453:
terms of its definition, is a historical single objective problem with constraints. Since 1975, when Merlin and Back introduced the idea of distribution system reconfiguration for active power loss reduction, until nowadays, a lot of researchers have proposed diverse methods and algorithms to solve the reconfiguration problem as a single objective problem. Some authors have proposed Pareto optimality based approaches (including active power losses and reliability indices as objectives). For this purpose, different artificial intelligence based methods have been used: microgenetic, branch exchange, particle swarm optimization and non-dominated sorting
414:
520:
316:
183:
100:
466:
31:
1999:
628:
2578:
234:, installed in 1882, had difficulty supplying customers more than a mile away because they used a low voltage (110 V) from generation to end use. The low voltage translated to higher current and required thick copper cables for transmission. In practice, Edison's DC generating plants needed to be within about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) of the farthest customer to avoid even thicker and more expensive conductors.
805:
387:
This is a definition that has changed over time and can change among groups of engineers, depending on the country and application. For example medium voltage can be defined as 1 to 75 KV, and ultra high voltage (UHV) can be defined as AC voltages of or over 1000 KV and DC voltages of or over 750 KV.
567:
connection is normally provided for the customer's system as well as for the equipment owned by the utility. The purpose of connecting the customer's system to ground is to limit the voltage that may develop if high voltage conductors fall down onto lower-voltage conductors which are usually mounted
425:
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network. A radial system is arranged like a tree where each customer has one source of supply. A network system has multiple sources of supply operating in parallel. Spot networks are used for concentrated loads. Radial systems are commonly
606:
between any one phase and neutral. In the UK a typical urban or suburban low-voltage substation would normally be rated between 150 kVA and 1 MVA and supply a whole neighbourhood of a few hundred houses. Transformers are typically sized on an average load of 1 to 2 kW per household,
486:
Rural services normally try to minimize the number of poles and wires. It uses higher voltages (than urban distribution), which in turn permits use of galvanized steel wire. The strong steel wire allows for less expensive wide pole spacing. In rural areas a pole-mount transformer may serve only one
229:
The high voltages used in arc lighting allowed a single generating station to supply a string of lights up to 7 miles (11 km) long. And each doubling of voltage would allow a given cable to transmit the same amount of power four times the distance than at the lower voltage (with the same power
242:
The problem of transmitting electricity over longer distances became a recognized engineering roadblock to electric power distribution, with many less-than-satisfactory solutions tested by lighting companies. But the mid-1880s saw a breakthrough with the development of functional transformers that
594:
are connected to the building for a three phase service. Single-phase distribution, with one live wire and the neutral is used domestically where total loads are light. In Europe, electricity is normally distributed for industry and domestic use by the three-phase, four wire system. This gives a
452:
Reconfiguration, by exchanging the functional links between the elements of the system, represents one of the most important measures which can improve the operational performance of a distribution system. The problem of optimization through the reconfiguration of a power distribution system, in
372:
From the generating station it goes to the generating station's switchyard where a step-up transformer increases the voltage to a level suitable for transmission, from 44 kV to 765 kV. Once in the transmission system, electricity from each generating station is combined with electricity produced
404:
Primary distribution voltages range from 4 kV to 35 kV phase-to-phase (2.4 kV to 20 kV phase-to-neutral) Only large consumers are fed directly from distribution voltages; most utility customers are connected to a transformer, which reduces the distribution voltage to the low
585:
Most of the world uses 50 Hz 220 or 230 V single phase, or 400 V three-phase for residential and light industrial services. In this system, the primary distribution network supplies a few substations per area, and the 230 V / 400 V power from each substation is directly
510:
Three phase service provides power for large agricultural facilities, petroleum pumping facilities, water plants, or other customers that have large loads (three-phase equipment). In North
America, overhead distribution systems may be three phase, four wire, with a neutral conductor. Rural
483:). 7.2, 12.47, 25, and 34.5 kV distribution is common in the United States; 11 kV and 33 kV are common in the UK, Australia and New Zealand; 11 kV and 22 kV are common in South Africa; 10, 20 and 35 kV are common in China. Other voltages are occasionally used.
262:
and his development of the first US AC transformer systems, highlighting the deaths caused by high-voltage AC systems over the years and claiming any AC system was inherently dangerous. Edison's propaganda campaign was short-lived, with his company switching over to AC in 1892.
