384:. Because two gametes necessarily combine during sexual reproduction to form a single zygote from which somatic cells are generated, healthy gametes always possess exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in the somatic cells, and therefore "haploid" in this sense refers to having exactly half the number of sets of chromosomes found in a somatic cell. By this definition, an organism whose gametic cells contain a single copy of each chromosome (one set of chromosomes) may be considered haploid while the somatic cells, containing two copies of each chromosome (two sets of chromosomes), are diploid. This scheme of diploid somatic cells and haploid gametes is widely used in the animal kingdom and is the simplest to illustrate in diagrams of genetics concepts. But this definition also allows for haploid gametes with
327:
1454:) is an example of a tetraploid organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, each potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the pollen parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a full complement of 48 chromosomes. The haploid number (half of 48) is 24. The monoploid number equals the total chromosome number divided by the ploidy level of the somatic cells: 48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Hence, the monoploid number (12) and haploid number (24) are distinct in this example.
575:
1461:(by asexual reproduction through mitosis), in which case new individuals are produced from a single parent, without the involvement of gametes and fertilization, and all the offspring are genetically identical to each other and to the parent, including in chromosome number. The parents of these vegetative clones may still be capable of producing haploid gametes in preparation for sexual reproduction, but these gametes are not used to create the vegetative offspring by this route.
707:(4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid or septaploid (7 sets), octoploid (8 sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (11 sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets), etc. Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets), though Greek terminology may be set aside for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such as "16-ploid").
400:, each one not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus has one set of chromosomes, and an organism may be called haploid if its body cells (somatic cells) have one set of chromosomes per cell. By this definition haploid therefore would not be used to refer to the gametes produced by the tetraploid organism in the example above, since these gametes are numerically diploid. The term
41:
862:. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children. There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69, and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology.
172:. In mammals and birds, ploidy changes are typically fatal. There is, however, evidence of polyploidy in organisms now considered to be diploid, suggesting that polyploidy has contributed to evolutionary diversification in plants and animals through successive rounds of polyploidization and rediploidization.
1260:
of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid is associated with a 14% lower risk of being endangered, and a 20% greater chance of being invasive. Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability. Some studies suggest
931:
is the state where one or more individual chromosomes of a normal set are absent or present in more than their usual number of copies (excluding the absence or presence of complete sets, which is considered euploidy). Unlike euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number.
216:
in preparation for sexual reproduction). Under normal conditions, the haploid number is exactly half the total number of chromosomes present in the organism's somatic cells, with one paternal and maternal copy in each chromosome pair. For diploid organisms, the monoploid number and haploid number are
175:
Humans are diploid organisms, normally carrying two complete sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells: one copy of paternal and maternal chromosomes, respectively, in each of the 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes that humans normally have. This results in two homologous pairs within each of the 23
550:
In the case of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from three sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although the number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the
1239:
In large multicellular organisms, variations in ploidy level between different tissues, organs, or cell lineages are common. Because the chromosome number is generally reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the
1007:
rather than in the cell as a whole. Because in most situations there is only one nucleus per cell, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell, but in cases in which there is more than one nucleus per cell, more specific definitions are required when ploidy is discussed. Authors may at times
736:
The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of two separate species.
365:
Cells of the diploid structure quickly undergo meiosis to produce spores containing the meiotically halved number of chromosomes, restoring haploidy. These spores express either the mother's dominant gene or the father's recessive gene and proceed by mitotic division to build a new entirely haploid
388:
set of chromosomes. As given above, gametes are by definition haploid, regardless of the actual number of sets of chromosomes they contain. An organism whose somatic cells are tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes), for example, will produce gametes by meiosis that contain two sets of chromosomes.
1720:
The original text in German is as follows: "Schließlich wäre es vielleicht erwünscht, wenn den
Bezeichnungen Gametophyt und Sporophyt, die sich allein nur auf Pflanzen mit einfacher und mit doppelter Chromosomenzahl anwenden lassen, solche zur Seite gestellt würden, welche auch für das Tierreich
989:
Zygoidy is the state in which the chromosomes are paired and can undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid. In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur after meiosis. In diploid organisms the
159:
organisms are made up of somatic cells that are diploid or greater, but ploidy level may vary widely between different organisms, between different tissues within the same organism, and at different stages in an organism's life cycle. Half of all known plant genera contain polyploid species, and
1280:
gametes. Triploid organisms, for instance, are usually sterile. Because of this, triploidy is commonly exploited in agriculture to produce seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in three sets of chromosomes, the condition is called
842:
may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide.
1310:
to be somewhat inconsistent with this hypothesis however, as haploid growth is faster than diploid under high nutrient conditions. The NLH is also tested in haploid, diploid, and polyploid fungi by
Gerstein et al. 2017. This result is also more complex: On the one hand, under
438:, sex cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes usually differ genetically from one another.
976:
is hybridization where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies or occurs soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with
884:
Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion.
1248:. For example, the hearts of two-year-old human children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age the proportions become approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and 2% octaploid nuclei.
237:
may be missing one sex chromosome (X or Y), resulting in a (45,X) karyotype instead of the usual (46,XX) or (46,XY). This is a type of aneuploidy and cells from the person may be said to be aneuploid with a (diploid) chromosome complement of 45.
915:. For example, most human cells have 2 of each of the 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human cell with one extra set of the 23 normal chromosomes (functionally triploid) would be considered euploid. Euploid
44:
A haploid set that consists of a single complete set of chromosomes (equal to the monoploid set), as shown in the picture above, must belong to a diploid species. If a haploid set consists of two sets, it must be of a tetraploid (four sets)
160:
about two-thirds of all grasses are polyploid. Many animals are uniformly diploid, though polyploidy is common in invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians. In some species, ploidy varies between individuals of the same species (as in the
888:
The term "dihaploid" was coined by Bender to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense, but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or
641:
in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents. All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display
371:
The diploid zygote proceeds by mitotic division to build a new entirely diploid organism. These cells possess both the purple and blue genes, but only the purple gene is expressed since it is dominant over the recessive blue
1036:. As a result, it may become desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as it presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) set is called the
513:
are believed to be derived from three different ancestral species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number is thus 7 and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general
538:
is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but they are not monoploid, as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes
492:
chromosomes in a haploid set have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller set of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of apparently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the
522:. The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of 7 chromosomes: three sets from the egg and three sets from the sperm which fused to form the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2
1066:
differ. Each plant has a total of six sets of chromosomes (with two sets likely having been obtained from each of three different diploid species that are its distant ancestors). The somatic cells are hexaploid,
2935:
Song, Xiaoming; Wei, Yanping; Xiao, Dong; Gong, Ke; Sun, Pengchuan; Ren, Yiming; Yuan, Jiaqing; Wu, Tong; Yang, Qihang; Li, Xinyu; Nie, Fulei; Li, Nan; Feng, Shuyan; Pei, Qiaoying; Yu, Tong (2021-02-04).
350:
Haploid sperm and egg carrying the recessive blue gene and the dominant purple gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by meiosis, which halves the number of chromosomes in the diploid germ cells.
4203:
3704:
3137:
221:
undergoes meiosis, the diploid 46 chromosome complement is split in half to form haploid gametes. After fusion of a male and a female gamete (each containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes) during
233:
describe having a number of chromosomes that is an exact multiple of the number of chromosomes in a normal gamete; and having any other number, respectively. For example, a person with
4861:
4154:
404:
is often used as a less ambiguous way to describe a single set of chromosomes; by this second definition, haploid and monoploid are identical and can be used interchangeably.
104:. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively, in each homologous chromosome pair, which chromosomes naturally exist as.
345:
Haploid egg and sperm carrying the dominant purple gene and the recessive blue gene, respectively. These gametes are produced by simple mitosis of cells in the germ line.
