101:
1150:
and thus its ability to maintain its assets, expand services, attract and retain qualified staff, and ultimately to provide high-quality services. Key aspects of governance arrangements are the extent to which the entity in charge of providing services is insulated from arbitrary political intervention; and whether there is an explicit mandate and political will to allow the service provider to recover all or at least most of its costs through tariffs and retain these revenues. If water supply is the responsibility of a department that is integrated in the administration of a city, town or municipality, there is a risk that tariff revenues are diverted for other purposes. In some cases, there is also a risk that staff are appointed mainly on political grounds rather than based on their professional credentials.
1229:) global water tariff is US$ 0.53 per cubic meter. In developed countries the average tariff is US$ 1.04, while it is only U$ 0.11 in the poorest developing countries. The lowest tariffs in developing countries are found in South Asia (mean of US$ 0.09/m3), while the highest are found in Latin America (US$ 0.41/m3). Data for 132 cities were assessed. The tariff is estimate for a consumption level of 15 cubic meters per month. Few utilities do recover all their costs. According to the same World Bank study only 30% of utilities globally, and only 50% of utilities in developed countries, generate sufficient revenue to cover operation, maintenance and partial capital costs.
1425:(WHO), "access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and a component of effective policy for health protection." In 1990, only 76 percent of the global population had access to drinking water. By 2015 that number had increased to 91 percent. In 1990, most countries in Latin America, East and South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa were well below 90%. In Sub-Saharan Africa, where the rates are lowest, household access ranges from 40 to 80 percent. Countries that experience violent conflict can have reductions in drinking water access: One study found that a conflict with about 2,500 battle deaths deprives 1.8% of the population of potable water.
1256:
Also, metered users are often charged higher tariffs for higher levels of consumption (increasing-block tariffs). However, cross-subsidies between residential users do not always reach their objective. Given the overall low level of water tariffs in developing countries even at higher levels of consumption, most consumption subsidies benefit the wealthier segments of society. Also, high industrial and commercial tariffs can provide an incentive for these users to supply water from other sources than the utility (own wells, water tankers) and thus actually erode the utility's revenue base.
899:
38:
1318:(environmental objective). Second, it can postpone costly system expansion and saves energy and chemical costs (economic objective). Third, it allows a utility to better locate distribution losses (technical objective). Fourth, it allows suppliers to charge for water based on use, which is perceived by many as the fairest way to allocate the costs of water supply to users. Metering is considered good practice in water supply and is widespread in developed countries, except for the
564:
1486:
1380:
744:
1307:
953:, water supply and sewerage is supplied almost entirely through ten regional companies. Some smaller countries, especially developed countries, have established service providers that cover the entire country or at least most of its cities and major towns. Such national service providers are especially prevalent in West Africa and Central America, but also exist, for example, in
659:
1392:
2512:
The study covered
Denmark, Germany, the UK, Belgium, France, The Netherlands, Italy, Finland, Australia, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Canada and the US. The methodology for assessing tariffs may be different from the methodology of the World Bank study cited above. The report means by "costs" average
1149:
Governance arrangements for both public and private utilities can take many forms (Kurian and McCarney, 2010). Governance arrangements define the relationship between the service provider, its owners, its customers and regulatory entities. They determine the financial autonomy of the service provider
1125:
90% of urban water supply and sanitation services are currently in the public sector. They are owned by the state or local authorities, or also by collectives or cooperatives. They run without an aim for profit but are based on the ethos of providing a common good considered to be of public interest.
454:
During the beginning of the 21st
Century, especially in areas of urban and suburban population centers, traditional centralized infrastructure have not been able to supply sufficient quantities of water to keep up with growing demand. Among several options that have been managed are the extensive use
1255:
In developing countries, the situation is often characterized by cross-subsidies with the intent to make water more affordable for residential low-volume users that are assumed to be poor. For example, industrial and commercial users are often charged higher tariffs than public or residential users.
1251:
Water and sanitation tariffs, which are almost always billed together, can take many different forms. Where meters are installed, tariffs are typically volumetric (per usage), sometimes combined with a small monthly fixed charge. In the absence of meters, flat or fixed rates—which are independent of
729:
the performance of service providers; and reforms in the structure of institutions responsible for service provision. The distinction between policy functions and regulatory functions is not always clear-cut. In some countries they are both entrusted to
Ministries, but in others regulatory functions
80:
The cost of supplying water consists, to a very large extent, of fixed costs (capital costs and personnel costs) and only to a small extent of variable costs that depend on the amount of water consumed (mainly energy and chemicals). Almost all service providers in the world charge tariffs to recover
1291:
Once infrastructure is in place, operating water supply and sanitation systems entails significant ongoing costs to cover personnel, energy, chemicals, maintenance and other expenses. The sources of money to meet these capital and operational costs are essentially either user fees, public funds or
1240:
varied between US$ 0.66 per cubic meter in the United States and the equivalent of US$ 2.25 per cubic meter in
Denmark. However, water consumption is much higher in the US than in Europe. Therefore, residential water bills may be very similar, even if the tariff per unit of consumption tends to be
1072:
arrangements the public entity that is legally responsible for service provision delegates certain or all aspects of service provision to the private service provider for a period typically ranging from 4 to 30 years. The public entity continues to own the assets. These arrangements are common in
840:
Dozens of countries around the world have established regulatory agencies for infrastructure services, including often water supply and sanitation, in order to better protect consumers and to improve efficiency. Regulatory agencies can be entrusted with a variety of responsibilities, including in
578:
located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to result only in a trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures and waste of water. Pressure in an urban water system is typically maintained
605:
The effective pressure also varies because of the pressure loss due to supply resistance, even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may have 5 metres of 15-mm pipe running from the iron main, so the kitchen tap flow will be fairly unrestricted. A rural consumer may have a kilometre of
1434: – and 71% of the world could access safely managed drinking water that is clean and available on-demand. Estimates suggest that at least 25% of improved sources contain fecal contamination. 1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by
1287:
targets of halving the proportion of the population lacking access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015, current annual investment on the order of US$ 10 to US$ 15 billion would need to be roughly doubled. This does not include investments required for the maintenance of existing
1178:
the performance of utilities allows the stimulation of competition, establish realistic targets for improvement and create pressure to catch up with better utilities. Information on benchmarks for water and sanitation utilities is provided by the
International Benchmarking Network for Water and
845:
systems. Sometimes they also have a mandate to settle complaints by consumers that have not been dealt with satisfactorily by service providers. These specialized entities are expected to be more competent and objective in regulating service providers than departments of government
Ministries.