384:, low voltage (LV) is defined as voltages from 100 volts to 1 kilovolt (KV), medium voltage (MV) is defined as voltages from over 1 KV to 35 KV, high voltage (HV) is defined as voltages from above 35 to 230 KV, and extra high voltage (EHV) is defined as voltages above 245 KV.
160:, and suburban distribution is a mix. Closer to the customer, a distribution transformer steps the primary distribution power down to a low-voltage secondary circuit, usually 120/240 V in the US for residential customers. The power comes to the customer via a
429:
Radial systems usually include emergency connections where the system can be reconfigured in case of problems, such as a fault or planned maintenance. This can be done by opening and closing switches to isolate a certain section from the grid.
1384:
Merlin, A.; Back, H. Search for a
Minimal-Loss Operating Spanning Tree Configuration in an Urban Power Distribution System. In Proceedings of the 1975 Fifth Power Systems Computer Conference (PSCC), Cambridge, UK, 1â5 September 1975; pp.
559:
is more efficient in terms of power delivered per cable used, and is more suited to running large electric motors. Some large
European appliances may be powered by three-phase power, such as electric stoves and clothes dryers.
647:, the standard voltage is 100 V, with both 50 and 60 Hz AC frequencies being used. Parts of the country use 50 Hz, while other parts use 60 Hz. This is a relic from the 1890s. Some local providers in
623:
system domestically and three phase for larger installations. North
American transformers usually power homes at 240 volts, similar to Europe's 230 volts. It is the split-phase that allows use of 120 volts in the home.
511:
distribution system may have long runs of one phase conductor and a neutral. In other countries or in extreme rural areas the neutral wire is connected to the ground to use that as a return (single-wire earth return).
781:. As a result, distribution systems are becoming more independent from the transmission networks day-by-day. Balancing the supply-demand relationship at these modern distribution networks (sometimes referred to as
243:
allowed AC power to be "stepped up" to much a higher voltage for transmission, then dropped down to a lower voltage near the end user. Compared to direct current, AC had much cheaper transmission costs and greater
373:
elsewhere. For this to be possible, all stations must be synchronized with each other. Electricity is consumed as soon as it is produced. It is transmitted at a very high speed, close to the
655:
brought in 60 Hz generators from the United States. The grids grew until eventually the entire country was wired. Today the frequency is 50 Hz in
Eastern Japan (including Tokyo,
337:
Electric power begins at a generating station, where the potential difference can be as high as 33,000 volts. AC is usually used. Users of large amounts of DC power such as some
910:
206:. Until then, electricity was usually generated where it was used. The first power-distribution systems installed in European and US cities were used to supply lighting:
396:(NEC) used in buildings in the USA, voltages of up to 30 volts AC or 60 volts DC are considered low voltage, and voltages higher than these are considered high voltage.
1244:
Zhou, Hao; Qiu, Wenqian; Sun, Ke; Chen, Jiamiao; Deng, Xu; Qian, Feng; Wang, Dongju; Zhao, Bincai; Li, Jiyuan; Li, Sha; Qiu, Yuting; Yu, Jingzhe (21 December 2017).
698:
knocked out about a third of the east's capacity, and power in the west could not be fully shared with the east since the country does not have a common frequency.
1850:
844:
321:
2523:
285:, meaning that one company did generation, transmission, distribution, metering and billing. Starting in the 1970s and 1980s, nations began the process of
226:
systems, with arc lighting taking over large-area and street lighting, and incandescent lighting replacing gas lights for business and residential users.
749:. The 240 volt circuits are typically used for appliances requiring high watt heat output such as ovens and heaters. They may also be used to supply an
297:. The distribution system would remain regulated, but generation, retail, and sometimes transmission systems were transformed into competitive markets.
1218:
607:
and the service fuses and cable is sized to allow any one property to draw a peak load of perhaps ten times this. For industrial customers, 3-phase
1646:
1191:
1164:
1397:"Microgenetic multiobjective reconfiguration algorithm considering power losses and reliability indices for medium voltage distribution network"
905:
177:
611:
is also available, or may be generated locally. Large industrial customers have their own transformer(s) with an input from 11 kV to 220 kV.
148:
that can split the distribution power off in multiple directions. The bus distributes power to distribution lines, which fan out to customers.