3639:
3085:
Zahradka K, Slade D, Bailone A, Sommer S, Averbeck D, Petranovic M, Lindner AB, Radman M (2006). "Reassembly of shattered chromosomes in
Deinococcus radiodurans".
1083: = 21). The gametes are haploid for their own species, but triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, by comparison to a probable evolutionary ancestor,
1319:, higher ploidy was selected. Thus the NLH – and more generally, the idea that haploidy is selected by harsher conditions – is cast into doubt by these results.
392:
An alternative usage defines "haploid" as having a single copy of each chromosome – that is, one and only one set of chromosomes. In this case, the nucleus of a
4362:
2871:
3201:
Edwards MJ; et al. (1994). "Mixoploidy in humans: two surviving cases of diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy and comparison with diploid-triploid mixoploidy".
1261:
that selection is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species. However, polyploidization is associated with an increase in
380:
is used with two distinct but related definitions. In the most generic sense, haploid refers to having the number of sets of chromosomes normally found in a
1276:
When a germ cell with an uneven number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis, the chromosomes cannot be evenly divided between the daughter cells, resulting in
3735:
3711:
434:. Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, most animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During
176:
homologous pairs, providing a full complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of individual chromosomes (counting all complete sets) is called the
326:
1032:
offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This is an important evolutionary mechanism in both plants and animals and is known as a primary driver of
748:
is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species.
1773:
U. R. Murty (1973). "Morphology of pachytene chromosomes and its bearing on the nature of polyploidy in the cytological races of Apluda mutica L.".
1256:
There is continued study and debate regarding the fitness advantages or disadvantages conferred by different ploidy levels. A study comparing the
481:
are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system
911:, "true" or "even") is the state of a cell or organism having one or more than one set of the same set of chromosomes, possibly excluding the
4851:
4492:
3449:
3416:
2173:
1921:
1871:
1754:
1016:
with two separate haploid nuclei is distinguished from a diploid cell in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together.
871:
31:
4856:
777:, the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at least one case, well over one thousand.
4072:"Relaxed purifying selection in autopolyploids drives transposable element over-accumulation which provides variants for local adaptation"
1334:, by Marcet-Houben and Gabaldón 2015. It still remains to be explained why there are not more polyploid events in fungi, and the place of
1213:, a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have a single chromosome and diploid individuals have two chromosomes. In
1721:
passen. Ich erlaube mir zu diesem Zwecke die Worte
Haploid und Diploid, bezw. haploidische und diploidische Generation vorzuschlagen."
1315:
and other nutrient limitation, lower ploidy is selected as expected. However under normal nutrient levels or under limitation of only
4031:"The mutation load under tetrasomic inheritance and its consequences for the evolution of the selfing rate in autotetraploid species"
4355:
4233:
3760:
2855:
2116:
625:. All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four-chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat (
164:), and in others entire tissues and organ systems may be polyploid despite the rest of the body being diploid (as in the mammalian
3432:
Cosín, Darío J. Díaz; Novo, Marta; Fernández, Rosa (2011). "Reproduction of
Earthworms: Sexual Selection and Parthenogenesis".
2451:
2219:
1293:
699:
is the state where all cells have multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the basic set, usually 3 or more. Specific terms are
430:
chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, one of which comes from the sperm and one from the egg, are said to be
4477:
4257:
3466:
4348:
3588:
2601:
1231:
occurs in most plants, with individuals "alternating" ploidy level between different stages of their sexual life cycle.
593:
3138:"Physiological responses of the halophilic archaeon Halobacterium sp. strain NRC1 to desiccation and gamma irradiation"
4882:
355:
The short-lived diploid state of haploid organisms, a zygote generated by the union of two haploid gametes during sex.
1304:
of haploids, which eases nutrient uptake, thereby increasing the internal nutrient-to-demand ratio. Mable 2001 finds
457:. Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal stage of their life cycle, as are some primitive plants like
168:). For many organisms, especially plants and fungi, changes in ploidy level between generations are major drivers of
2875:
4892:
4163:
1228:
675:
454:
4624:
2190:
1141:
670:
that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include
4328:
2938:"Brassica carinata genome characterization clarifies U's triangle model of evolution and polyploidy in Brassica"
2805:"Temperature dependence in Proliferation of tetraploid Meth-A cells in comparison with the parent diploid cells"
2429:
637:) have been regarded as the only known exceptions (as of 2004). However, some genetic studies have rejected any
4678:
4462:
2566:
Svartman, Marta; Stone, Gary; Stanyon, Roscoe (2005). "Molecular cytogenetics discards polyploidy in mammals".
1323:
1306:
1245:
1155:
823:
574:
453:
switch between a haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called
278:) means "duplex" or "two-fold". Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare "humanoid", "human-shaped").
2375:
2098:
1458:
1301:
806:
797:
4631:
4614:
4584:
4557:
2215:
627:
431:
98:
1297:
4887:
4619:
4517:
3633:
1181:
969:
633:
610:
582:
116:
organisms can be described according to the number of sets of chromosomes present (the "ploidy level"):
4839:
4764:
4749:
4579:
4527:
4502:
4442:
4290:
4083:
3987:
3932:
3873:
3791:
3662:
3094:
2872:"Genes involved in tissue and organ development: Polytene chromosomes, endoreduplication and puffing"
2234:
2168:. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung und Carl Ernst Poeschel Verlag GmbH. p. 169.
1569:
1550:
1289:
1262:
978:
708:
3828:
1204:, males develop from unfertilized eggs, making them haploid for their entire lives, even as adults.
4507:
1266:
1135:
1129:
568:
360:
The diploid zygote which has just been fertilized by the union of haploid egg and sperm during sex.
331:
156:
1240:
zygote by mitosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of
469:, spend the majority of their life cycle in the diploid stage. Most animals are diploid, but male
4185:
4127:
3809:
3782:
3686:
3621:
3339:
3168:
3118:
3067:
2995:"Multiplicity of genome equivalents in the radiation-resistant bacterium Micrococcus radiodurans"
2786:"Study of the fractional composition of the proteins in the compound fruit of polyploid mulberry"
2681:"Flow cytometry and GISH reveal mixed ploidy populations and Spartina nonaploids with genomes of
2305:
2250:
1979:
1877:
1836:
1790:
1343:
1300:
should encourage haploidy in preference to higher ploidies. This hypothesis is due to the higher
1147:
859:
811:
310:
282:
4070:
Baduel, Pierre; Quadrana, Leandro; Hunter, Ben; Bomblies, Kirsten; Colot, Vincent (2019-12-20).
3360:"Mutations affecting quantitative traits in the selfed progeny of double monoploid maize stocks"
936:, where affected individuals have three copies of chromosome 21) or missing a chromosome (as in
3653:
Crosland MW, Crozier RH (1986). "Myrmecia pilosula, an Ant with Only One Pair of
Chromosomes".
4569:
4481:
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4011:
4003:
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3187:
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3110:
3059:
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2826:
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2766:
2718:
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2583:
2505:
2169:
2080:
2062:
2023:
1971:
1963:
1917:
1867:
1750:
1282:
1241:
1209:
756:
671:
651:
2921:
2845:
1457:
However, commercial potato crops (as well as many other crop plants) are commonly propagated
1012:, though usually the ploidy of each nucleus is described individually. For example, a fungal
751:
Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many
4759:
4658:
4308:
4298:
4167:
4109:
4091:
4042:
3995:
3940:
3891:
3881:
3836:
3799:
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3611:
3603:
3559:
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3437:
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3371:
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3257:
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3210:
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2708:
2700:
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2495:
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2242:
2166:
Historisches
Worterbüch der Biologie - Geschichte und Theorie der biologischen Grundbegriffe
2070:
2054:
2013:
1953:
1859:
1828:
1782:
1327:
973:
890:
109:
55:
4814:
4809:
2908:
Ramsey, Justin; Schemske, Douglas W. (November 2002). "Neopolyploidy in
Flowering Plants".
