562:
328:
471:
529:
641:, faces of mature members have broader faces with a more defined jaw, smaller ratio of eye size to face size and larger noses. Younger members are perceived as having baby-faced features which includes rounder, softer faces, larger eyes when compared to face ratio, and smaller noses. These facial features can be used as dominance signals as baby-faced individuals are perceived as weak and submissive compared to mature faces which can indicate physical and social dominance. In a study where women viewed
59:
405:
206:
133:
82:'s "The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals", which introduced the comparative study of signals across all animals. Expressive abilities of the face are the basis of nonverbal expression. These facial signals help maintain dominance or "status" relationships by allowing species to predict the outcome of their encounter, and calculate the cost of their own fitness.
597:
clear from an evolutionary perspective; However, it has been suggested that voice pitch is linked to male dominance competition. Current research on male voice pitch suggests that lower pitch is perceived as increasing dominance. Lower pitch voices also tend to be indicators of physical and social dominance. Other
561:
442:
evenings prior to courting. The electric chirps stimulate females to spawn. The chirp involves a slight increase in frequency followed by a cessation of the male dominant frequency. Chirps are normally short and abrupt during aggressive encounters when courting females, however, become softer during actual
653:
More subtle dominance signals have also been suggested such as head nods, less arm wrap, increasing gestures, and more left leg lean. These subtle differences are associated with perception of dominance among males. Little research has been conducted regarding how or if, women elicit subtle dominance
441:
express dominance signals during courtship by exerting electric organ discharge "chirps". The "chirps" are an indicator of a male's aggressiveness and size. The more "chirps" a male electric fish produces, increases his likelihood of reproductive success. Continual bouts of chirping can last hours on
596:
is one of the most prevalent dominance signal and has evolutionary ties to non-human primates. Physically, men's vocal folds and vocal tracts are longer than those of women, which produces a lower fundamental frequency and closer spacing of formant frequencies in men. These differences are not fully
548:
allow for territory to be defended. When an
Atlantic salmon is challenged by another salmon for territory and resources, a physical change in colour display occurs. When a subordinate male enters the territory of a dominant male, it will become darker after assessment of the dominant male, while the
96:
are the basis of animal hierarchies and are triggered by stress environments. These signals are used to maintain courtship dominance, social dominance and territorial and resource dominance both within and between different species. Dominance signals are prominent far beyond the ethology literature,
499:
Dominance signals that reinforce hierarchy are crucial for survival for animals like gorillas who are extremely aggressive. A Gorilla's chest drumming, for example, reduces intra-species aggression by making the dominant-subordinate relationship clear. For social animals like gorillas, having and
482:
Gorilla's chest-drumming is a signal used to demonstrate social dominance. This non-verbal, rapid chest-drumming creates a sound because gorillas have air sacks on both sides of their throat. The drumming is often accompanied by screaming and non-specified sounds. This signal is used as a warning
74:
Dominance signals can be operationally defined by (1) acts or displays produced by signalers, (2) which conveys meaning messages to recipients such that (3) the signal is met with a response and (4) the response results in dominance being displayed. For example, (1) hermit claws raise their claws
609:
Physical size is one of the most prevalent dominance signals a human can elicit. Height, weight, bulk, and muscularity send signals of strength and can hold power over subordinate males. Other non-verbal signals that are perceived as signs of dominance are rapid gait, straight postures, firm and
584:. However, humans display such signals as it is an innate characteristic. Fundamentally, all social species must have expressions of dominance and engage in hierarchy systems to function. Men exhibiting greater dominance signals often have higher success mating with women.
224:
signals occur when physical contact is made between two competing animals and can only be transmitted over very short distances. Tactile communication is often very important in building and maintaining relationship among social animals as it can establish hierarchies.
423:. Wild turkeys fundamentally follow a dominant hierarchy as a way to increase their inclusive fitness. The dominant subordinate relationship occurs between two brothers. One brother, the dominant, copulates while the other male, the subordinate, helps.
491:
behaviour alone, but rather are trying for group-wide control. Chest-drumming is also used a sign of victory after a battle and demonstrates who is the male dominant. As gorillas are male dominant, females do not produce these dominance signals.
201:
with females. Acoustic signalling is detrimental in resolving competition between males for mates. Elephant seals express unique acoustic signals that allow males to remember the violations of past rivals and recall which seals are dominant.
387:
Dominance signals used during courtship are driven by interactions between a male's fitness and a female's preference. Dominance signals influence a female's choice of mate because the power of a signal may be a reflection of the male's
253:. During competition, the male snakes will exert pressures through pushing, flipping or entwining, which will result in one physically subduing the other. The dominant male will then proceed to copulate with the females.