1317:
1281:
1255:
1228:
1201:
1174:
1147:
946:
695:
168:. The final circuit in an urban system may be less than 15 metres (50 ft) but may be over 91 metres (300 ft) for a rural customer.
2602:
2581:
480:
413:
2420:
722:
2528:
1998:
1843:
539:
Electricity is delivered at a frequency of either 50 or 60 Hz, depending on the region. It is delivered to domestic customers as
2148:
1608:
1369:
1096:
1071:
1046:
357:
can be advantageous for isolating alternating-current systems or controlling the quantity of electricity transmitted. For example,
84:
used by lighting, industrial equipment and household appliances. Often several customers are supplied from one transformer through
785:) is extremely challenging, and it requires the use of various technological and operational means to operate. Such tools include
250:
In the US the competition between direct current and alternating current took a personal turn in the late 1880s in the form of a "
1271:
694:
Most household appliances are made to work on either frequency. The problem of incompatibility came into the public eye when the
519:
2607:
2311:
2236:
2107:
392:(SAE), low voltage is under 30 volts, medium voltage is 30 to 60 volts and high voltage is over 60 volts, and according to the
389:
247:â with large AC generating plants capable of supplying whole cities and regions, which led to the use of AC spreading rapidly.
182:
1434:
Bernardon, Daniel
Pinheiro; Garcia, Vinicius Jacques; Ferreira, Adriana Scheffer Quintela; Canha, Luciane Neves (2010-03-01).
338:
1307:
107:. The voltages and loadings are typical of a European network (in Canada, for example, Extra High Voltage can mean 735kV.)
2483:
2415:
2405:
2281:
2181:
1836:
829:
824:
786:
1675:
2336:
2296:
1873:
900:
761:
Traditionally, the distribution systems would only operate as simple distribution lines where the electricity from the
92:. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the
2563:
2558:
2276:
2251:
2212:
1918:
834:
762:
702:
644:
540:
306:
46:
745:, can have both 120 volt receptacles and 240 volt receptacles. The 120 volts is typically used for lighting and most
479:
systems tend to use higher distribution voltages because of the longer distances covered by distribution lines (see
2478:
2196:
2166:
1943:
989:
Quentin R. Skrabec, The 100 Most
Significant Events in American Business: An Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO â 2012, page 86
746:
742:
620:
599:
556:
544:
319:
88:
distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary distribution lines through
2533:
2022:
1983:
405:
voltage "utilization voltage", "supply voltage" or "mains voltage" used by lighting and interior wiring systems.
1528:
TomoiagÄ, Bogdan; ChindriĆ, Mircea; Sumper, Andreas; Sudria-Andreu, Antoni; Villafafila-Robles, Roberto (2013).
1396:
1245:
2508:
2316:
2256:
1913:
1334:
504:
470:
393:
320:
77:
1137:
322:
1193:
High-Voltage
Equipment of Power Systems: Design, Principles of Operation, Testing, Monitoring and Diagnostics
741:
Most modern North
American homes are wired to receive 240 volts from the transformer, and through the use of
2447:
2437:
2427:
895:
889:
884:
710:
587:
278:
202:
Electric power distribution become necessary only in the 1880s, when electricity started being generated at
2368:
2231:
2014:
1903:
849:
770:
310:
191:
1530:"Pareto Optimal Reconfiguration of Power Distribution Systems Using a Genetic Algorithm Based on NSGA-II"
2503:
2271:
2266:
2246:
1650:
854:
476:
112:
50:
1112:
465:
99:
1139:
Analysis and Design of
Electrical Power Systems: A Practical Guide and Commentary on NEC and IEC 60364
2097:
1859:
1769:
564:
326:
282:
231:
1273:
Fundamentals of Firefighter Skills and Hazardous Materials Response Includes Navigate Premier Access
2468:
2301:
2201:
2176:
2129:
1938:
1928:
1893:
1621:
965:
879:
528:
259:
211:
153:
81:
892:â IEEE standard to interconnect tele-protection and multiplexer devices of power utility companies
2342:
1953:
1793:
1731:
1510:
1463:
342:
294:
244:
104:
30:
266:
AC became the dominant form of transmission of power with innovations in Europe and the US in
80:
located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the
2493:
2373:
1978:
1785:
1683:
1604:
1502:
1455:
1416:
1365:
1313:
1277:
1251:
1224:
1197:
1170:
1143:
1092:
1067:
1042:
1038:
1000:
942:
874:
859:
765:
would be shared among the customers. Today's distribution systems are heavily integrated with
718:
684:
555:, oscillating between â170 volts and 170 volts, giving an effective voltage of 120 volts RMS.