2043:"Polyploidy and its effect on evolutionary success: old questions revisited with new tools"
1180:
Ploidy can also vary between individuals of the same species or at different stages of the
4651:
4472:
4420:
4271:
4172:
4150:"Integrating Networks, Phylogenomics, and Population Genomics for the Study of Polyploidy"
4149:
937:
741:, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling. The so-called
294:
234:
2898:
Encyclopedia of the Life
Sciences (2002) "Polyploidy" Francesco D'Amato and Mauro Durante
4294:
4087:
3991:
3936:
3877:
3795:
3666:
3098:
2238:
184:. The number of chromosomes found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called the
4542:
4466:
4148:
Blischak, Paul D.; Mabry, Makenzie E.; Conant, Gavin C.; Pires, J. Chris (2018-11-02).
4114:
4071:
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3539:
3384:
3359:
3262:
3237:
2970:
2937:
2713:
2680:
2656:
2627:
2220:"Homologous versus antithetic alternation of generations and the origin of sporophytes"
2135:
2075:
2042:
1531:
1339:
1004:
1003:
In the strictest sense, ploidy refers to the number of sets of chromosomes in a single
912:
878:
781:
712:
589:
588:
chromosome pairs. It also shows both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two
271:
251:
86:
4313:
4278:
3999:
3896:
3861:
3019:
2994:
2785:
418:) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to form a
389:
These gametes might still be called haploid even though they are numerically diploid.
4876:
4522:
4131:
3804:
3777:
3607:
3238:"46,XX/69,XXX diploid-triploid mixoploidy with hypothyroidism and precocious puberty"
2541:
2524:
2308:
2286:
2269:
2254:
2018:
2001:
1896:
1335:
1331:
1189:
1175:
1163:
1084:
1008:
report the total combined ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a
933:
905:
742:
737:
In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced
222:
161:
4189:
3813:
3690:
3625:
3343:
3322:
Pehu E (1996). "The current status of knowledge on the cellular biology of potato".
3071:
1983:
1881:
1840:
1794:
1166:
has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors.
4497:
4371:
3172:
3122:
2605:
2430:"Primo supplemento alle tavole cromosomiche delle Pteridophyta di Alberto Chiarugi"
2350:
1742:
1511:
1051:
773:
752:
727:
can exceed this, up to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm
647:
510:
482:
105:
3674:
2324:
2134:
Strasburger, Eduard; Allen, Charles E.; Miyake, Kilchi; Overten, James B. (1905).
932:
In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a single extra chromosome (as in
262:. "Ploid" is a combination of Ancient Greek -πλόος (-plóos, "-fold") and -ειδής (-
40:
4331:, with information on ploidy level and number of chromosomes of several protists)
1322:
Older WGDs have also been investigated. Only as recently as 2015 was the ancient
4716:
4711:
4574:
4552:
4547:
4415:
4248:
databases and other sources which may list the ploidy levels of many organisms:
4245:
3975:
3441:
3375:
3010:
2579:
2500:
2479:
1185:
1090:
815:
729:
724:
4096:
1958:
1941:
4736:
4726:
4721:
4706:
4646:
4636:
4537:
4512:
4486:
4437:
4427:
4375:
4334:
4047:
4030:
3473:
3156:
2246:
1937:
1863:
1487:
1312:
1257:
1033:
927:
835:
691:
667:
614:
466:
462:
397:
298:
169:
149:
113:
82:
35:
4181:
4105:
4056:
4007:
3952:
3944:
3285:
Bender K (1963). "Über die
Erzeugung und Entstehung dihaploider Pflanzen bei
2961:
2953:
2066:
2027:
1967:
4688:
4432:
4410:
4391:
4340:
4303:
3920:
3886:
3555:
3214:
1277:
1270:
1215:
1159:
1106:
1029:
1009:
941:
916:
858:
Mixoploidy is the case where two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid,
792:
720:
716:
643:
638:
599:
585:
578:
393:
218:
4322:
4123:
4015:
3960:
3905:
3682:
3573:
3524:
3393:
3164:
3114:
3063:
2979:
2830:
2770:
2722:
2665:
2587:
2525:"Whole-genome duplications in South American desert rodents (Octodontidae)"
2509:
2084:
2002:"'Why polyploidy is rarer in animals than in plants': myths and mechanisms"
1975:
968:
Homoploid means "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of
711:
of plants and fruit flies can be 1024-ploid. Ploidy of systems such as the
309:. The two terms were brought into the English language from German through
229:
again has the full complement of 46 chromosomes: 2 sets of 23 chromosomes.
3840:
3271:
3253:
3222:
4674:
4458:
4267:
3616:
3028:
2704:
2647:
2191:"Caryoneme alternative to chromosome and a new caryological nomenclature"
1316:
1025:
1013:
957:
839:
415:
340:
A haploid organism is on the left and a diploid organism is on the right.
274:
word ᾰ̔πλόος (haplóos) is "single", from ἁ- (ha-, "one, same"). διπλόος (
94:
17:
3106:
2761:
2740:
2551:
2058:
152:
is often used to describe cells with three or more sets of chromosomes.
4844:
4698:
4609:
4604:
4262:
3335:
3055:
2821:
1832:
1786:
1201:
1119:
1110:
953:
802:
764:
738:
659:
435:
334:
in predominantly haploid organisms and predominantly diploid organisms.
213:
3515:
3498:
940:, where affected individuals have only one sex chromosome). Aneuploid
313:'s 1908 translation of a 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues.
4754:
4405:
4401:
2480:"Molecular cytogenetics and allotetraploidy in the red vizcacha rat,
1506:
1447:
1114:
822:
double-strand breaks. This resistance appears to be due to efficient
760:
622:
618:
446:
419:
407:
381:
226:
201:
90:
2632:
species (Brassicaceae)? Evidence from genomic in situ hybridization"
780:
It is possible for polyploid organisms to revert to lower ploidy by
2626:
Dierschke T, Mandáková T, Lysak MA, Mummenhoff K (September 2009).
4819:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4774:
4769:
4744:
4682:
1708:
1102:
573:
474:
442:
411:
325:
293:
in 1905. Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on
205:
165:
101:
39:
3829:"Ecologists find genomic clues to invasive and endangered plants"
1858:(4th ed.). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. p. 434.
1811:
Tuguo Tateoka (May 1975). "A contribution to the taxonomy of the
1162:– for example, humans are generally regarded as diploid, but the
768:
478:
470:
458:
450:
4344:
3311:. Edited by B.M. Johri. Springer, Berlin, Germany. pp. 475–518.
3136:
Kottemann M, Kish A, Iloanusi C, Bjork S, DiRuggiero J (2005).
1024:
It is possible on rare occasions for ploidy to increase in the
1856:
Glossary of Genetics and Cytogenetics: Classical and Molecular
1197:
1193:
1188:. In humans, only the gametes are haploid, but in many of the
819:
679:
209:
67:
4252:
881:
of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution.
567:"Diploid" redirects here. For the geometrical construct, see
3776:
Pandit, M. K.; Pocock, M. J. O.; Kunin, W. E. (2011-03-28).
3752:
The Development and Regenerative Potential of Cardiac Muscle
2628:"A bicontinental origin of polyploid Australian/New Zealand
874:(where diploid and haploid individuals are different sexes).
1252:
Adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy
73:
3921:"The significance of responses of the genome to challenge"
3236:
Järvelä, IE; Salo, MK; Santavuori, P; Salonen, RK (1993).
2300:
Strasburger, E.; Noll, F.; Schenck, H.; Karsten, G. 1908.
1768:
1766:
396:
cell is said to be haploid only if it has a single set of
3042:
Soppa J (2011). "Ploidy and gene conversion in Archaea".
2270:"Biological relevance of polyploidy: ecology to genomics"
767:(cell division). The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the
4279:"Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy"
3862:"Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy"
1901:. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's son & co. p. 60.
990:
azygoid state is monoploid. (See below for dihaploidy.)