1192:
The cost of supplying water consists, to a very large extent, of fixed costs (capital costs and personnel costs) and only to a small extent of variable costs that depend on the amount of water consumed (mainly energy and chemicals). The full cost of supplying water in urban areas in developed
1174:). Firms operating in competitive markets are under constant pressure to out perform each other. Water utilities are often sheltered from this pressure, and it frequently shows: some utilities are on a sustained improvement track, but many others keep falling further behind best practice.
1136:
The fact that we are still so far from achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation shows that public water authorities, in their current state, are not working well enough. Yet some are being very successful and are modelling the best forms of public management. As
677:, whose administrator reports directly to the President, is responsible for water and sanitation policy and standard setting within the executive branch. In other countries responsibility for sector policy is entrusted to a Ministry of Environment (such as in
877:
Many countries do not have regulatory agencies for water. In these countries service providers are regulated directly by local government, or the national government. This is, for example, the case in the countries of continental Europe, in China and India.
993:
services. In some cities or countries utilities also distribute electricity. In a few cases such multi-utilities also collect solid waste and provide local telephone services. An example of such an integrated utility can be found in the
Colombian city of
1523:, little progress was made in water supply and sanitation and the engineering skills of the Romans were largely neglected throughout Europe. It was in the 18th century that a rapidly growing population fueled a boom in the establishment of private
1208:
Besides subsidies water supply investments are financed through internally generated revenues as well as through debt. Debt financing can take the form of credits from commercial Banks, credits from international financial institutions such as the
869:
in 1989. In many developing countries, water regulatory agencies were created during the 1990s in parallel with efforts at increasing private sector participation. (for more details on regulatory agencies in Latin
America, for example, please see
1030:
or cooperative. Most urban water supply services around the world are provided by public entities. As Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange (2002) stated, "The water crisis that is affecting so many people is mainly a crisis of governance—not of
598:) for an urban supply. However, some people can get over eight bars or below one bar. A single iron main pipe may cross a deep valley, it will have the same nominal pressure, however each consumer will get a bit more or less because of the
1141:, former Japanese Prime Minister, notes: "Public water services currently provide more than 90 percent of water supply in the world. Modest improvement in public water operators will have immense impact on global provision of services."
72:
and water pressure. The institutional responsibility for water supply is arranged differently in different countries and regions (urban versus rural). It usually includes issues surrounding policy and regulation, service provision and
1043:
and to provide the finance needed to extend the network to those poorest households who remain unconnected. Partnership arrangements between the public and private sector can play an important role in order to achieve this objective.
1427:
By 2015, 5.2 billion people representing 71% of the global population used safely managed drinking water services. As of 2017, 90% of people having access to water from a source that is suitable for drinking – called
495:
Continuity of water supply is taken for granted in most developed countries but is a severe problem in many developing countries, where sometimes water is only provided for a few hours every day or a few days a week; that is, it is
1201:) is another US$ 1–2 per cubic meter. These costs are somewhat lower in developing countries. Throughout the world, only part of these costs is usually billed to consumers, the remainder being financed through direct or indirect
1276:. It is estimated that in developing countries investments of at least US$ 200 billion have to be made per year to replace aging water infrastructure to guarantee supply, reduce leakage rates and protect water quality.
636:
is installed to increase and maintain pressure. For this reason urban houses are increasingly using mains pressure boilers ("combies") which take a long time to fill a bath but suit the high back pressure of a shower.
538:
has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical dimension. There are thousands of parameters of water quality. In public water supply systems water should, at a minimum, be disinfected—most commonly through the use of
68:. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. These systems are what supply drinking water to populations around the globe. Aspects of service quality include continuity of supply,
1730:
613:
For this reason, the UK domestic water system has traditionally (prior to 1989) employed a "cistern feed" system, where the incoming supply is connected to the kitchen sink and also a header/storage tank in the
2761:
1247:
In developing countries, tariffs are usually much further from covering costs. Residential water bills for a typical consumption of 15 cubic meters per month vary between less than US$ 1 and US$ 12 per month.
969:). In rural areas, where about half the world population lives, water services are often not provided by utilities, but by community-based organizations which usually cover one or sometimes several villages.
1345:
724:
level. Policy and regulatory functions include the setting of tariff rules and the approval of tariff increases; setting, monitoring and enforcing norms for quality of service and environmental protection;
649:
have responsibilities in water supply. A basic distinction is between institutions responsible for policy and regulation on the one hand; and institutions in charge of providing services on the other hand.
1126:
In most middle and low-income countries, these publicly owned and managed water providers can be inefficient as a result of political interference, leading to over-staffing and low labor productivity.
