425:SPIE
1357:GaSb
1349:GaAs
1142:and
1128:and
1079:DWDM
952:mode
829:and
679:lens
629:lase
424:and
296:LEDs
290:and
245:hole
159:and
103:Type
4601:Ćuk
3253:Ion
3042:doi
2947:doi
2747:doi
2708:doi
2672:doi
2490:doi
2428:doi
2385:doi
2348:doi
2213:doi
2169:doi
1790:in
1728:DVD
1519:DVD
1495:red
1403:in
1397:RCA
1353:InP
1281:to
1005:An
965:of
963:sea
873:(Al
576:or
509:LED
491:or
332:by
276:DVD
216:or
212:or
210:ILD
208:or
5125::
4975:RF
4724:RF
3670:)
3061:.
3040:.
3028:.
3016:71
3014:.
3010:.
2953:.
2945:.
2935:37
2933:.
2929:.
2910:.
2906:.
2890:^
2874:34
2872:.
2854:^
2809:58
2778:.
2753:.
2722:.
2714:.
2704:22
2702:.
2698:.
2670:.
2658:.
2654:.
2629:37
2627:.
2602:24
2600:.
2575:53
2573:.
2552:41
2550:.
2546:.
2525:41
2523:.
2519:.
2496:.
2486:46
2484:.
2480:.
2426:.
2416:17
2414:.
2391:.
2383:.
2371:.
2342:.
2338:.
2301:^
2211:.
2199:.
2195:.
2167:.
2155:.
2151:.
2106:,
2066:^
2017:CH
1970:CO
1959:CO
1939:CO
1898:CH
1877:,
1860:NH
1839:,
1828:,
1757::
1724:CD
1640:.
1585:nm
1564:,
1541:.
1513:,
1489:.
1355:,
1351:,
1245:Ga
1162:+
1073:A
1041:A
969:.
954:.
877:Ga
753:.
745:.
732:,
632:.
540:,
536:,
472:.
420:–
286:,
272:CD
270:,
266:,
262:,
236:.
202:LD
196:A
128:,
109:,
4726:)
4722:(
4092:e
4085:t
4078:v
3874:e
3867:t
3860:v
3713:2
3707:2
3680:)
3678:4
3668:4
3498:e
3491:t
3484:v
3161:e
3154:t
3147:v
3075:.
3048:.
3044::
3036::
3030:6
3000:.
2980:.
2961:.
2949::
2941::
2912:7
2884:.
2848:.
2821:.
2788:.
2763:.
2749::
2730:.
2710::
2680:.
2674::
2666::
2660:9
2639:.
2612:.
2585:.
2504:.
2492::
2465:.
2434:.
2430::
2422::
2399:.
2387::
2379::
2373:1
2356:.
2350::
2344:9
2323:.
2295:.
2270:.
2215::
2207::
2201:1
2177:.
2171::
2163::
2157:9
2092:.
2022:4
2003:2
1998:H
1994:2
1989:C
1975:2
1944:2
1927:O
1923:2
1918:H
1903:4
1865:3
1765:2
1760:O
1719:/
1374:-
1304:)
1298:(
1293:)
1289:(
1275:.
1243:x
1173:2
1170:d
1167:2
1164:n
1160:1
1157:d
1154:1
1151:n
1147:2
1144:n
1140:1
1137:n
1133:2
1130:d
1126:1
1123:d
875:x
801:n
797:p
786:n
782:p
778:n
774:p
458:p
454:n
446:n
442:p
438:n
436:–
434:p
414:n
412:–
410:p
355:)
349:(
344:)
340:(
326:.
278:/
274:/
200:(
68:)
64:(
54:.
20:)
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