4862:
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
1470:
Examples of various ploidy levels in species with x=11
200:) refers to the total number of chromosomes found in a
4143:
4141:
893:, which are homozygous and used for genetic research.
3778:"Ploidy influences rarity and invasiveness in plants"
1385:
Number of chromosomes found in a single complete set
581:
of a typical human cell, showing a diploid set of 22
217:
equal; in humans, both are equal to 23. When a human
4155:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
70:
64:
61:
4832:
4735:
4697:
4667:
4595:
4451:
4382:
58:
4204:"The Biology of Solanum tuberosum (L.) (Potatoes)"
1158:accumulate, these changes become less apparent by
270:, "form, likeness"). The principal meaning of the
3407:Books, Elsevier Science & Technology (1950).
1395:Total number of chromosomes in all sets combined
850:, because only part of the genome is amplified.
3587:Qiu Y.-L., Taylor A. B., McManus H. A. (2012).
3358:Sprague G.F.; Russell W.A.; Penny L.H. (1960).
1854:Rieger, R.; Michaelis, A.; Green, M.M. (1976).
4206:. Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 2012-03-05.
3436:. Soil Biology. Vol. 24. pp. 69–86.
1749:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 177.
877:Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by
4356:
3307:Nogler, G.A. 1984. Gametophytic apomixis. In
1942:"The Evolutionary Consequences of Polyploidy"
1912:D. Peter Snustad; Michael J. Simmons (2012).
1589:List of common organisms by chromosome count
36:Chromosome § Number in various organisms
8:
3638:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3589:"Evolution of the life cycle in land plants"
2478:Gallardo MH, González CA, Cebrián I (2006).
2136:"Histologische Beiträge zur Vererbungsfrage"
1075: = 42 (where the monoploid number
1044:), and is distinct from the haploid number (
810:. These two species are highly resistant to
230:
2331:. Bar Harbor, Maine: The Jackson Laboratory
1995:
1993:
1440:Chromosome number of a tetraploid organism
919:would consequentially be a multiple of the
4694:
4363:
4349:
4341:
3540:"The dynamic nature of eukaryotic genomes"
3191:. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012, p. 217.
2894:
2892:
2452:"LECTURE 10: CHANGES IN CHROMOSOME NUMBER"
1747:Essential Genetics: A Genomics Perspective
920:
4312:
4302:
4171:
4113:
4095:
4046:
3895:
3885:
3803:
3615:
3563:
3514:
3497:Schmid, M; Evans, BJ; Bogart, JP (2015).
3383:
3261:
3018:
2969:
2820:
2760:
2739:Kim E. Hummer; et al. (March 2009).
2734:
2732:
2712:
2679:Simon Renny-Byfield; et al. (2010).
2655:
2550:
2540:
2529:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2499:
2285:
2274:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2074:
2017:
2006:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
1957:
1806:
1804:
488:In some cases there is evidence that the
461:. More recently evolved plants, like the
3974:Matzke, M.A; Matzke, A.J.M (June 1998).
2922:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150437
2910:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
2355:National Human Genome Research Institute
2140:Jahrbücher für Wissenschaftliche Botanik
1587:
1468:
1430:Chromosome number of a diploid organism
1353:
1048:) in the organism as it now reproduces.
952:, used for euploid karyotypes), such as
846:In ciliates, the macronucleus is called
3472:. University of Toronto. Archived from
2844:Kiichi Fukui; Shigeki Nakayama (1996).
1895:Darlington, C. D. (Cyril Dean) (1937).
1734:
1700:
1420:Number of chromosomes found in gametes
1405:Number of chromosomes in zygotic cells
1154:Over evolutionary time scales in which
650:diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the
530: = 42, so that the haploid number
27:Number of sets of chromosomes of a cell
4335:Chromosome number and ploidy mutations
3734:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3727:
3631:
2307:, rev. with the 8th German ed. (1906)
1916:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 115.
1079: = 7 and the haploid number
755:are polyploid due to a process called
4852:List of organisms by chromosome count
4173:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-121415-032302
3749:John O. Oberpriller; A Mauro (1991).
3538:Parfrey LW, Lahr DJ, Katz LA (2008).
2874:. The Interactive Fly. Archived from
2847:Plant Chromosomes: Laboratory Methods
1294:ploidy nutrient limitation hypothesis
795:is a characteristic of the bacterium
662:(egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes (
32:List of organisms by chromosome count
7:
3596:Journal of Systematics and Evolution
3467:"Dikaryons, diploids, and evolution"
2523:Gallardo M. H.; et al. (2004).
2312:Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen
509:. As an example, the chromosomes of
81:) is the number of complete sets of
4226:An introduction to genetic analysis
2351:"Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms"
1914:Principles of Genetics, 6th edition
89:, and hence the number of possible
4228:, 7th ed. W. H. Freeman, New York
592:(at bottom right), as well as the
25:
3980:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3465:James B. Anderson; Linda M Kohn.
4244:Some eukaryotic genome-scale or
3805:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01838.x
3608:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2012.00188.x
3291:Zeitschrift für Pflanzenzüchtung
2542:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00331.x
2287:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00328.x
2019:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00332.x
1219:, the ploidy level varies from 4
1184:. In some insects it differs by
944:are given names with the suffix
860:coexist within the same organism
834:Depending on growth conditions,
551:haploid number. Thus in humans,
148:(7 sets), etc. The generic term
54:
4473:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome
3827:Gilbert, Natasha (2011-04-06).
2310:, translation by W. H. Lang of
1207:In the Australian bulldog ant,
534:is 21 and the monoploid number
4277:Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004).
3860:Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004).
2484:(Rodentia, Octodontidae)]"
999:More than one nucleus per cell
1:
4268:Protist genome-scale database
4000:10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01390-1
3919:McClintock, B. (1984-11-16).
3675:10.1126/science.231.4743.1278
1819:complex (Poaceae) in Japan".
1711:, from the Latin for "-fold".
830:Variable or indefinite ploidy
3976:"Polyploidy and transposons"
2803:Fujikawa-Yamamoto K (2001).
2784:Talyshinskiĭ, G. M. (1990).
2380:Genomics Education Programme
2268:Bennett, Michael D. (2004).
1105:species, and also occurs in
1093:(four sets of chromosomes, 2
426:pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2
297:'s conception of the id (or
4263:Fungal genome size database
4253:Animal genome size database
4029:Ronfort, J. (August 1999).
3442:10.1007/978-3-642-14636-7_5
3011:10.1128/JB.134.1.71-75.1978
2809:Cell Structure and Function
2580:10.1016/j.ygeno.2004.12.004
2501:10.1016/j.ygeno.2006.02.010
1898:Recent advances in cytology
1145:, 8n=72), and dodecaploid (
913:sex-determining chromosomes
866:Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy
759:, where duplication of the
631:) and golden viscacha rat (
596:(to scale at bottom left).
4909:
4513:Dinoflagellate chromosomes
4283:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
4258:Plant genome size database
4097:10.1038/s41467-019-13730-0
3866:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
1959:10.1016/j.cell.2007.10.022
1370:Number of chromosome sets
1350:Glossary of ploidy numbers
1235:Tissue-specific polyploidy
1229:Alternation of generations
1173:
1117:. For example, species of
1058:) is an organism in which
869:
824:homologous recombinational
689:
676:human T-lymphotropic virus
597:
566:
455:alternation of generations
29:
4857:List of sequenced genomes
4625:Chromosomal translocation
4498:A chromosome/B chromosome
4489:(or accessory chromosome)
4048:10.1017/S0016672399003845
3376:10.1093/genetics/45.7.855
3309:Embryology of angiosperms
3157:10.1007/s00792-005-0437-4
2304:, 3rd English ed. (1908)
2247:10.1007/s12229-008-9012-x
1864:10.1007/978-3-642-96327-8
1821:Journal of Plant Research
1707:Compare the etymology of
1411:Haploid or gametic number
1156:chromosomal polymorphisms
972:. For example, homoploid
923:, which in humans is 23.