1113:
from the UK, all of which are engaged internationally (see links to website of these companies below). In recent years, a number of cities have reverted to the public sector in a process called "
1133:, they end up paying far more per liter of water than do more well-off households connected to the network who benefit from the implicit subsidies that they receive from loss-making utilities.
890:, differ from each other in terms of their geographical coverage relative to administrative boundaries; their sectoral coverage; their ownership structure; and their governance arrangements.
1458:
goal in developing countries. In 2017, almost 22 million
Americans drank from water systems that were in violation of public health standards, which could contribute to citizens developing
318:
in some developing countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water supply system.
1018:
in West Africa. Multi-utilities provide certain benefits such as common billing and the option to cross-subsidize water services with revenues from electricity sales, if permitted by law.
2589:
1835:
1740:
1680:
846:
Regulatory agencies are supposed to be autonomous from the executive branch of government, but in many countries have often not been able to exercise a great degree of autonomy.
2196:
1566:
in London in 1829. The practice of water treatment soon became mainstream, and the virtues of the system were made starkly apparent after the investigations of the physician
100:
303:
A pipe network for distribution of water to consumers (which may be private houses or industrial, commercial, or institution establishments) and other usage points (such as
618:. Water can dribble into this tank through a 12 mm pipe, plus ball valve, and then supply the house on 22 or 28 mm pipes. Gravity water has a small pressure (say
2802:
2065:
2090:
1558:, John Gibb, installed an experimental filter, selling his unwanted surplus to the public. The first treated public water supply in the world was installed by engineer
2095:
1770:
1360:
a small radio is hooked up to the meter to automatically transmit readings to corresponding receivers in handheld computers, utility vehicles or distributed collectors
850:
670:
2744:
1252:
actual consumption—are being charged. In developed countries, tariffs are usually the same for different categories of users and for different levels of consumption.
2873:
352:
uses about 520 L (138 US gal) of water per day (2016 estimate) or 222 L (58.6 US gal) per capita per day. This includes several common
2652:
Fawcett, William; Hughes, Martin; Krieg, Hannes; Albrecht, Stefan; Vennström, Anders (2012). "Flexible strategies for long-term sustainability under uncertainty".
1343:
2416:
1985:
1935:
919:
674:
2152:
353:
2025:
2015:
2005:
1690:
2507:
2030:
1940:
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1620:
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a small computer is hooked up to the meter that can either dial out or receive automated phone calls that give the reading to a central computer system.
1920:
1720:
1650:
1645:
1314:
Metering of water supply is usually motivated by one or several of four objectives. First, it provides an incentive to conserve water which protects
2105:
2020:
1965:
1945:
1820:
1795:
1640:
1635:
628:
bar in the bathroom) so needs wide pipes to allow for higher flows. This is fine for baths and toilets but is frequently inadequate for showers. A
456:
3087:
2125:
2060:
2055:
1990:
1975:
1960:
1900:
1810:
1760:
1715:
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682:
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In some federal countries, there are water service providers covering most or all cities and towns in an entire state, such as in all states of
2110:
2100:
2070:
2010:
1950:
1925:
1915:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1850:
1790:
1775:
1745:
1735:
1675:
1655:
1625:
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Almost all service providers in the world charge tariffs to recover part of their costs. According to estimates by the World Bank the average (
966:
714:
698:
694:
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2755:
2400:
2120:
2085:
2080:
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1995:
1970:
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1800:
1785:
1765:
1700:
1685:
1670:
1660:
1630:
1603:
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Ironically, the main losers from this institutional arrangement are the urban poor in these countries. Because they are not connected to the
942:
910:. However, in many countries municipalities have associated in regional or inter-municipal or multi-jurisdictional utilities to benefit from
871:
686:
678:
3092:
2147:
2115:
2045:
2040:
2035:
1930:
1895:
1865:
1855:
1845:
1815:
1805:
1780:
1750:
1710:
1705:
1665:
669:
Water supply policies and regulation are usually defined by one or several
Ministries, in consultation with the legislative branch. In the
574:
Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system. Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a
2608:
2544:
2452:
467:
where policies are eventually tending towards a more rational use and sourcing of water incorporation concepts such as "Fit for Purpose".
2475:
2142:
1980:
1955:
1905:
1875:
1830:
1825:
1725:
706:
3074:
3025:
2697:"A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty"
1571:
1532:
1528:
1500:
Throughout history, people have devised systems to make getting and using water more convenient. Living in semi-arid regions, ancient
602:(about 1 bar/10 m height). So people at the bottom of a 30-metre (100 ft) hill will get about 3 bars more than those at the top.
2420:
1371:(AMR) systems to prevent fraud, to lower ever-increasing labor and liability costs and to improve customer service and satisfaction.
3071:
2636:
2602:
827:
2253:
1322:. In developing countries it is estimated that half of all urban water supply systems are metered and the tendency is increasing.
2907:
2351:
Nickson, Andrew & Francey, Richard, Tapping the Market: The Challenge of Institutional Reform in the Urban Water Sector, 2003
2794:
1335:
the water customer writes down the meter reading and uses a phone dial-in system to transfer this info to the water department;
930:. Multi-jurisdictional utilities are also common in Germany, where they are known as "Zweckverbaende", in France and in Italy.
1535:
developed over many centuries from early mediaeval conduits, through major 19th-century treatment works built in response to
765:
857:
at the level of provinces. In both countries they cover several infrastructure sectors. In many U.S. states they are called
300:
may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or aboveground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity flow is impractical).
808:
293:. Tall buildings may also need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors.
2856:
1158:
International standards for water supply system are covered by International Classification of Standards (ICS) 91.140.60.
