464:. Early winter is thus a period of restratification. If there is relatively little wind, or the lake is deep, only a thin layer of buoyant cold water forms above denser 4°C waters and the lake will be "cryostratified" once ice forms. If the lake experiences strong winds or is shallow, then the whole water column can cool to near 0°C before ice forms, these colder lakes are termed "cryomictic". Once ice forms on a lake, the heat fluxes from the atmosphere are largely shut down and the initial cyrostratified or cryomictic conditions are largely locked in. The development of thermal stratification during winter is then defined by two periods: Winter I and Winter II. During the early winter period of Winter I the major heat flux is due to heat stored in sediment; during this period the lake heats up from beneath forming a deep layer of 4 °C water. During late winter, the surface ice starts to melt and with the increased length of the day, there is increased sunlight that penetrates through the ice into the upper water column. Thus during Winter II, the major heat flux is now from above, and the warming causes an unstable layer to form, resulting in solar driven convection. This mixing of the upper water column is important for keeping plankton in suspension, which in turn influences the timing of under-ice algal blooms and levels of dissolved oxygen. Coriolis forces can also become important in driving circulation patterns due to differential heating by solar radiation. The winter period of lakes is probably the least studied, but the chemistry and biology are still very active under the ice.
476:
338:
284:, a category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year. During winter, dimictic lakes are covered by a layer of ice, creating a cold layer at the surface, a slightly warmer layer beneath the ice, and a still-warmer unfrozen bottom layer, while during summer, the same temperature-derived density differences separate the warm surface waters (the
347:
density differences, the lake readily mixes from top to bottom. During winter any additional cooling below 4 °C results in stratification of water column, so dimictic lakes usually have an inverse thermal stratification, with water at 0 °C below ice and then with temperatures increasing to near 4 °C at the lake's base.
346:
Mixing (overturning) typically occurs during the spring and autumn, when the lake is "isothermal" (i.e. at the same temperature from the top to the bottom). At this time, the water throughout the lake is near 4 °C (the temperature of maximum density), and, in the absence of any temperature or
451:
In late summer, air temperatures drop and the surface of lakes cool, resulting in a deeper mixed layer, until at some point the water column becomes isothermal, and generally high in dissolved oxygen. During fall a combination of wind and cooling air temperatures continue to keep the water column
355:
Once the ice melts, the water column can be mixed by the wind. In large lakes the upper water column is often below 4 °C when the ice melts, so that spring is characterized by continued mixing by solar driven convection, until the water column reaches 4 °C. In small lakes, the period of
1245:
Kirillin, Georgiy; Leppäranta, Matti; Terzhevik, Arkady; Granin, Nikolai; Bernhardt, Juliane; Engelhardt, Christof; Efremova, Tatyana; Golosov, Sergey; Palshin, Nikolai; Sherstyankin, Pavel; Zdorovennova, Galina (October 2012). "Physics of seasonally ice-covered lakes: a review".
341:
There is a seasonal cycle of thermal stratification with two periods of mixing in spring and fall. Such lakes are termed "dimictic'. During summer there is a strong thermal stratification, while there is a weaker inverse stratification in winter. (Figure modified
279:
is a body of freshwater whose difference in temperature between surface and bottom layers becomes negligible twice per year, allowing all strata of the lake's water to circulate vertically. All dimictic lakes are also considered
1396:
Bouffard, Damien; Zdorovennova, Galina; Bogdanov, Sergey; Efremova, Tatyana; Lavanchy, Sébastien; Palshin, Nikolay; Terzhevik, Arkady; Vinnå, Love Råman; Volkov, Sergey; Wüest, Alfred; Zdorovennov, Roman (2019-02-19).
292:). In the spring and fall, these temperature differences briefly disappear, and the body of water overturns and circulates from top to bottom. Such lakes are common in mid-latitude regions with temperate climates.
1610:
Hampton, Stephanie E.; Galloway, Aaron W. E.; Powers, Stephen M.; Ozersky, Ted; Woo, Kara H.; Batt, Ryan D.; Labou, Stephanie G.; O'Reilly, Catherine M.; Sharma, Sapna; Lottig, Noah R.; Stanley, Emily H. (2017).