534:
454:
446:
219:
165:
2442:
2383:
2087:
2082:
2059:
1968:
1908:
1777:
1572:
1551:
1541:
1494:
1447:
1408:
839:
766:
726:
660:
133:
or more, down to primary distribution voltages. These are medium voltage circuits, usually
2473:
2432:
2410:
2291:
2261:
2226:
2186:
1988:
569:
251:
123:
119:
93:
1436:"Multicriteria Distribution Network Reconfiguration Considering Subtransmission Analysis"
358:
1773:
1166:
Power System Engineering: Planning, Design, and Operation of Power Systems and Equipment
2498:
2488:
2286:
1898:
790:
374:
267:
215:
203:
42:
1483:"Reconfiguration of Power Distribution Systems Considering Reliability and Power Loss"
2596:
2518:
2306:
2191:
2171:
2102:
2092:
2049:
1933:
1888:
1797:
1031:
810:
586:
distributed to end users over a region of normally less than 1 km radius. Three
290:
255:
195:
1514:
1467:
2538:
2513:
2378:
2347:
2161:
1963:
864:
774:
750:
721:
stations that link Japan's western and eastern power grids. The other three are at
706:
627:
591:
548:
500:
496:
438:
434:
353:
to derive DC from the public AC supply, or may have their own generation systems.
330:
286:
223:
161:
157:
89:
1190:
Ushakov, Vasily Ya; Mytnikov, Alexey V.; Rakhmonov, Ikromjon U. (21 August 2023).
230:
loss). By contrast, direct-current indoor incandescent lighting systems, such as
17:
2363:
2331:
2124:
2112:
2032:
1958:
1948:
1878:
869:
819:
488:
418:
69:
53:
connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium
1781:
1757:
1498:
1482:
1451:
1435:
568:
lower to the ground, or if a failure occurs within a distribution transformer.
274:
allowing the large number of legacy systems to be connected to large AC grids.
2326:
2321:
2134:
2117:
1973:
1412:
800:
778:
730:
705:(HVDC) converter stations that move power across Japan's AC frequency border.
1789:
1687:
1506:
1459:
1420:
2042:
2037:
1923:
1883:
804:
782:
680:
552:
492:
442:
381:
362:
350:
346:
1818:
1395:
Mendoza, J.E.; LĂłpez, E.A.; LĂłpez, M.E.; Coello Coello, C.A. (2009-09-01).
769:
generations at the distribution level of the power systems by the means of
27:
Final stage of electricity delivery to individual consumers in a power grid
1707:
2156:
1033:
Behind the headlines: American history's schemes, scandals, and escapades
664:
656:
651:
imported 50 Hz German equipment, while the local power providers in
207:
187:
2077:
2067:
1828:
1758:"Data-Driven Planning for Renewable Distributed Generation Integration"
1089:
Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations
54:
1556:
1546:
1529:
2072:
688:
668:
366:
222:
running on low-voltage (100 V) direct current. Both were supplanting
145:
111:
The transition from transmission to distribution happens in a power
714:
676:
672:
652:
648:
626:
518:
464:
412:
314:
181:
98:
29:
547:
supply may be made available for larger properties. Seen with an
2027:
1064:
Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880â1930
354:
60:
1832:
551:, the domestic power supply in North America would look like a
190:
lighting used outdoors or in large indoor spaces, such as this
122:
and switches enable the substation to be disconnected from the
1756:
Fathabad, A. M.; Cheng, J.; Pan, K.; Qiu, F. (November 2020).
1481:
Amanulla, B.; Chakrabarti, Saikat; Singh, S. N. (2012-01-24).
733:. Together they can move up to 1.2 GW of power east or west.
1601:
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition
1823:
1087:
Garud, Raghu; Kumaraswamy, Arun; Langlois, Richard (2009).
1163:
Schlabbach, Juergen; Rofalski, Karl-Heinz (21 July 2008).
277:
In the first half of the 20th century, in many places the
1113:"Extra-High-Voltage Transmission | 735 kV | Hydro-Québec"
619:
Most of the Americas use 60 Hz AC, the 120/240 volt
507:
systems (SWER) are used to electrify remote rural areas.