898:
761:
780:
1357:
the meter reading is echoed on a display unit mounted to the outside of the premises, where a meter reader records them;
1284:
918:
which may have independent taxing authority. An example of a multi-jurisdictional water utility in the United States is
568:
512:. It is estimated that about half of the population of developing countries receives water on an intermittent basis.
31:
1244:
A typical family on the US East Coast paid between US$ 30 and US$ 70 per month for water and sewer services in 2005.
1232:
According to another study undertaken in 2006 by NUS Consulting, the average water and sewerage tariff in 14 mainly
787:
1563:
1027:
2931:"Fecal Contamination of Drinking-Water in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
754:
3124:
2222:
1596:
1422:
858:
497:
1332:
the water customer writes down the meter reading and mails in a postcard with this info to the water department;
2227:
1559:
915:
794:
1292:
some combination of the two. It is also important to consider is the flexibility of the water supply system.
1368:
1039:
between richer and poorer consumers is an essential governance reform in order to reduce the high levels of
2522:
quoted from a comparison of 24 utilities on the US East Coast in the 2005 Annual Report of DC WASA, p. 38
2177:
1069:
662:
595:
249:
173:
776:
633:
483:; pressure; and the degree of responsiveness of service providers to customer complaints. Many people in
88:, the practice and systems of water supply on a larger scale, for a wider variety of purposes, primarily
3119:
1567:
1430:
1057:
841:
particular the approval of tariff increases and the management of sector information systems, including
464:
1081:. Only in few parts of the world water supply systems have been completely sold to the private sector (
455:
of desalination technology, this is especially prevalent in coastal areas and in "dry" countries like
3050:
3000:
2661:
1589:
1524:
1463:
1198:
1130:
1102:
1098:
599:
505:
460:
202:
194:
64:, commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and
2390:
1454:, among others. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of safe water resources is a major
2984:
2825:"The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence"
1459:
1439:
1065:
1053:
1036:
853:
regulatory agencies for utilities have existed for almost a century at the level of states, and in
721:
717:, even have a Ministry of Water. Often several Ministries share responsibilities for water supply.
245:
108:
Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including
2718:
2677:
2320:
1280:
1114:
911:
575:
540:
484:
349:
263:
222:
141:
137:
2523:
459:. Decentralization of water infrastructure has grown extensively as a viable solution including
37:
2979:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report on the environment: drinking water. Available at:
2628:
Selling Forest Environmental Services: Market-based Mechanisms for Conservation and Development
2281:. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017
583:
and relying on gravity to maintain a constant pressure in the system or solely by pumps at the
3067:
2962:
2863:
2751:
2730:
2726:
2632:
2598:
2501:
2396:
2312:
1555:
1520:
1194:
1138:
1040:
563:
213:
components that provide water supply. A water supply system typically includes the following:
161:
149:
2626:
2482:
2952:
2942:
2836:
2708:
2669:
2376:
2304:
2157:
1171:
990:
923:
3029:
2513:
tariffs and not the costs of the utility, which can be lower or higher than average tariffs
1354:
a meter reader comes to the premises and enters the meter reading into a handheld computer;
2988:
2841:
2824:
2566:
2366:. Transnational Institute/Municipal Services Project/Corporate European Observatory. 2012.
2162:
1443:
1349:
1315:
1273:
801:
584:
552:
529:
476:
369:
339:
297:
290:
133:
74:
1581:
579:
either by a pressurised water tank serving an urban area, by pumping the water up into a
2665:
2246:
1516:
and pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells and fountains for people to use.
705:), a Ministry of Economy (such as in German states) or a Ministry of Energy (such as in
2957:
2930:
2903:
2786:
2172:
2167:
1513:
1501:
1414:
1319:
1301:
1214:
1032:
986:
866:
521:
404:
326:
322:
311:
218:
169:
157:
61:
2823:
Davenport, Christian; Mokleiv NygĂĄrd, HĂĄvard; Fjelde, Hanne; Armstrong, David (2019).
2292:
3113:
2681:
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2308:
1467:
1455:
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548:
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525:
480:
345:
117:
69:
2722:
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1509:
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is under the responsibility of a different entity. This is for example the case in
907:
842:
726:
646:
629:
357:
304:
145:
129:
1217:(in the case of some developed countries and some upper middle-income countries).
2947:
2673:
2339:"Aderasa | Asociacion de Entes Reguladores de Agua y Saneamiento de las Americas"
2279:
Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines
2361:
2221:
DeOreo, William B.; Mayer, Peter; Dziegielewski, Benedykt; Kiefer, Jack (2016).
1551:
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1435:
1379:
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743:
580:
544:
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257:
241:
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collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such as a
177:
153:
109:
89:
1306:
2929:
Bain, R.; Cronk, R.; Wright, J.; Yang, H.; Slaymaker, T.; Bartram, J. (2014).
1269:
1265:
1210:
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countries is about US$ 1–2 per cubic meter depending on local costs and local
1007:
591:
417:
381:
278:
274:
267:
206:
181:
165:
85:
65:
17:
2316:
1574:
demonstrated the role of the water supply in spreading the cholera epidemic.
1342:
of the water supply company, enters the address, meter ID and meter readings
1170:) is needed, because the sector offers limited scope for direct competition (
720:
In the European Union, important policy functions have been entrusted to the
2790:
2781:
2779:
1544:
1496:, Germany. It's an example of pre-industrialization waterworks and fountain.
1202:
1167:
999:
887:
607:
365:
229:
210:
2966:
2713:
2696:
1554:
to purify the water supply dates to 1804, when the owner of a bleachery in
998:. Utilities that provide water, sanitation and electricity can be found in
1213:
and regional development banks (in the case of developing countries), and
658:
27:
Provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations or others
2525:
The comparison refers to a consumption level of 25 cubic feet per quarter
1396:
1384:
927:
509:
286:
3097:
2545:"Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies?"