1550:
Ozersky, Ted; Bramburger, Andrew J.; Elgin, Ashley K.; Vanderploeg, Henry A.; Wang, Jia; Austin, Jay A.; Carrick, Hunter J.; Chavarie, Louise; Depew, David C.; Fisk, Aaron T.; Hampton, Stephanie E. (2021).
1186:
Yang, Bernard; Wells, Mathew G.; McMeans, Bailey C.; Dugan, Hilary A.; Rusak, James A.; Weyhenmeyer, Gesa A.; Brentrup, Jennifer A.; Hrycik, Allison R.; Laas, Alo; Pilla, Rachel M.; Austin, Jay A. (2021).
384:, usually defined as the region where temperature gradients exceed 1 °C/m. Due to the stable density gradient, mixing is inhibited within the thermocline, which reduces the vertical transport of
850:
Chowdhury, Mijanur R.; Wells, Mathew G.; Cossu, Remo (December 2015). "Observations and environmental implications of variability in the vertical turbulent mixing in Lake Simcoe".
746:
Pierson, D.C.; Weyhenmeyer, G. A.; Arvola, L.; Benson, B.; Blenckner, T.; Kratz, T.; Livingstone, D.M.; Markensten, H.; Marzec, G.; Pettersson, K.; Weathers, K. (February 2011).
999:
Chowdhury, Mijanur R.; Wells, Mathew G.; Howell, Todd (April 2016). "Movements of the thermocline lead to high variability in benthic mixing in the nearshore of a large lake".
262:
368:
During summer, the heat fluxes from the atmosphere to a lake warms the surface layers. This results in dimictic lakes have a strong thermal stratification, with a warm
946:
Choi, Jun; Troy, Cary D.; Hsieh, Tsung-Chan; Hawley, Nathan; McCormick, Michael J. (July 2012). "A year of internal
Poincaré waves in southern Lake Michigan".
356:
spring overturn can be very brief, so that spring overturn is often much shorter than the fall overturn. As the upper water column warms past 4 °C a
255:
392:
and has a high sediment oxygen demand, the hypolimnion in dimictic lakes can become hypoxic during summer stratification, as often seen in
643:
Cannon, D. J.; Troy, C. D.; Liao, Q.; Bootsma, H. A. (2019-06-28). "Ice-Free
Radiative Convection Drives Spring Mixing in a Large Lake".
248:
535:
1448:"Mixing, stratification, and plankton under lake-ice during winter in a large lake: Implications for spring dissolved oxygen levels"
460:
After the water column reaches the temperature of maximum density at 4°C, any subsequent cooling produces less dense water due to
574:
Wells, M. G., & Troy, C. D. (2022). Surface Mixed Layers in Lakes. In
Encyclopedia of Inland Waters (pp. 546–561). Elsevier.
411:(due to the Earth's rotation). This is expected to occur when the period of internal seiche becomes comparable to the local
452:
mixed. The water continues to cool until the temperature reaches 4 °C. Often fall overturn can last for 3–4 months.
1160:
1135:
797:"Influence of Lake Surface Area and Depth Upon Thermal Stratification and the Depth of the Summer Thermocline"
1298:
596:"High-Frequency Observations of Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen Reveal Under-Ice Convection in a Large Lake"
403:
due to energy input from winds. If the lake is small (less than 5 km in length), then the period of the
1694:
407:
is well predicted by the Merian formulae. Long period internal waves in larger lakes can be influenced by
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1501:
Ramón, Cintia L.; Ulloa, Hugo N.; Doda, Tomy; Winters, Kraig B.; Bouffard, Damien (2021-04-07).
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575:
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306:
57:
46:
1553:"The Changing Face of Winter: Lessons and Questions from the Laurentian Great Lakes"
1136:"Wind Mixing and Restratification in a Lake near the Temperature of Maximum Density"
1283:
1052:"Internal waves pump waters in and out of a deep coastal embayment of a large lake"
924:
481:
432:
316:
301:
215:
79:
1680:"Circulation: annual patterns of dimictic lakes" at Encyclopædia Britannica Online
1423:
1398:
1091:
Bouffard, Damien; Lemmin, Ulrich (December 2013). "Kelvin waves in Lake Geneva".