512:. Dominance over a territory can be highly beneficial as it would provide abundant recourse. However, the cost of holding a territory can also be quite high. Dominance signals allow signalers to convey the dominant-
1537:
Puts, David Andrew; Hodges, Carolyn R.; Cárdenas, Rodrigo A.; Gaulin, Steven J.C. (2007). "Men's voices as dominance signals: vocal fundamental and formant frequencies influence dominance attributions among men".
610:
strong stances, animated gesturing, and clothing or hair styles that create a bulkier appearance. Women generally view men who display great muscularity and strength to be more attractive. When observing the male
622:, anthropologist Thomas Gregor noted that males who are "heavily muscled" and "imposingly built" have higher mating access to females, while small men, who are derogatorily referred to as
553:
of the eye and the overall body coloration. The darkening is a sign of submission and is beneficial for both males as it minimizes the risk of potential injury during prolonged fights.
181:
is often used by animals to express dominance. Acoustic sounds can vary substantially in amplitude, duration, and frequency structure which can influence how the signal is received.
1435:
O'Connor, Kirstine I.; Metcalfe, Neil B.; Taylor, Alan C. (1999). "Does darkening signal submission in territorial contests between juvenile
Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar ?".
75:
performing a threat signal, (2) which expresses intent to attack to challenger (3) and the challenger makes a decision to retreat which (4) reinforces signaller's dominance.
889:
Bogert, Charles M.; MartĂn del Campo, Rafael (1956). "The gila monster and its allies: the relationships, habits, and behavior of the lizards of the family
Helodermatidae".
601:
signals include loud rapid speaking tempo and clear articulation. Empirical evidence shows that women perceive deep-voiced men to be more dominant and desirable for mating.
645:
fights, male winners whose faces indicated victory and dominance were perceived to be more attractive, stronger, aggressive, and masculine compared to the male losers.
984:
Haley, Michael P.; Deutsch, Charles J.; Boeuf, Burney J. Le (1994). "Size, dominance and copulatory success in male northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris".
800:
Marler, Peter (1967-08-18). "Animal
Communication Signals: We are beginning to understand how the structure of animal signals relates to the function they serve".
680:
Laidre, Mark E.; Elwood, Robert W. (2008). "Motivation matters: cheliped extension displays in the hermit crab, Pagurus bernhardus, are honest signals of hunger".
426:
After birth, the physical appearance of the male turkeys is used to indicate dominance. Physical characters such as height, bulk, and density are evaluated.
854:
Posner, Michael I.; Nissen, Mary J.; Klein, Raymond M. (1976). "Visual dominance: An information-processing account of its origins and significance".
765:
Calisi, Rebecca M. (2014). "An integrative overview of the role of gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone in behavior: Applying
Tinbergen's four questions".
379:
decreased, received more aggression and also decreased their true shield relative to individuals who did not have their apparent shield size altered.
1118:
Szylman, P.; Better, O. S.; Chaimowitz, C.; Rosler, A. (1976-02-12). "Role of hyperkalemia in the metabolic acidosis of isolated hypoaldosteronism".
1729:
Gifford, Robert (1994). "A lens-mapping framework for understanding the encoding and decoding of interpersonal dispositions in nonverbal behavior".
1395:
Dixson, Alan F. (1977-05-01). "Observations on the displays, menstrual cycles and sexual behaviour of the "Black ape" of
Celebes (Macaca nigra)".
121:
specialized signalling systems to assert dominance by electing specific cues or signals. These signals allow individuals to gauge the status of
487:. This signal will only cease if the young male backs-down or if they engage in battle. The young males are not challenging the dominant for
113:. Aggressive encounters between competing individuals can result in significant costs for animals. To minimize fighting costs and increase
265:
living in murky water. Electric signalling can minimize fighting costs and allow dominance to be exerted in low visibility conditions. In
1357:
Stewart, Kelly J.; Harcourt, Alexander H. (1994-01-01). "Gorillas' Vocalizations During Rest
Periods: Signals of Impending Departure?".
626:, "fare badly". He reports that powerful male wrestlers are both frightening to villagers and the most sexually desirable to females.
1502:
933:
367:), for example, badge display is an indicator of dominance. It has been found that altering a bird's badge can actually change
1767:
310:
458:. Such hierarchies arise when a member of social group elicits a dominance signal to initiate competitive interaction.
43:, maintaining social hierarchies and defending territories Dominance signals also provide information about an animals
1291:"Seismic signal dominance in the multimodal courtship display of the wolf spider Schizocosa stridulans Stratton 1991"
237:. It involves interaction sequences between two male snakes and has been recorded in four groups of snakes including
155:
signal among animals. They are an effective modality as they come at a low cost to the animal and minimize risk. The
327:
1083:; Heiligenberg, Walter (1985). "Court and spark: electric signals in the courtship and mating of gymnotoid fish".