2453:"Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies?"
1536:
1451:
1447:
1400:
1339:
1205:
from local, regional or national governments (see section on tariffs).
1086:
1011:
1003:
982:
962:
954:
946:
768: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
377:
113:
42:
2473:
NUS Consulting 2005-2006 International Water Report & Cost Survey
2750:(Report) (4 ed.). World Health Organization. 2017. p. 631.
2392:
Peri-urban Water and Sanitation Services: Policy, Planning and Method
1493:
1166:
Comparing the performance of water and sanitation service providers (
1074:
978:
958:
938:
934:
854:
710:
547:
light—or it may need to undergo treatment, especially in the case of
361:
253:
176:
before being discharged into a river, lake, or the sea or reused for
46:
874:
and the regional association of water regulatory agencies ADERASA.)
1162:
Comparing the performance of water and sanitation service providers
508:
and have no means of procuring alternative sources such as private
1505:
1484:
1391:
1390:
1378:
1305:
1094:
1090:
1078:
1061:
1015:
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897:
862:
702:
615:
562:
388:
Recommended basic water requirements for human needs (per person)
315:
237:
125:
99:
57:
36:
2567:"The cost of meeting the Johannesburg targets for drinking water"
1539:
threats, to modern, large-scale reservoirs. The first screw-down
1407:
1233:
1226:
906:
Many water utilities provide services in a single city, town or
902:
The sole water supply of this section of Wilder, Tennessee, 1942
373:
233:
121:
3088:
The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities
2278:
1585:
977:
Some water utilities provide only water supply services, while
1543:
was patented in 1845 by Guest and Chrimes, a brass foundry in
1272:
in infrastructure such as pipe networks, pumping stations and
1237:
737:
551:. Water quality is also dependent of the quality and level of
156:
or on the ground (for indicators related to the efficiency of
1052:
An estimated 10 percent of urban water supply is provided by
1035:." The introduction of cost-reflective tariffs together with
730:
are entrusted to agencies that are separate from Ministries.
148:. Treated water then either flows by gravity or is pumped to
3102:
248:. Raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level
41:
A girl collects clean water from a communal water supply in
1470:
is sold for public consumption in most parts of the world.
610:
22-mm iron pipe, so their kitchen tap flow will be small.
104:
Engine room of municipal water works in Toledo, Ohio, 1908
2898:
2896:
2894:
2440:
2338:
2980:
861:. For England and Wales, a regulatory agency for water (
2534:
World Bank, op.cit., calculated from Table 2.3 on p. 21
2379:
by the Water Justice Project on Transnational Institute
1508:
system to gain access to water in the mountains. Early
1097:. The largest private water companies in the world are
2291:
Dagdeviren, Hulya; Robertson, Simon A. (2 June 2011).
1279:
International attention has focused upon the needs of
1026:
Water supply providers can be either public, private,
985:. However, in most cases water utilities also provide
2293:"Access to Water in the Slums of Sub-Saharan Africa"
2377:
Reforming public water services, A beginner's guide
2857:Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
914:. In the United States these can take the form of
865:) was created as part of the privatization of the
2389:Kurian, Mathew; McCarney, Patricia, eds. (2010).
1056:or mixed public-private companies, usually under
296:Additional water pressurizing components such as
205:or water supply system is a system of engineered
30:"Waterworks" redirects here. For other uses, see
886:Water supply service providers, which are often
487:receive a poor or very poor quality of service.
2247:"Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities"
285:. Smaller water systems may store the water in
266:facilities. Treated water is transferred using
3063:Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine
2417:International Organization for Standardization
223:water purification – sources of drinking water
1597:
1395:Shipot, a common source of drinking water in
1197:levels. The cost of sanitation (sewerage and
675:United States Environmental Protection Agency
8:
2153:Residential water use in the U.S. and Canada
641:Institutional responsibility and governance
2795:"Water Access, Resources & Sanitation"
2223:"Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2"
1604:
1590:
1582:
1260:Investments needed in developing countries
697:), a Ministry of Public Works (such as in
504:, which are often poorly connected to the
3093:The World Bank on water utility subsidies
2956:
2946:
2840:
2712:
1512:had indoor plumbing, meaning a system of
828:Learn how and when to remove this message
1367:Most cities are increasingly installing
657:
386:
3065:(2008) Par S. William Gunn, M. Masellis
2188:
926:and various localities in the state of
685:), to a Ministry of Health (such as in
321:Water supply networks are often run by
2506:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2499:
2363:www.tni.org/tnibook/remunicipalisation
1612:Water supply and sanitation by country
1481:History of water supply and sanitation
967:water supply and sanitation in Uruguay
84:Water supply is a separate topic from
2862:(Report). JMP, WHO and UNICEF. 2014.
2842:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057
2745:Guidelines for Drinking‑water Quality
1022:Ownership and governance arrangements
943:Water supply and sanitation in Mexico
872:Water and sanitation in Latin America
587:plant and repeater pumping stations.
500:. This is especially problematic for
7:
2764:from the original on 2 November 2021
2148:Nonresidential water use in the U.S.
1328:are read by one of several methods:
766:adding citations to reliable sources
3001:"Brief History During the Snow Era"
2143:Human right to water and sanitation
314:(underground pipes, or aboveground
2829:Annual Review of Political Science
2805:from the original on 21 March 2018
2455:. The World Bank. 2006. p. 21
1572:1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
1533:London water supply infrastructure
567:1880s model of pumping engine, in
25:
3051:History of the Chelsea Waterworks
2879:from the original on 20 July 2018
2569:. Water-academy.org. 22 June 2004
2421:"91.140.60: Water supply systems"
2259:from the original on 29 June 2013
1338:the water customer logs into the
1310:A typical residential water meter
1268:require a huge amount of capital
1241:higher in Europe than in the US.