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620:
595:
594:
Yang, Bernard; Young, Joelle; Brown, Laura; Wells, Mathew (2017-12-23).
17:
1645:
1050:
Flood, Bryan; Wells, Mathew; Dunlop, Erin; Young, Joelle (2019-08-14).
880:
489:
1679:
1636:
1471:
1068:
1051:
723:
698:
404:
1446:
Yang, Bernard; Wells, Mathew G.; Li, Jingzhi; Young, Joelle (2020).
554:
399:
During summer stratification, most lakes are observed to experience
435:) the observed frequencies of internal seiches are dominated by
1357:"Convection in ice-covered lakes: effects on algal suspension"
699:"Observations of radiatively driven convection in a deep lake"
796:
1161:
10.1175/1520-0485(1981)011<1516:wmaria>2.0.co;2
1503:"Bathymetry and latitude modify lake warming under ice"
903:
Mortimer, C. H. (January 1974). "Lake hydrodynamics".
1189:"A New Thermal Categorization of Ice-Covered Lakes"
748:"An automated method to monitor lake ice phenology"
536:"A revised classification of lakes based on mixing"
795:Gorham, Eville; Boyce, Farrell M. (January 1989).
576:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819166-8.00126-2
543:Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
1134:Farmer, David M.; Carmack, Eddy (November 1981).
1399:"Under-ice convection dynamics in a boreal lake"
1557:Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences
415:, which is 16.971 hours at a latitude of 45 °N
1297:Bouffard, Damien; Wüest, Alfred (2019-01-05).
256:
8:
589:
587:
585:
583:
333:Seasonal cycles of mixing and stratification
462:non-linearity of equation of state of water
263:
249:
29:
27:Body of freshwater that mixes twice a year
1644:
1586:
1576:
1526:
1422:
1372:
1159:
1067:
975:
879:
771:
722:
619:
336:
948:Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans
526:
223:
144:
87:
32:
288:), from the colder bottom waters (the
1240:
1238:
1181:
1179:
7:
692:
690:
1507:Hydrology and Earth System Sciences
1326:10.1146/annurev-fluid-010518-040506
752:Limnology and Oceanography: Methods
25:
1306:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
1140:Journal of Physical Oceanography
474:
1093:Journal of Great Lakes Research
852:Journal of Great Lakes Research
801:Journal of Great Lakes Research
376:by the metalimnion. Within the
925:10.1080/05384680.1974.11923886
534:Lewis, William M. Jr. (1983).
1:
1424:10.1080/20442041.2018.1533356
905:SIL Communications, 1953-1996
821:10.1016/s0380-1330(89)71479-9
697:Austin, Jay A. (2019-04-22).
456:Winter inverse stratification
1361:Journal of Plankton Research
1193:Geophysical Research Letters
645:Geophysical Research Letters
600:Geophysical Research Letters
417:(link to Coriolis utility).
1711:
1452:Limnology and Oceanography
1113:10.1016/j.jglr.2013.09.005
1056:Limnology and Oceanography
872:10.1016/j.jglr.2015.07.008
703:Limnology and Oceanography
296:Examples of dimictic lakes
1528:10.5194/hess-25-1813-2021
1374:10.1093/plankt/19.12.1859
1268:10.1007/s00027-012-0279-y
1613:"Ecology under lake ice"
1001:Water Resources Research
372:separated from the cold
1355:Kelley, Dan E. (1997).
773:10.4319/lom.2010.9.0074
606:(24): 12, 218–12, 226.
419:In large lakes (such a
358:thermal stratification
343:
1299:"Convection in Lakes"
364:Summer stratification
340:
1578:10.1029/2021JG006247
1563:(6): e2021JG006247.
1213:10.1029/2020GL091374
1199:(3): e2020GL091374.