1819:
IEEE Power Engineering Society Distribution Subcommittee
1813:
1824:
U.S. Department of Energy Electric Distribution website
186:
The late 1870s and early 1880s saw the introduction of
152:
Urban distribution is mainly underground, sometimes in
1001:"Notes on the Jablochkoff System of Electric Lighting"
941:. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press. pp. 1â33.
76:
distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to
911:
Ultra-high-voltage electricity transmission in China
2547:
2457:
2394:
2356:
2210:
2147:
2058:
2013:
2006:
1866:
1217:Laughton, M. A.; Warne, D. F. (27 September 2002).
34:
A 50 kVA pole-mounted distribution transformer
1030:
1309:Energy-Efficient Electrical Systems for Buildings
156:. Rural distribution is mostly above ground with
1276:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 30 April 2024.
1401:IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution
1360:Abdelhay A. Sallam and Om P. Malik (May 2011).
318:
1011:(32). Institution of Electrical Engineers: 143
361:has a direct-current line which goes from the
210:running on very-high-voltage (around 3,000 V)
129:Transformers step down transmission voltages,
1844:
1296:National Electrical Code (NEC), NFPA 70, 2017
1005:Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers
845:Electricity distribution companies by country
667:) and 60 Hz in Western Japan (including
126:or for distribution lines to be disconnected.
8:
1364:. IEEE Computer Society Press. p. 21.
1247:Ultra-high Voltage AC/DC Power Transmission
270:designs, and the development of engineered
2010:
1851:
1837:
1829:
523:World map of mains voltage and frequencies
1555:
1545:
1732:"Why Japan's Fragmented Grid Can't Cope"
144:From the transformer, power goes to the
1649:. EnPowered. 2016-03-28. Archived from
1647:"The Bumpy Road to Energy Deregulation"
922:
329:from generation stations to consumers'
1599:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty (ed),
1091:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 249.
906:High-voltage transformer fire barriers
602:service and a single-phase voltage of
421:, in the Northwest Territories, Canada
178:History of electric power transmission
49:to individual consumers. Distribution
1669:
1667:
1573:"Electric Power Distribution Systems"
1341:. EEP â Electrical Engineering Portal
1335:"Primary Distribution Voltage Levels"
960:
958:
737:240 volt systems and 120 volt outlets
115:, which has the following functions:
7:
1220:Electrical Engineer's Reference Book
939:Electric Power Distribution Handbook
932:
930:
928:
926:
481:Rural Electrification Administration
1487:IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery
1440:IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery
543:. In some countries as in Europe a
380:In power distribution according to
2529:Renewable energy commercialization
1762:IEEE Transactions on Power Systems
1676:"Japan's incompatible power grids"
696:2011 TĆhoku earthquake and tsunami
45:. Electricity is carried from the
25:
1339:electrical-engineering-portal.com
1333:Csanyi, Edvard (10 August 2012).
572:can be TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or TN-C.
469:High voltage power pole in rural
426:used in rural or suburban areas.
345:and industrial processes such as
2577:
2576:
1997:
1306:Krarti, Moncef (3 August 2023).
803:
631:Japan's utility frequencies are
1674:Gordenker, Alice (2011-07-19).
1066:. JHU Press. pp. 120â121.
390:Society of Automotive Engineers
339:railway electrification systems
238:Introduction of the transformer
1814:IEEE Power Engineering Society
1136:Kasikci, Ismail (9 May 2022).
1:
2524:Renewable Energy Certificates
2484:Cost of electricity by source
2406:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
2282:High-voltage shore connection
1362:Electric Distribution Systems
1062:Parke Hughes, Thomas (1993).
830:Distribution network operator
825:Cost of electricity by source
787:battery storage power station
2539:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
2337:Transmission system operator
2297:Mains electricity by country
1874:Automatic generation control
901:Transmission system operator
743:split-phase electrical power
232:Edison's first power station
194:system installed in 1880 in
2603:Electric power distribution
2564:List of electricity sectors
2559:Electric energy consumption
2277:High-voltage direct current
2252:Electric power transmission
2242:Electric power distribution
1919:Energy return on investment
1037:. Stackpole Books. p.
835:Dynamic voltage restoration
793:, optimization tools, etc.