479:has many dimensions: continuity;
273:Water storage facilities such as
260:to water purification facilities.
2910:from the original on 5 June 2015
2695:Zhang, S.X.; V. Babovic (2012).
2309:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2011.00543.x
1731:Democratic Republic of the Congo
1413:This section is an excerpt from
742:
193:This section is an excerpt from
152:, which can be elevated such as
753:needs additional citations for
2588:Winpenny, James (March 2003).
1504:in the 1st millennium BC used
1415:Drinking water § Global access
1121:Public water service provision
136:steps include, in most cases,
1:
1383:Water supplied by a truck in
590:Typical UK pressures are 4–5
522:Drinking water § Quality
168:is typically discharged in a
3026:"A Little About Tap History"
2948:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001644
2674:10.1080/09613218.2012.702565
1550:The first documented use of
1462:. Safe drinking water is an
1285:Millennium Development Goals
1048:Private sector participation
709:). A few countries, such as
354:residential end use purposes
2701:Journal of Hydroinformatics
1041:Unaccounted-for Water (UAW)
356:(in decreasing order) like
32:Waterworks (disambiguation)
3141:
2983:. Accessed March 3, 2023.
1564:Chelsea Waterworks Company
1492:and fountain from 1602 in
1478:
1412:
1405:
1299:
859:Public Utility Commissions
519:
337:
192:
29:
2631:. Earthscan. p. 91.
2395:. Springer. p. 300.
2297:Development Policy Review
2228:Water Research Foundation
2197:"Public Supply Water Use"
1617:
1423:World Health Organization
1348:28 September 2007 at the
916:special-purpose districts
3103:The OECD's site on water
2904:"Water Fact sheet N°391"
376:, other (unidentified),
172:system and treated in a
3098:The WHO's site on water
2987:March 10, 2023, at the
2625:Bishop, Joshua (2002).
2597:. World Water Council.
2591:Financing Water for All
1369:automatic meter reading
1145:Governance arrangements
164:). Once water is used,
140:, disinfection through
128:), and the sea through
2714:10.2166/hydro.2011.078
2277:WHO and UNICEF (2017)
2178:Water supply terrorism
1681:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1497:
1403:
1388:
1311:
1179:Sanitation Utilities.
1070:water service contract
903:
666:
663:Cape Town water crisis
571:
396:Minimum, litres / day
270:(usually underground).
174:sewage treatment plant
105:
50:
2981:https://cfpub.epa.gov
1525:water supply networks
1488:
1460:water-borne illnesses
1438:. This can result in
1431:improved water source
1406:Further information:
1394:
1382:
1309:
1274:water treatment works
901:
894:Geographical coverage
661:
654:Policy and regulation
566:
555:of the water source.
520:Further information:
465:Stormwater harvesting
338:Further information:
103:
81:part of their costs.
40:
1464:environmental health
1387:, Maharashtra, India
1281:developing countries
1236:countries excluding
1199:wastewater treatment
1131:water supply network
1103:Veolia Environnement
1066:management contracts
922:, a utility serving
762:improve this article
600:hydrostatic pressure
506:water supply network
502:informal settlements
491:Continuity of supply
485:developing countries
461:Rainwater harvesting
442:Cooking and Kitchen
203:water supply network
195:Water supply network
56:is the provision of
2666:2012BuRI...40..545F
2231:. Denver, Colorado.
2066:Trinidad and Tobago
1440:infectious diseases
1188:Costs and financing
1037:cross-subsidization
937:and some states in
734:Regulatory agencies
645:A great variety of
389:
310:Connections to the
246:underground aquifer
2799:OurWorldInData.org
2488:on 6 December 2006
1741:Dominican Republic
1498:
1404:
1389:
1312:
1115:remunicipalization
1107:Aguas de Barcelona
912:economies of scale
904:
667:
665:warning, July 2018
572:
387:
350:single family home
264:Water purification
106:
96:Technical overview
51:
3032:on 9 January 2014
2869:978-92-4-151289-3
2757:978-92-4-154995-0
2654:Building Research
2614:on 19 March 2009.
2402:978-90-481-9424-7
2133:
2132:
1556:Paisley, Scotland
1521:Enlightenment era
1421:According to the
1264:Water supply and
1195:water consumption
1183:Financial aspects
1139:Ryutaro Hashimoto
882:Service provision
838:
837:
830:
812:
452:
451:
256:, or underground
162:non-revenue water
160:distribution see
16:(Redirected from
3132:
3125:Water management
3076:
3059:
3053:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3028:. Archived from
3022:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3011:
2997:
2991:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2960:
2950:
2926:
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2734:
2716:
2692:
2686:
2685:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2607:. Archived from
2596:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2563:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2552:
2547:. The World Bank
2541:
2535:
2532:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2505:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2487:
2481:. Archived from
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2471:
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2209:
2207:
2193:
2158:Water efficiency
1606:
1599:
1592:
1583:
1288:infrastructure.
1172:natural monopoly
1109:from Spain; and
991:sewage treatment
924:Washington, D.C.
833:
826:
822:
819:
813:
811:
770:
746:
738:
627:
626:
622:
576:pressure reducer
569:Herne Bay Museum
390:
323:public utilities
298:pumping stations
291:pressure vessels
62:public utilities
21:
3140:
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3035:
3033:
3024:
3023:
3019:
3009:
3007:
3005:www.ph.ucla.edu
2999:
2998:
2994:
2989:Wayback Machine
2978:
2974:
2941:(5): e1001644.