818:, conditions that induce
4679:Telomere-binding protein
4493:Supernumerary chromosome
3945:10.1126/science.15739260
3499:"Polyploidy in Amphibia"
2376:"Homologous chromosomes"
2329:Mouse Genome Informatics
1324:whole genome duplication
1307:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1246:cellular differentiation
1227:in a single population.
870:Not to be confused with
4304:10.1073/pnas.0403151101
3887:10.1073/pnas.0403151101
3215:10.1002/ajmg.1320520314
2164:Toepfer, Georg (2011).
2117:"Greek Word Study Tool"
2099:"Greek Word Study Tool"
1302:surface-to-volume ratio
1123:(African toads) form a
1020:Ancestral ploidy levels
897:Euploidy and aneuploidy
807:Halobacterium salinarum
798:Deinococcus radiodurans
788:In bacteria and archaea
617:, usually one from the
281:Polish-German botanist
231:Euploidy and aneuploidy
4615:Structural alterations
4337:YouTube tutorial video
3755:. Taylor&Francis.
2954:10.1093/plphys/kiab048
2482:Tympanoctomys barrerae
1481:Number of chromosomes
1133:, 2n=20), tetraploid (
1028:, which can result in
970:homologous chromosomes
628:Tympanoctomys barrerae
603:
373:
46:
4632:Numerical alterations
4620:Chromosomal inversion
4518:Homologous chromosome
4076:Nature Communications
3841:10.1038/news.2011.213
3556:10.1093/molbev/msn032
3503:Cytogenet. Genome Res
3434:Biology of Earthworms
3254:10.1136/jmg.30.11.966
2121:www.perseus.tufts.edu
2103:www.perseus.tufts.edu
2000:Mable, B. K. (2004).
1597:Number of chromosomes
1290:unicellular organisms
1273:deleterious alleles.
1139:, 4n=36), octaploid (
1127:, featuring diploid (
634:Pipanacoctomys aureus
598:Further information:
577:
329:
322:Haploid and monoploid
182:chromosome complement
43:
4840:Extrachromosomal DNA
4528:Satellite chromosome
4503:Lampbrush chromosome
4443:Nuclear organization
3409:Advances in Genetics
2743:Fragaria iturupensis
2602:"Human Retroviruses"
2314:. Macmillan, London.
2302:A Textbook of botany
2227:The Botanical Review
2189:Battaglia E (2009).
1570:Opuntia ficus-indica
1551:Sequoia sempervirens
1265:content and relaxed
1263:transposable element
1151:, 12n=108) species.
1101:) is common in many
985:Zygoidy and azygoidy
979:polyploid speciation
709:Polytene chromosomes
658:) and human haploid
594:mitochondrial genome
157:sexually reproducing
4533:Centromere position
4508:Polytene chromosome
4478:Circular chromosome
4329:Supporting Data Set
4295:2004PNAS..10111036N
4289:(30): 11036–11039.
4088:2019NatCo..10.5818B
3992:1998TEcoE..13R.241M
3937:1984Sci...226..792M
3878:2004PNAS..10111036N
3872:(30): 11036–11039.
3796:2011JEcol..99.1108P
3667:1986Sci...231.1278C
3188:Eukaryotic microbes
3107:10.1038/nature05160
3099:2006Natur.443..569Z
3044:Biochem. Soc. Trans
2762:10.3732/ajb.0800285
2382:. 23 September 2021
2239:2008BotRv..74..395H
2059:10.1038/hdy.2012.79
2041:Madlung, A (2012).
1590:
1471:
1298:nutrient limitation
1267:purifying selection
569:Dyakis dodecahedron
332:sexual reproduction
4883:Classical genetics
3783:Journal of Ecology
3411:. Academic Press.
3336:10.1007/bf02357948
3056:10.1042/BST0390150
2993:Hansen MT (1978).
2822:10.1247/csf.26.263
2705:10.1093/aob/mcq008
2648:10.1093/aob/mcp161
1833:10.1007/bf02491243
1813:Agrostis mertensii
1787:10.1007/bf00119108
1588:
1469:
812:ionizing radiation
604:
507:fundamental number
374:
311:William Henry Lang
283:Eduard Strasburger
47:
4893:Genetics concepts
4870:
4869:
4828:
4827:
4565:Centromere number
4482:Linear chromosome
4220:Griffiths, A. J.
4035:Genetics Research
3931:(4676): 792–801.
3516:10.1159/000431388
3451:978-3-642-14635-0
3418:978-0-12-017603-8
3287:Solanum tuberosum
3093:(7111): 569–573.
2428:Fabbri F (1963).
2175:978-3-476-02317-9
1923:978-0-470-90359-9
1873:978-3-540-07668-1
1756:978-0-7637-7364-9
1692:
1691:
1605:Vinegar/fruit fly
1586:
1585:
1465:Specific examples
1452:Solanum tuberosum
1444:
1443:
1436:Tetraploid number
1391:Chromosome number
1283:triploid syndrome
1242:endoreduplication
1210:Myrmecia pilosula
1148:X. ruwenzoriensis
1056:Triticum aestivum
757:endoreduplication
672:human foamy virus
621:and one from the
559: = 23.
518:is a multiple of
285:coined the terms
212:cell produced by
178:chromosome number
16:(Redirected from
4900:
4695:
4659:Polyploidization
4487:Extra chromosome
4402:Genetic material
4365:
4358:
4351:
4342:
4326:
4316:
4306:
4208:
4207:
4200:
4194:
4193:
4175:
4145:
4136:
4135:
4117:
4099:
4067:
4061:
4060:
4050:
4026:
4020:
4019:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3916:
3910:
3909:
3899:
3889:
3857:
3851:
3850:
3848:
3847:
3824:
3818:
3817:
3807:
3790:(5): 1108–1115.
3773:
3767:
3766:
3746:
3740:
3739:
3733:
3725:
3723:
3722:
3716:
3710:. Archived from
3709:
3701:
3695:
3694:
3650:
3644:
3643:
3637:
3629:
3619:
3593:
3584:
3578:
3577:
3567:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3518:
3509:(3–4): 315–330.
3494:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3484:
3478:
3471:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3429:
3423:
3422:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3387:
3354:
3348:
3347:
3318:
3312:
3305:
3299:
3298:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3265:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3198:
3192:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3142:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3022:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2973:
2942:Plant Physiology
2932:
2926:
2925:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2883:
2868:
2862:
2861:
2841:
2835:
2834:
2824:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2736:
2727:
2726:
2716:
2693:Annals of Botany
2676:
2670:
2669:
2659:
2636:Annals of Botany
2623:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2613:
2604:. Archived from
2598:
2592:
2591:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2544:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2503:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2459:Mcb.berkeley.edu
2456:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2425:
2419:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2401:
2398:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2321:
2315:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2224:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2195:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2151:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2078:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2021:
1997:
1988:
1987:
1961:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1892:
1886:
1885:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1808:
1799:
1798:
1770:
1761:
1760:
1739:
1722:
1718:
1712:
1705:
1591:
1472:
1376:Monoploid number
1354:
1244:as an aspect of
1038:monoploid number
891:doubled haploids
497:, also known as
495:monoploid number
330:A comparison of
225:, the resulting
186:monoploid number
80:
79:
76:
75:
72:
69:
66:
63:
60:
21:
4908:
4907:
4903:
4902:
4901:
4899:
4898:
4897:
4873:
4872:
4871:
4866:
4824:
4731:
4693:
4663:
4652:Paleopolyploidy
4597:
4591:
4447:
4421:Heterochromatin
4384:
4378:
4369:
4276:
4272:Ensembl Genomes
4242:
4217:
4212:
4211:
4202:
4201:
4197:
4147:
4146:
4139:
4069:
4068:
4064:
4028:
4027:
4023:
3973:
3972:
3968:
3918:
3917:
3913:
3859:
3858:
3854:
3845:
3843:
3826:
3825:
3821:
3775:
3774:
3770:
3763:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3726:
3720:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3705:"Archived copy"
3703:
3702:
3698:
3652:
3651:
3647:
3630:
3591:
3586:
3585:
3581:
3537:
3536:
3532:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3469:
3464:
3463:
3459:
3452:
3431:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3406:
3405:
3401:
3357:
3355:
3351:
3324:Potato Research
3321:
3319:
3315:
3306:
3302:
3284:
3283:
3279:
3248:(11): 966–967.