757:Modern distribution systems
703:high-voltage direct current
645:electricity sector in Japan
541:single-phase electric power
307:Electric power transmission
301:Generation and transmission
39:Electric power distribution
2624:
2479:Carbon offsets and credits
2197:Three-phase electric power
1782:10.1109/TPWRS.2020.3001235
1499:10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2179950
1452:10.1109/TPWRD.2010.2041013
1029:Garrison, Webb B. (1983).
595:phase-to-phase voltage of
557:Three-phase electric power
532:
526:
304:
175:
41:is the final stage in the
2572:
2534:Renewable Energy Payments
2023:Fossil fuel power station
1995:
1413:10.1049/iet-gtd.2009.0009
1169:. John Wiley & Sons.
1142:. John Wiley & Sons.
325:Simplified diagram of AC
78:distribution transformers
2317:Single-wire earth return
2257:Electrical busbar system
1914:Energy demand management
999:Berly, J. (1880-03-24).
717:which forms one of four
505:Single-wire earth return
471:Butte County, California
433:Long feeders experience
394:National Electrical Code
2448:Residual-current device
2438:Power system protection
2428:Generator interlock kit
896:Power system simulation
890:Power-system automation
885:Power distribution unit
279:electric power industry
43:delivery of electricity
2608:Electrical engineering
2232:Distributed generation
1904:Electric power quality
1708:"Electricity in Japan"
1680:The Japan Times Online
1622:"How Power Grids Work"
1580:Electrical Engineering
966:"How Power Grids Work"
850:Electricity generation
771:distributed generation
640:
524:
515:Secondary distribution
473:
441:distortion) requiring
422:
409:Network configurations
334:
311:Electricity generation
199:
192:Brush Electric Company
108:
35:
2504:Fossil fuel phase-out
2272:Electricity retailing
2267:Electrical substation
2247:Electric power system
1603:, McGraw Hill, 1978,
855:Electricity retailing
763:transmission networks
630:
522:
477:Rural electrification
468:
416:
324:
283:vertically integrated
220:incandescent lighting
185:
176:Further information:
102:
33:
1860:Electricity delivery
937:Short, T.A. (2014).
615:100â120 volt systems
581:220â240 volt systems
497:Saskatchewan, Canada
400:Primary distribution
327:electricity delivery
154:common utility ducts
105:electricity networks
2469:Availability factor
2421:Sulfur hexafluoride
2302:Overhead power line
2202:Virtual power plant
2177:Induction generator
2130:Sustainable biofuel
1939:Home energy storage
1929:Grid energy storage
1894:Droop speed control
1774:2020ITPSy..35.4357F
880:Overhead power line
773:resources, such as
576:Regional variations
529:Low-voltage network
343:telephone exchanges
295:electricity markets
260:George Westinghouse
212:alternating current
82:utilization voltage
47:transmission system
2343:Transmission tower
1954:Nameplate capacity
641:
525:
474:
447:voltage regulators
423:
335:
258:started attacking
245:economies of scale
200:
109:
103:General layout of
36:
2590:
2589:
2494:Environmental tax
2374:Cascading failure
2143:
2142:
1979:Utility frequency
1736:Spectrum.IEEE.org
1547:10.3390/en6031439
1319:978-1-000-89973-3
1283:978-1-284-30456-5
1257:978-3-662-54575-1
1230:978-0-08-052354-5
1203:978-3-031-38252-9
1176:978-3-527-40759-0
1149:978-3-527-34137-5
948:978-1-4665-9865-2
875:Network protector
860:Extra-low voltage
719:frequency changer
713:HVDC facility in
535:Mains electricity
455:genetic algorithm
449:to be installed.
388:According to the
272:universal systems
166:electricity meter
124:transmission grid
18:Distribution line
16:(Redirected from
2615:
2580:
2579:
2489:Energy subsidies
2443:Protective relay
2384:Rolling blackout
2011:
2001:
1969:Power-flow study
1909:Electrical fault
1853:
1846:
1839:
1830:
1802:
1801:
1768:(6): 4357â4368.
1753:
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1597:
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1549:
1540:(3): 1439â1455.
1525:
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1478:
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1471:
1446:(4): 2684â2691.