2928:
2927:
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2787:Ritchie, Hannah
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2476:"Archived copy"
2474:
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1613:
1610:
1580:
1483:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1444:gastroenteritis
1418:
1410:
1377:
1350:Wayback Machine
1316:water resources
1304:
1298:
1262:
1223:
1190:
1185:
1164:
1156:
1154:Standardization
1147:
1123:
1050:
1024:
975:
973:Sector coverage
896:
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585:water treatment
561:
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530:Water treatment
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493:
477:service quality
473:
471:Service quality
370:washing machine
342:
340:Water footprint
336:
331:
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198:
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134:water treatment
98:
75:standardization
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28:
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3083:
3082:External links
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1302:Water metering
1300:Main article:
1297:
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1283:. To meet the
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1093:as well as in
1085:), such as in
1068:. Under these
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1033:water scarcity
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1020:
1006:(Mainova), in
974:
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777:"Water supply"
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543:or the use of
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368:(faucet) use,
348:, the typical
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219:drainage basin
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191:
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188:Supply network
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158:drinking water
144:and sometimes
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18:Domestic water
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2935:PLOS Medicine
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2906:. July 2014.
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2017:
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1561:
1560:James Simpson
1557:
1553:
1548:
1546:
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1538:
1534:
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1526:
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1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1474:
1469:
1468:Bottled water
1465:
1461:
1457:
1456:public health
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1432:
1426:
1424:
1416:
1409:
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1398:
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1375:Global access
1374:
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1127:
1120:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1105:from France;
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1083:privatization
1080:
1076:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
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1038:
1034:
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851:United States
847:
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832:
829:
821:
818:February 2019
810:
807:
803:
800:
796:
793:
789:
786:
782:
779: –
778:
774:
773:Find sources:
767:
763:
757:
756:
751:This section
749:
745:
740:
739:
733:
731:
728:
723:
722:supranational
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
671:United States
664:
660:
653:
651:
648:
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638:
635:
631:
617:
611:
609:
603:
601:
597:
593:
588:
586:
582:
577:
570:
565:
558:
556:
554:
550:
549:surface water
546:
542:
537:
536:water quality
531:
527:
526:Water quality
523:
516:Water quality
515:
513:
511:
507:
503:
499:
490:
488:
486:
482:
481:water quality
478:
475:Water supply
470:
468:
466:
462:
458:
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444:
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440:
436:
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379:
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367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
346:United States
341:
333:
328:
324:
317:
313:
309:
306:
305:fire hydrants
302:
299:
295:
292:
288:
284:
280:
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269:
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262:
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131:
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119:
118:surface water
115:
111:
102:
95:
93:
91:
87:
82:
78:
76:
71:
70:water quality
67:
63:
59:
55:
48:
44:
39:
33:
19:
3120:Water supply
3107:
3062:
3057:
3046:
3034:. Retrieved
3030:the original
3020:
3008:. Retrieved
3004:
2995:
2975:
2938:
2934:
2924:
2912:. Retrieved
2881:. Retrieved
2851:
2832:
2828:
2818:
2807:, retrieved
2798:
2766:. Retrieved
2739:
2707:(1): 13–29.
2704:
2700:
2690:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2627:
2620:
2609:the original
2590:
2583:
2571:. Retrieved
2561:
2549:. Retrieved
2539:
2530:
2518:
2490:. Retrieved
2483:the original
2469:
2457:. Retrieved
2447:
2436:
2424:. Retrieved
2411:
2391:
2384:
2372:
2362:
2356:
2347:
2333:
2300:
2296:
2286:
2273:
2261:. Retrieved
2237:
2226:
2216:
2204:. Retrieved
2201:www.usgs.gov
2200:
2191:
2026:South Africa
2016:Sierra Leone
2006:Saudi Arabia
1691:Burkina Faso
1552:sand filters
1549:
1518:
1499:
1489:
1429:
1420:
1366:
1326:Water meters
1324:
1313:
1290:
1278:
1263:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1243:
1231:
1224:
1207:
1191:
1176:Benchmarking
1165:
1157:
1148:
1135:
1128:
1124:
1111:Thames Water
1106:
1051:
1025:
976:
932:
908:municipality
905:
885:
876:
848:
843:benchmarking
839:
824:
815:
805:
798:
791:
784:
772:
760:Please help
755:verification
752:
727:benchmarking
719:
668:
647:institutions
644:
630:booster pump
612:
604:
589:
573:
541:chlorination
533:
498:intermittent
494:
474:
453:
399:Range / day
343:
283:water towers
200:
154:water towers
146:fluoridation
142:chlorination
138:purification
130:desalination
107:
83:
79:
54:Water supply
53:
52:
3036:17 December
3010:26 February
2835:: 361–377.
2492:17 December
2031:South Sudan
1986:Philippines
1941:New Zealand
1936:Netherlands
1756:El Salvador
1621:Afghanistan
1570:during the
1490:Wasserkunst
1058:concessions
606:rusted and
581:water tower
545:ultraviolet
279:water tanks
268:water pipes
258:water pipes
242:groundwater
178:landscaping
110:groundwater
90:agriculture
3114:Categories
2791:Roser, Max
2551:30 October
2459:30 October
2184:References
1921:Mozambique
1721:Costa Rica
1651:Bangladesh
1646:Azerbaijan
1578:By country
1519:Until the
1442:, such as
1270:investment
1266:sanitation
1211:World Bank
1008:Casablanca
965:(see also
788:newspapers
634:hydrophore
418:Sanitation
382:dishwasher
275:reservoirs
252:, covered
207:hydrologic
182:irrigation
166:wastewater
150:reservoirs
86:irrigation
2682:110278133
2325:153624406
2317:0950-6764
2206:3 October
2106:Venezuela
2021:Singapore
1966:Palestine
1946:Nicaragua
1821:Indonesia
1796:Guatemala
1641:Australia
1636:Argentina
1568:John Snow
1545:Rotherham
1541:water tap
1514:aqueducts
1466:concern.