3235:
3234:
3230:
3200:
3199:
3195:
3185:Schaechter, M.
3184:
3180:
3140:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3084:
3083:
3079:
3041:
3040:
3036:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2890:
2881:
2879:
2870:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2843:
2842:
2838:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2783:
2782:
2778:
2741:"Decaploidy in
2738:
2737:
2730:
2683:S. alterniflora
2678:
2677:
2673:
2625:
2624:
2620:
2611:
2609:
2600:
2599:
2595:
2565:
2564:
2560:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2463:
2461:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2445:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2395:
2385:
2383:
2374:
2373:
2369:
2359:
2357:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2334:
2332:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2299:
2295:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2222:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2193:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2149:
2147:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2040:
2039:
2035:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1874:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1810:
1809:
1802:
1772:
1771:
1764:
1757:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1725:
1719:
1715:
1706:
1702:
1697:
1688:2 or polyploid
1467:
1352:
1254:
1237:
1178:
1172:
1022:
1001:
996:
987:
966:
938:Turner syndrome
899:
875:
868:
856:
832:
790:
763:occurs without
694:
688:
613:copies of each
609:cells have two
602:
590:sex chromosomes
572:
565:
503:cardinal number
367:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
335:
324:
319:
317:Types of ploidy
301:), hence haplo-
295:August Weismann
266:), from εἶδος (
244:
235:Turner syndrome
99:pseudoautosomal
57:
53:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4906:
4904:
4896:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4875:
4874:
4868:
4867:
4865:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4836:
4834:
4830:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4741:
4739:
4733:
4732:
4730:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4703:
4701:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4671:
4669:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4661:
4656:
4655:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4629:
4628:
4627:
4622:
4612:
4607:
4601:
4599:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4589:
4588:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4562:
4561:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4543:Submetacentric
4540:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4484:
4475:
4470:
4469:or heterosome)
4463:Sex chromosome
4455:
4453:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4424:
4423:
4418:
4408:
4399:
4394:
4388:
4386:
4380:
4379:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4360:
4353:
4345:
4339:
4338:
4332:
4274:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4241:
4240:External links
4238:
4237:
4236:
4216:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4195:
4164:Annual Reviews
4137:
4062:
4021:
3966:
3911:
3852:
3819:
3768:
3761:
3741:
3696:
3661:(4743): 1278.
3645:
3602:(3): 171–194.
3579:
3550:(4): 787–794.
3530:
3489:
3457:
3450:
3424:
3417:
3399:
3370:(7): 855–866.
3349:
3330:(3): 429–435.
3313:
3300:
3277:
3228:
3209:(3): 324–330.
3203:Am J Med Genet
3193:
3178:
3151:(3): 219–227.
3128:
3077:
3050:(1): 150–154.
3034:
2985:
2948:(1): 388–406.
2927:
2916:(1): 589–639.
2900:
2888:
2863:
2856:
2836:
2815:(5): 263–269.
2795:
2776:
2755:(3): 713–716.
2728:
2699:(4): 527–533.
2671:
2642:(4): 681–688.
2618:
2593:
2574:(4): 425–430.
2558:
2535:(4): 443–451.
2515:
2494:(2): 214–221.
2470:
2443:
2420:
2411:
2402:
2400:Langlet, 1927.
2393:
2367:
2342:
2325:"MGI Glossary"
2316:
2293:
2280:(4): 411–423.
2260:
2233:(3): 395–418.
2207:
2181:
2174:
2156:
2126:
2108:
2090:
2033:
2012:(4): 453–466.
1989:
1952:(3): 452–462.
1938:Otto, Sarah P.
1929:
1922:
1904:
1887:
1872:
1846:
1800:
1781:(2): 234–243.
1762:
1755:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1713:
1699:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1657:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1600:Ploidy number
1598:
1595:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1573:
1565:
1564:
1557:
1554:
1546:
1545:
1538:
1535:
1532:Coffea arabica
1527:
1526:
1519:
1516:
1503:
1502:
1495:
1492:
1483:
1482:
1479:
1476:
1466:
1463:
1442:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1426:Diploid number
1422:
1421:
1418:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1401:Zygotic number
1397:
1396:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1344:fungal history
1340:mesopolyploidy
1296:suggests that
1253:
1250:
1236:
1233:
1190:social insects
1174:Main article:
1171:
1168:
1097: = 4
1071: = 6
1021:
1018:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
986:
983:
965:
962:
921:haploid number
898:
895:
879:haploidisation
867:
864:
855:
852:
831:
828:
789:
786:
782:haploidisation
713:salivary gland
690:Main article:
687:
684:
564:
561:
543: = 3
323:
320:
318:
315:
252:back-formation
243:
240:
194:haploid number
162:social insects
155:Virtually all
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4905:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4831:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4742:
4740:
4738:
4734:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4690:
4687:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4666:
4660:
4657:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4630:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4600:
4598:and evolution
4594:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4566:
4563:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4523:Isochromosome
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4413:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4366:
4361:
4359:
4354:
4352:
4347:
4346:
4343:
4336:
4333:
4330:
4324:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4275:
4273:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4239:
4235:
4234:0-7167-3520-2
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4218:
4214:
4205:
4199:
4196:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4156:
4151:
4144:
4142:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4066:
4063:
4058:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4025:
4022:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3970:
3967:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3915:
3912:
3907:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3856:
3853:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3823:
3820:
3815:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3784:
3779:
3772:
3769:
3764:
3762:9783718605187
3758:
3754:
3753:
3745:
3742:
3737:
3731:
3717:on 2014-02-23
3713:
3706:
3700:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3649:
3646:
3641:
3635:
3627:
3623:
3618:
3617:2027.42/92043
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3583:
3580:
3575:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3544:Mol Biol Evol
3541:
3534:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3493:
3490:
3479:on 2013-05-27
3475:
3468:
3461:
3458:
3453:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3428:
3425:
3420:
3414:
3410:
3403:
3400:
3395:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3353:
3350:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3317:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3281:
3278:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3232:
3229:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3189:
3182:
3179:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3145:Extremophiles
3139:
3132:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3038:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2989:
2986:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2931:
2928:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2904:
2901:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2878:on 2005-05-04
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2859:
2857:9780849389191
2853:
2850:. CRC Press.
2849:
2848:
2840:
2837:
2832:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2796:
2791:
2787:
2780:
2777:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2744:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2688:
2684:
2675:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2631:
2622:
2619:
2608:on 2003-03-30
2607:
2603:
2597:
2594:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2562:
2559:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2519:
2516:
2511:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2483:
2474:
2471:
2460:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2424:
2421:
2418:Manton, 1932.
2415:
2412:
2406:
2403:
2397:
2394:
2381:
2377:
2371:
2368:
2356:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2306:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2264:
2261:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2185:
2182:
2177:
2171:
2167:
2160:
2157:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2130:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2094:
2091:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2053:(2): 99–104.