1431:
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840:Electric utility
813:
808:
807:
767:renewable energy
727:Minami-Fukumitsu
638:
634:
610:
605:
598:
588:live (hot) wires
570:Earthing systems
417:Substation near
317:
140:
138:
132:
120:Circuit breakers
68:with the use of
67:
63:
57:ranging between
21:
2623:
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2586:
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2552:
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2543:
2474:Capacity factor
2462:
2460:
2453:
2433:Numerical relay
2411:Circuit breaker
2399:
2397:
2390:
2352:
2292:Load management
2262:Electrical grid
2227:Demand response
2220:
2215:
2206:
2187:Microgeneration
2139:
2054:
2002:
1993:
1989:Vehicle-to-grid
1862:
1857:
1810:
1805:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1741:
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1712:Japan-Guide.com
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1119:
1117:hydroquebec.com
1111:
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949:
936:
935:
924:
920:
915:
809:
802:
799:
759:
739:
723:Higashi-Shimizu
701:There are four
636:
632:
617:
608:
603:
596:
583:
578:
537:
531:
517:
463:
411:
402:
355:High-voltage DC
323:
315:
313:
305:Main articles:
303:
252:war of currents
240:
180:
174:
136:
134:
130:
94:subtransmission
65:
58:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2621:
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2584:
2573:
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2561:
2555:
2553:
2549:Statistics and
2548:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2499:Feed-in tariff
2496:
2491:
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2476:
2471:
2465:
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2458:
2455:
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2294:
2289:
2287:Interconnector
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2237:Dynamic demand
2234:
2229:
2223:
2221:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2167:Combined cycle
2164:
2159:
2153:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
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2110:
2105:
2100:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2064:
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2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
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2030:
2019:
2017:
2008:
2004:
2003:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1944:Load-following
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1899:Electric power
1896:
1891:
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1870:
1868:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1848:
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1833:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1809:
1808:External links
1806:
1804:
1803:
1748:
1738:. 6 April 2011
1723:
1699:
1663:
1638:
1613:
1592:
1563:
1520:
1493:(2): 918â926.
1473:
1426:
1407:(9): 825â840.
1387:
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816:
815:
814:
798:
795:
791:data analytics
758:
755:
738:
735:
616:
613:
609:690 / 400 volt
582:
579:
577:
574:
527:Main article:
516:
513:
462:
461:Rural services
459:
410:
407:
401:
398:
375:speed of light
349:smelting use
302:
299:
268:electric motor
239:
236:
216:direct current
204:power stations
173:
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150:
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26:
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2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2519:Pigouvian tax
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
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2416:Earth-leakage
2414:
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2357:Failure modes
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2192:Rankine cycle
2190:
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2185:
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2175:
2173:
2172:Cooling tower
2170:
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2020:
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2015:Non-renewable
2012:
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1935:
1934:Grid strength
1932:
1930:
1927:
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1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1889:Demand factor
1887:
1885:
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1880:
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1875:
1872:
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1724:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1653:on 2017-04-07
1652:
1648:
1642:
1639:
1627:
1626:HowStuffWorks
1623:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1609:0-07-020974-X
1606:
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1371:9780470276822
1367:
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1321:
1315:
1312:. CRC Press.
1311:
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1098:9780631233169
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1073:9780801846144
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970:HowStuffWorks
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841:
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836:
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831:
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823:
821:
818:
817:
812:
811:Energy portal
806:
801:
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792:
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487:customer. In
484:
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308:
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298:
296:
293:, leading to
292:
291:privatization
288:
284:
280:
275:
273:
269:
264:
261:
257:
256:Thomas Edison
253:
248:
246:
237:
235:
233:
227:
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221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
197:
196:New York City
193:
189:
184:
179:
171:
169:
167:
163:
159:
158:utility poles
155:
147:
143:
128:
125:
121:
118:
117:
116:
114:
106:
101:
97:
95:
91:
90:service drops
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
62:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
32:
19:
2514:Net metering
2461:and policies
2379:Power outage
2348:Utility pole
2312:Pumped hydro
2241:
2218:distribution
2217:
2213:Transmission
2162:Cogeneration
1964:Power factor
1765:
1761:
1751:
1740:. Retrieved
1735:
1726:
1715:. Retrieved
1711:
1702:
1691:. Retrieved
1679:
1655:. Retrieved
1651:the original
1641:
1630:. Retrieved
1628:. April 2000
1625:
1616:
1611:, page 18-17
1600:
1595:
1583:. Retrieved
1579:
1566:
1537:
1533:
1523:
1490:
1486:
1476:
1443:
1439:
1429:
1404:
1400:
1390:
1380:
1361:
1355:
1343:. Retrieved
1338:
1328:
1308:
1301:
1292:
1272:
1266:
1250:. Springer.