1021:10.1002/2015wr017725
968:10.1029/2012jc007984
665:10.1029/2019gl082916
621:10.1002/2017GL075373
1629:2017EcolL..20...98H
1569:2021JGRG..12606247O
1519:2021HESS...25.1813R
1464:2020LimOc..65.2713Y
1415:2019InWat...9..142B
1318:2019AnRFM..51..189B
1260:2012AqSci..74..659K
1205:2021GeoRL..4891374Y
1152:1981JPO....11.1516F
1105:2013JGLR...39..637B
1013:2016WRR....52.3019C
960:2012JGRC..117.7014C
917:1974SILC...20..124M
864:2015JGLR...41..995C
813:1989JGLR...15..233G
764:2011LimOM...9...74P
715:2019LimOc..64.2152A
657:2019GeoRL..46.6811C
612:2017GeoRL..4412218Y
360:starts to develop.
89:Lake stratification
344:
232:Aquatic ecosystems
1637:10.1111/ele.12699
1472:10.1002/lno.11543
1458:(11): 2713–2729.
1367:(12): 1859–1880.
1146:(11): 1516–1533.
1069:10.1002/lno.11292
724:10.1002/lno.11175
651:(12): 6811–6820.
549:(10): 1779–1787.
273:
272:
16:(Redirected from
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557:. Archived from
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413:inertial period
409:Coriolis forces
405:internal seiche
388:. If a lake is
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351:Spring overturn
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205:Meromictic lake
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192:Polymictic lake
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447:Fall overturn
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430:
429:Lake Michigan
426:
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307:Lake Superior
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277:dimictic lake
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181:Dimictic lake
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72:
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58:Limnetic zone
50:
48:
47:Littoral zone
39:
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758:(2): 74–83.
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559:the original
546:
542:
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482:Lakes portal
459:
450:
441:Kelvin waves
433:Lake Ontario
398:
367:
354:
345:
317:Lake Opeongo
302:Lake Mendota
276:
274:
216:Amictic lake
180:
80:Benthic zone
1646:10919/94398
954:(C7): n/a.
881:1807/107899
515:Thermocline
425:Lake Geneva
421:Lake Simcoe
382:thermocline
380:there is a
378:metalimnion
374:hypolimnion
322:Loch Lomond
312:Lake Simcoe
290:hypolimnion
126:Hypolimnion
115:Metalimnion
521:References
510:Polymictic
505:Monomictic
500:Meromictic
495:Holomictic
370:epilimnion
286:epilimnion
282:holomictic
145:Lake types
104:Epilimnion
33:Lake zones
1655:1461-0248
1597:2169-8961
1537:1027-5606
1488:225490164
1480:1939-5590
1433:2044-2041
1383:0142-7873
1342:125132769
1334:0066-4189
1276:1015-1621
1229:233921281
1221:1944-8007
1170:0022-3670
1121:0380-1330
1078:0024-3590
1037:130510367
1029:0043-1397
986:0148-0227
933:0538-4680
890:0380-1330
837:128748369
829:0380-1330
782:1541-5856
733:0024-3590
681:197574599
673:0094-8276
630:0094-8276
394:Lake Erie
390:eutrophic
1689:Category
1663:27889953
468:See also
224:See also
18:Dimictic
1625:Bibcode
1565:Bibcode
1515:Bibcode
1460:Bibcode
1411:Bibcode
1314:Bibcode
1284:6722239
1256:Bibcode
1201:Bibcode
1148:Bibcode
1101:Bibcode
1009:Bibcode
956:Bibcode
913:Bibcode
860:Bibcode
809:Bibcode
760:Bibcode
711:Bibcode
653:Bibcode
608:Bibcode
490:Amictic
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1484:S2CID
1338:S2CID
1302:(PDF)
1280:S2CID
1225:S2CID
1033:S2CID
833:S2CID
677:S2CID
562:(PDF)
539:(PDF)
342:from)
1659:PMID
1651:ISSN
1593:ISSN
1533:ISSN
1476:ISSN
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929:ISSN
886:ISSN
825:ISSN
778:ISSN
729:ISSN
669:ISSN
626:ISSN
439:and
1641:hdl
1633:doi
1583:hdl
1573:doi
1561:126
1523:doi
1468:doi
1419:doi
1369:doi
1322:doi
1264:doi
1209:doi
1156:doi
1109:doi
1064:doi
1017:doi
972:hdl
964:doi
952:117
921:doi
876:hdl
868:doi
817:doi
768:doi
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661:doi
616:doi
551:doi
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