2052:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1933:
1930:
1925:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1905:
1900:
1899:
1891:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1850:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1738:
1735:
1728:
1717:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1701:
1694:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1641:34, 51, or 68
1640:
1637:
1636:
1632:
1630:32, 34, or 42
1629:
1626:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1592:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1398:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1367:
1366:Ploidy number
1364:
1363:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1336:neopolyploidy
1333:
1332:allopolyploid
1330:proven to be
1329:
1328:Baker's yeast
1325:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1217:
1212:
1211:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1177:
1176:Haplodiploidy
1170:Haplodiploidy
1169:
1167:
1165:
1164:2R hypothesis
1161:
1157:
1152:
1150:
1149:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1137:
1132:
1131:
1130:X. tropicalis
1126:
1125:ploidy series
1122:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1086:
1085:einkorn wheat
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1006:
998:
994:Special cases
993:
991:
984:
982:
980:
975:
974:hybridization
971:
963:
961:
959:
955:
951:
948:(rather than
947:
943:
939:
935:
934:Down syndrome
930:
929:
924:
922:
918:
914:
910:
907:
903:
896:
894:
892:
886:
882:
880:
873:
872:haplodiploidy
865:
863:
861:
853:
851:
849:
844:
841:
837:
829:
827:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
808:
804:
800:
799:
794:
787:
785:
783:
778:
776:
775:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
753:somatic cells
749:
747:
745:
740:
734:
732:
731:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
693:
685:
683:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
640:
636:
635:
630:
629:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
601:
595:
591:
587:
584:
580:
576:
570:
562:
560:
558:
555: =
554:
548:
546:
542:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
491:
486:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
403:
399:
395:
390:
387:
386:more than one
383:
379:
370:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
333:
328:
321:
316:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
241:
239:
236:
232:
228:
224:
223:fertilization
220:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
173:
171:
167:
163:
158:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
106:Somatic cells
103:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
78:
51:
42:
37:
33:
19:
4888:Cytogenetics
4641:
4564:
4532:
4396:
4372:Cytogenetics
4286:
4282:
4243:
4225:
4221:
4198:
4159:
4153:
4079:
4075:
4065:
4041:(1): 31–42.
4038:
4034:
4024:
3983:
3979:
3969:
3928:
3924:
3914:
3869:
3865:
3855:
3844:. Retrieved
3832:
3822:
3787:
3781:
3771:
3751:
3744:
3719:. Retrieved
3712:the original
3699:
3658:
3654:
3648:
3634:cite journal
3599:
3595:
3582:
3547:
3543:
3533:
3506:
3502:
3492:
3481:. Retrieved
3474:the original
3460:
3433:
3427:
3408:
3402:
3367:
3363:
3352:
3327:
3323:
3316:
3308:
3303:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3280:
3245:
3241:
3231:
3206:
3202:
3196:
3186:
3181:
3148:
3144:
3131:
3090:
3086:
3080:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3005:(1): 71–75.
3002:
2999:J. Bacteriol
2998:
2988:
2945:
2941:
2930:
2913:
2909:
2903:
2880:. Retrieved
2876:the original
2866:
2846:
2839:
2812:
2808:
2798:
2789:
2779:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2682:
2674:
2639:
2635:
2629:
2621:
2610:. Retrieved
2606:the original
2596:
2571:
2567:
2561:
2552:11336/102012
2532:
2528:
2518:
2491:
2487:
2481:
2473:
2462:. Retrieved
2458:
2446:
2437:
2433:
2423:
2414:
2409:Winge, 1917.
2405:
2396:
2384:. Retrieved
2379:
2370:
2358:. Retrieved
2354:
2345:
2333:. Retrieved
2328:
2319:
2311:
2301:
2296:
2277:
2273:
2263:
2230:
2226:
2210:
2201:
2197:
2184:
2165:
2159:
2148:. Retrieved
2143:
2139:
2129:
2120:
2111:
2102:
2093:
2050:
2046:
2036:
2009:
2005:
1949:
1945:
1932:
1913:
1907:
1897:
1890:
1855:
1849:
1827:(2): 65–87.
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1778:
1774:
1746:
1743:Daniel Hartl
1737:
1716:
1703:
1619:14, 28 or 42
1579:
1568:
1560:
1549:
1541:
1530:
1522:
1510:
1498:
1486:
1459:vegetatively
1456:
1451:
1445:
1435:
1425:
1414:
1410:
1400:
1390:
1379:
1375:
1365:
1360:Description
1321:
1305:
1287:
1275:
1255:
1238:
1224:
1220:
1214:
1208:
1206:
1192:, including
1179:
1153:
1146:
1140:
1134:
1128:
1124:
1118:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1052:Common wheat
1050:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1023:
1002:
988:
967:
949:
945:
926:
925:
908:
901:
900:
887:
883:
876:
857:
847:
845:
833:
805:
796:
791:
779:
774:Ophioglossum
772:
750:
743:
735:
728:
704:
700:
696:
695:
668:Retroviruses
663:
655:
639:polyploidism
632:
626:
606:
605:
556:
552:
549:
544:
540:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:common wheat
506:
502:
498:
494:
489:
487:
483:haplodiploid
440:
427:
423:
406:
401:
391:
385:
377:
375:
368:
362:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
306:
302:
290:
286:
280:
275:
267:
263:
259:
255:
247:
245:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
174:
154:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
49:
48:
4585:Polycentric
4575:Monocentric
4558:Holocentric
4553:Acrocentric
4548:Telocentric
4538:Metacentric
4416:Euchromatin
4376:chromosomes
4246:genome size
4166:: 253–278.
4082:(1): 5818.
3242:J Med Genet
2745:(Rosaceae)"
2687:S. maritima
1685:100 or more
1627:Crocodilian
1446:The common
1091:Tetraploidy
836:prokaryotes
816:desiccation
801:and of the
730:Bombyx mori
725:trophoblast
467:angiosperms
463:gymnosperms
398:chromosomes
83:chromosomes
4877:Categories
4737:Centromere
4668:Structures
4647:Polyploidy
4637:Aneuploidy
4438:Nucleosome
4428:Chromosome
3986:(6): 241.
3846:2011-04-07
3721:2014-02-18
3483:2012-12-16
3297:: 141–166.
2882:2012-12-16
2792:(5): 8–10.
2749:Am. J. Bot
2612:2008-05-14
2464:2022-03-10
2440:: 237–335.
2434:Caryologia
2216:David Haig
2198:Caryologia
2150:2017-03-11
1729:References
1644:2, 3 or 4
1622:2, 4 or 6
1537:Tetraploid
1488:Eucalyptus
1313:phosphorus
1258:karyotypes
1182:life cycle
1107:amphibians
1034:speciation
942:karyotypes
928:Aneuploidy
917:karyotypes
854:Mixoploidy
848:ampliploid
793:Polyploidy
705:tetraploid
703:(3 sets),
697:Polyploidy
692:Polyploidy
686:Polyploidy
644:polyploidy
615:chromosome
611:homologous
583:homologous
432:homologous
394:eukaryotic
305:and diplo-
299:germ plasm
170:speciation
146:septaploid
142:heptaploid
140:(6 sets),
136:(5 sets),
134:pentaploid
132:(4 sets),
130:tetraploid
128:(3 sets),
124:(2 sets),
114:individual
30:See also:
4689:Protamine
4596:Processes
4580:Dicentric
4433:Chromatid
4411:Chromatin
4392:Karyotype
4182:1543-592X
4132:209420359
4106:2041-1723
4057:1469-5073
4008:0169-5347
3953:0036-8075
2962:0032-0889
2255:207403936
2067:0018-067X
2028:0024-4066
1968:0092-8674
1682:Gold fish
1575:Octoploid
1556:Hexaploid
1278:aneuploid
1271:recessive
1216:Entamoeba
1160:karyotype
1142:X. wittei
1136:X. laevis
1030:polyploid
1010:syncytium
964:Homoploid
721:endosperm
717:elaiosome
600:Karyotype
586:autosomal
579:Karyogram
526: = 6
445:and many
402:monoploid
376:The term
366:organism.