1203:subsidies
1168:utilities
1000:Frankfurt
888:utilities
553:pollution
534:Drinking
510:boreholes
457:Australia
420:Services
393:Activity
250:aqueducts
230:raw water
211:hydraulic
2985:Archived
2967:24800926
2908:Archived
2883:22 March
2874:Archived
2809:22 March
2803:archived
2793:(2018),
2768:22 March
2762:Archived
2723:54548372
2573:12 March
2502:cite web
2263:17 March
2254:Archived
2137:See also
2126:Zimbabwe
2061:Thailand
2056:Tanzania
1991:Portugal
1976:Paraguay
1961:Pakistan
1901:Malaysia
1811:Honduras
1761:Ethiopia
1716:Colombia
1696:Cambodia
1562:for the
1502:Persians
1397:Dzyhivka
1385:Kolhapur
1346:Archived
1296:Metering
996:MedellĂn
979:sewerage
928:Maryland
691:Honduras
683:Colombia
431:Bathing
287:cisterns
244:from an
114:aquifers
2958:4011876
2731:2491961
2662:Bibcode
2426:1 March
2111:Vietnam
2101:Uruguay
2071:Tunisia
2011:Senegal
1951:Nigeria
1926:Namibia
1916:Morocco
1891:Liberia
1886:Lesotho
1881:Lebanon
1851:Jamaica
1836:Ireland
1791:Grenada
1776:Germany
1771:Georgia
1746:Ecuador
1736:Denmark
1676:Bolivia
1656:Belgium
1626:Algeria
1537:cholera
1475:History
1452:typhoid
1448:cholera
1401:Ukraine
1340:website
1221:Tariffs
1087:England
1077:and in
1054:private
1014:and in
1012:Morocco
1004:Germany
983:Tunisia
963:Uruguay
955:Tunisia
947:England
849:In the
802:scholar
715:Bolivia
699:Ecuador
695:Uruguay
623:⁄
594:(60–70
362:showers
344:In the
325:of the
316:ditches
254:tunnels
43:Kawempe
3070:
2965:
2955:
2914:24 May
2866:
2754:
2729:
2721:
2680:
2635:
2601:
2399:
2323:
2315:
2121:Zambia
2086:Uganda
2081:Tuvalu
2076:Turkey
2051:Taiwan
2001:Rwanda
1996:Russia
1971:Panama
1911:Mexico
1871:Kuwait
1861:Jordan
1841:Israel
1801:Guyana
1786:Greece
1766:France
1701:Canada
1686:Brazil
1671:Bhutan
1661:Belize
1631:Angola
1529:London
1494:Wismar
1450:, and
1075:France
1062:leases
959:Jordan
945:). In
939:Mexico
935:Brazil
855:Canada
804:
797:
790:
783:
775:
711:Jordan
687:Panama
679:Mexico
528:, and
448:10–50
426:20–75
380:, and
358:toilet
312:sewers
132:. The
126:rivers
47:Uganda
2877:(PDF)
2860:(PDF)
2748:(PDF)
2719:S2CID
2678:S2CID
2612:(PDF)
2595:(PDF)
2486:(PDF)
2479:(PDF)
2441:IBNET
2321:S2CID
2257:(PDF)
2250:(PDF)
2116:Yemen
2046:Syria
2041:Sudan
2036:Spain
1931:Nepal
1896:Libya
1866:Kenya
1856:Japan
1846:Italy
1816:India
1806:Haiti
1781:Ghana
1751:Egypt
1711:China
1706:Chile
1666:Benin
1506:qanat
1436:feces
1215:bonds
1095:Chile
1091:Wales
1079:Spain
1028:mixed
1016:Gabon
987:sewer
951:Wales
941:(see
863:OFWAT
809:JSTOR
795:books
703:Haiti
632:or a
616:attic
608:limed
437:5–70
384:use.
378:baths
374:leaks
372:use,
360:use,
281:, or
240:, or
238:river
221:(see
170:sewer
122:lakes
66:pipes
58:water
3068:ISBN
3038:2012
3012:2021
2963:PMID
2916:2015
2885:2018
2864:ISBN
2811:2018
2770:2018
2752:ISBN
2727:SSRN
2633:ISBN
2599:ISBN
2575:2009
2553:2011
2508:link
2494:2006
2461:2011
2428:2008
2397:ISBN
2313:ISSN
2265:2012
2208:2021
1981:Peru
1956:Oman
1906:Mali
1876:Laos
1831:Iraq
1826:Iran
1726:Cuba
1510:Rome
1408:WASH
1234:OECD
1227:mean
1101:and
1099:Suez
1089:and
989:and
961:and
949:and
920:WASA
781:news
713:and
707:Iran
701:and
693:and
681:and
673:the
463:and
412:2–5
236:, a
234:lake
209:and
124:and
2953:PMC
2943:doi
2837:doi
2709:doi
2670:doi
2305:doi
1527:in
1238:VAT
1117:".
1064:or
764:by
596:PSI
592:bar
445:10
434:15
423:20
366:tap
334:Use
289:or
180:or
116:),
60:by
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