1246:
1239:
1219:
1212:
1196:. Springer.
1192:
1185:
1165:
1158:
1138:
1131:
1120:. Retrieved
1116:
1107:
1088:
1082:
1063:
1057:
1032:
1024:
1013:. Retrieved
1008:
1004:
994:
985:
974:. Retrieved
972:. April 2000
969:
938:
865:High voltage
775:solar energy
760:
751:electric car
747:wall outlets
740:
711:back-to-back
707:Shin Shinano
700:
693:
642:
618:
584:
562:
549:oscilloscope
538:
509:
501:South Africa
485:
475:
451:
439:power factor
435:voltage drop
432:
428:
424:
403:
386:
379:
371:
359:Hydro-Québec
336:
331:service drop
287:deregulation
276:
271:
265:
249:
241:
228:
224:gas lighting
208:arc lighting
201:
162:service drop
151:
110:
85:
73:
70:transformers
38:
37:
2509:Load factor
2364:Black start
2332:Transformer
2033:Natural gas
1984:Variability
1959:Peak demand
1949:Merit order
1879:Backfeeding
870:Low voltage
820:Backfeeding
779:wind energy
621:split-phase
545:three phase
489:New Zealand
419:Yellowknife
51:substations
2597:Categories
2551:production
2396:Protective
2327:Super grid
2322:Smart grid
2149:Generation
2083:Geothermal
1974:Repowering
1742:2016-03-12
1717:2016-03-12
1693:2016-03-12
1657:2017-04-07
1632:2016-03-18
1557:2117/18257
1223:. Newnes.
1122:2016-03-08
1015:2009-01-07
976:2016-03-18
918:References
783:microgrids
731:Sakuma Dam
533:See also:
443:capacitors
365:region to
351:rectifiers
218:(DC), and
131:35 kV
113:substation
66:33 kV
2459:Economics
2182:Micro CHP
2060:Renewable
2043:Petroleum
2038:Oil shale
1924:Grid code
1884:Base load
1798:225734643
1790:1558-0679
1688:0447-5763
1571:Chan, F.
1507:0885-8977
1460:0885-8977
1421:1751-8687
753:charger.
681:Hiroshima
604:230 volts
597:400 volts
553:sine wave
493:Australia
382:IEC 60038
363:James Bay
347:aluminium
86:secondary
2582:Category
2369:Brownout
2157:AC power
1867:Concepts
1585:12 March
1534:Energies
1515:21613514
1468:36322668
797:See also
665:Hokkaido
657:Yokohama
590:and the
214:(AC) or
188:arc-lamp
2398:devices
2108:Thermal
2103:Osmotic
2098:Current
2078:Biomass
2068:Biofuel
2050:Nuclear
2007:Sources
1770:Bibcode
1345:9 March
685:Shikoku
643:In the
592:neutral
254:" when
172:History
164:and an
139: V
96:level.
74:Primary
59:2
55:voltage
2093:Marine
2073:Biogas
1796:
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1466:
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1419:
1368:
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689:Kyushu
687:, and
669:Nagoya
663:, and
661:Tohoku
565:ground
499:, and
367:Boston
146:busbar
135:600â35
2450:(GFI)
2339:(TSO)
2125:Solar
2113:Tidal
2088:Hydro
1794:S2CID
1576:(PDF)
1511:S2CID
1464:S2CID
1385:1â18.
715:Japan
709:is a
677:Kyoto
673:Osaka
653:Osaka
649:Tokyo
637:60 Hz
633:50 Hz
2216:and
2135:Wind
2118:Wave
2028:Coal
1786:ISSN
1684:ISSN
1605:ISBN
1587:2016
1503:ISSN
1456:ISSN
1417:ISSN
1366:ISBN
1347:2017
1314:ISBN
1278:ISBN
1252:ISBN
1225:ISBN
1198:ISBN
1171:ISBN
1144:ISBN
1093:ISBN
1068:ISBN
1043:ISBN
943:ISBN
777:and
729:and
635:and
309:and
289:and
281:was
64:and
1778:doi
1552:hdl
1542:doi
1495:doi
1448:doi
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1039:107
691:).
600:wye
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