246:The term
242:Etymology
219:germ cell
150:polyploid
138:hexaploid
120:(1 set),
118:monoploid
95:autosomal
18:Diplontic
4833:See also
4675:Telomere
4642:Euploidy
4570:Acentric
4467:allosome
4459:Autosome
4385:concepts
4323:15252199
4190:92205236
4124:31862875
4016:21238281
3961:15739260
3906:15252199
3814:38197332
3730:cite web
3691:25465053
3683:17839565
3626:40564254
3574:18258610
3525:26112701
3394:17247970
3364:Genetics
3344:32122774
3165:15844015
3115:17006450
3072:31385928
3064:21265763
2980:33599732
2831:11831358
2771:21628226
2723:20150197
2666:19589857
2630:Lepidium
2588:15780745
2568:Genomics
2510:16580173
2488:Genomics
2386:10 March
2218:(2008).
2204:(4): 48.
2085:23149459
2047:Heredity
1984:10054182
1976:17981114
1940:(2007).
1882:10163081
1841:38029072
1817:flaccida
1795:45850598
1775:Genetica
1745:(2011).
1518:Triploid
1317:nitrogen
1202:termites
1111:reptiles
1026:germline
1014:dikaryon
958:monosomy
902:Euploidy
840:bacteria
838:such as
826:repair.
803:archaeon
746:triangle
744:Brassica
701:triploid
654:number,
348:4 and 5)
343:2 and 3)
260:diploidy
256:haploidy
126:triploid
45:species.
4845:Plasmid
4699:Histone
4610:Meiosis
4605:Mitosis
4291:Bibcode
4215:Sources
4115:6925279
4084:Bibcode
3988:Bibcode
3933:Bibcode
3925:Science
3874:Bibcode
3792:Bibcode
3663:Bibcode
3655:Science
3565:2933061
3385:1210096
3272:8301657
3263:1016611
3223:7810564
3173:8391234
3123:4412830
3095:Bibcode
2971:8154070
2714:2850792
2689:origin"
2657:2729636
2235:Bibcode
2076:3554449
1671:Chicken
1594:Species
1494:Diploid
1475:Species
1120:Xenopus
1115:insects
1005:nucleus
954:trisomy
950:-ploidy
765:mitosis
739:gametes
660:gametes
652:somatic
607:Diploid
563:Diploid
436:meiosis
408:Gametes
378:haploid
291:diploid
287:haploid
276:diplóos
214:meiosis
192:). The
122:diploid
110:tissues
91:alleles
4406:Genome
4397:Ploidy
4321:
4314:503737
4311:
4232:
4224:2000.
4222:et al.
4188:
4180:
4130:
4122:
4112:
4104:
4055:
4014:
4006:
3959:
3951:
3904:
3897:503737
3894:
3833:Nature
3812:
3759:
3689:
3681:
3624:
3572:
3562:
3523:
3448:
3415:
3392:
3382:
3342:
3270:
3260:
3221:
3171:
3163:
3121:
3113:
3087:Nature
3070:
3062:
3029:649572
3027:
3020:222219
3017:
2978:
2968:
2960:
2854:
2829:
2769:
2721:
2711:
2664:
2654:
2586:
2508:
2360:6 July
2335:6 July
2253:
2172:
2083:
2073:
2065:
2026:
1982:
1974:
1966:
1920:
1880:
1870:
1839:
1793:
1753:
1507:Banana
1478:Ploidy
1448:potato
1200:, and
1113:, and
771:genus
761:genome
723:, and
678:, and
623:father
619:mother
477:, and
459:mosses
443:plants
420:zygote
382:gamete
248:ploidy
227:zygote
202:gamete
112:, and
50:Ploidy
4683:TINF2
4452:Types
4383:Basic
4186:S2CID
4162:(1).
4128:S2CID
3810:S2CID
3715:(PDF)
3708:(PDF)
3687:S2CID
3622:S2CID
3592:(PDF)
3477:(PDF)
3470:(PDF)
3340:S2CID
3169:S2CID
3141:(PDF)
3119:S2CID
3068:S2CID
2790:Shelk
2455:(PDF)
2251:S2CID
2223:(PDF)
2194:(PDF)
1980:S2CID
1878:S2CID
1837:S2CID
1791:S2CID
1709:tuple
1695:Notes
1660:Horse
1649:Human
1638:Apple
1616:Wheat
1582:= 88
1563:= 66
1544:= 44
1525:= 33
1515:spp.)
1501:= 22
1223:to 40
1186:caste
1103:plant
946:-somy
906:Greek
648:Human
505:, or
499:basic
475:wasps
451:algae
447:fungi
422:with
412:sperm
372:gene.
272:Greek
268:eîdos
264:eidḗs
254:from
250:is a
206:sperm
166:liver
102:genes
85:in a
4465:(or
4319:PMID
4230:ISBN
4178:ISSN
4120:PMID
4102:ISSN
4053:ISSN
4012:PMID
4004:ISSN
3957:PMID
3949:ISSN
3902:PMID
3757:ISBN
3736:link
3679:PMID
3640:link
3570:PMID
3521:PMID
3446:ISBN
3413:ISBN
3390:PMID
3289:"".
3268:PMID
3219:PMID
3161:PMID
3111:PMID
3060:PMID
3025:PMID
2976:PMID
2958:ISSN
2852:ISBN
2827:PMID
2767:PMID
2719:PMID
2685:and
2662:PMID
2584:PMID
2506:PMID
2388:2023
2362:2019
2337:2019
2170:ISBN
2146:: 62
2081:PMID
2063:ISSN
2024:ISSN
1972:PMID
1964:ISSN
1946:Cell
1918:ISBN
1868:ISBN
1751:ISBN
1512:Musa
1491:spp.
1357:Term
1338:and
1292:the
1198:bees
1194:ants
1062:and
956:and
814:and
769:fern
479:ants
471:bees
465:and
449:and
441:All
414:and
289:and
258:and
97:and
93:for
87:cell
34:and
4717:H2B
4712:H2A
4309:PMC
4299:doi
4287:101
4270:of
4168:doi
4110:PMC
4092:doi
4043:doi
3996:doi
3941:doi
3929:226
3892:PMC
3882:doi
3870:101
3837:doi
3800:doi
3671:doi
3659:231
3612:hdl
3604:doi
3560:PMC
3552:doi
3511:doi
3507:145
3438:doi
3380:PMC
3372:doi
3332:doi
3258:PMC
3250:doi
3211:doi
3153:doi
3103:doi
3091:443
3052:doi
3015:PMC
3007:doi
3003:134
2966:PMC
2950:doi
2946:186
2918:doi
2817:doi
2757:doi
2709:PMC
2701:doi
2697:105
2652:PMC
2644:doi
2640:104
2576:doi
2547:hdl
2537:doi
2496:doi
2282:doi
2243:doi
2071:PMC
2055:doi
2051:110
2014:doi
1954:doi
1950:131
1860:doi
1829:doi
1783:doi
1342:in
1326:in
1288:In
1269:on
820:DNA
680:HIV
666:).
547:).
501:or
416:ova
210:egg
208:or
204:(a
180:or
144:or
4879::
4760:C2
4755:C1
4727:H4
4722:H3
4707:H1
4677::
4374::
4317:.
4307:.
4297:.
4285:.
4281:.
4184:.
4176:.
4160:49
4158:.
4152:.
4140:^
4126:.
4118:.
4108:.
4100:.
4090:.
4080:10
4078:.
4074:.
4051:.
4039:74
4037:.
4033:.
4010:.
4002:.
3994:.
3984:13
3982:.
3978:.
3955:.
3947:.
3939:.
3927:.
3923:.
3900:.
3890:.
3880:.
3868:.
3864:.
3835:.
3831:.
3808:.
3798:.
3788:99
3786:.
3780:.
3732:}}
3728:{{
3685:.
3677:.
3669:.
3657:.
3636:}}
3632:{{
3620:.
3610:.
3600:50
3598:.
3594:.
3568:.
3558:.
3548:25
3546:.
3542:.
3519:.
3505:.
3501:.
3444:.
3388:.
3378:.
3368:45
3366:.
3362:.
3356:*
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