470:
274:
194:
1682:"Human perception of fighting ability: facial cues predict winners and losers in mixed martial arts fights"
39:
signal that demonstrate the signalers attributes . Dominance signals are necessary for several species for
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348:
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can be effective for a species as it may decrease physical interaction, which may decrease injury costs.
528:
360:
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and not engage in combat with individuals of higher rank or strength. Such signals are found in several
233:
engage in tactile communication to compete for dominance. This communication is often referred to as a
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164:
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110:
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36:
32:
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Claridge, M F (1985-01-01). "Acoustic
Signals in the Homoptera: Behavior, Taxonomy, and Evolution".
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286:
48:
24:
375:. In a field study by Cody Dey, researchers found that birds which had the apparent size of their
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furthered the essential framework for studying animal signals with his 'four questions' about the
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also use chest-drumming to command their family to follow them, reinforcing familial dominance.
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to warn competitors that they are poisonous, and thus assert their dominance over a territory.
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Little, Anthony C.; TĹ™ebickĂ˝, VĂt; HavlĂÄŤek, Jan; Roberts, S. Craig; Kleisner, Karel (2015).
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920:. Animal Signals and Communication. Vol. 2. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 1–4.
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1168:"Manipulating the appearance of a badge of status causes changes in true badge expression"
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dominant male remains his original colour. This change in colour has been recorded in the
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breeding system in which adult males establish dominance hierarchies that facilitates
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Krakauer, Alan H. (2005). "Kin selection and cooperative courtship in wild turkeys".
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strategies to reduce frequency of aggressive incidents in competitive matters. This
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that allow for the external display to occur. Underlying mechanisms may include
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Facial expression is used as a dominance signal in humans. Derived from our
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Dominance signals, like other animal behaviours, have internal underlying
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90:, function, development and mechanism of signals or any other behaviour.
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maintaining a dominant male is crucial to maintain their way of life.
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signal to young gorilla to back-down if they are trying to join their
1483:"Nonverbal Expressions of Dominance and Power in Human Relationships"
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598:
550:
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40:
1627:"Why Is Muscularity Sexy? Tests of the Fitness Indicator Hypothesis"
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403:
226:
204:
131:
57:
1172:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London B: Biological Sciences
1594:"Perceptions of adults with childlike voices in two cultures"
261:
Electric signalling is a mode of communication often used by
1489:. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 279–298.
717:"A psycho-ethological approach to social signal processing"
508:
Dominance signals are often elicited over competition for
78:
The earliest study of animal signals can be attributed to
1166:
Dey, Cody J.; Dale, James; Quinn, James S. (2014-01-22).
1625:
Frederick, David A.; Haselton, Martie G. (2007-08-01).
516:
relationship to a receiver avoiding physical contact.
419:
Dominance signals are elicited in wild turkeys during
163:) for example, express bright orange splotches during
343:
Dominance signalling in animals is often a result of
1572:
Evolutionary
Psychology: The New Science of the Mind
335:, displaying a red badge, used for asserting social
129:and can present themselves in many different ways.
715:Mehu, Marc; Scherer, Klaus R. (11 February 2012).
371:and can cause feedback effects on the individuals
66:engage in a dominance display in an enclosure on
580:Dominance signals are typically associated with
209:Male snakes during combat dance competing for
454:Social dominance is formed through dominance
277:signals the dominance status of individuals.
8:
1731:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1565:
1563:
1561:
1487:The SAGE Handbook of Nonverbal Communication
1481:Burgoon, Judee K.; Dunbar, Norah E. (2006).
1631:Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
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1609:
1598:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
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97:as humans express them in several forms.
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1030:"Communication and Displays of Snakes"
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916:Brumm, Henrik (2013). "Introduction".
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767:General and Comparative Endocrinology
347:changes. Hormones can work in either
7:
1028:Carpenter, Charles C. (1977-02-01).
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673:
671:
669:
667:
1120:The New England Journal of Medicine
1034:Integrative and Comparative Biology
963:10.1146/annurev.en.30.010185.001501
1552:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.05.002
1409:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1977.tb04141.x
55:is the basis of dominance signals
35:. Dominance signals are a type of
14:
1289:Hebets, Eileen A. (2008-11-01).
614:competitions of the indigenous
565:Depiction of divine Greek hero
918:Animal Communication and Noise
654:signals to express dominance.
1:
1097:10.1016/s0003-3472(85)80139-1
694:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.11.011
504:Territorial dominance signals
365:Porphyrio porphyrio melanotus
1611:10.1016/0022-1031(87)90045-x
1540:Evolution and Human Behavior
814:10.1126/science.157.3790.769
536:returning to their river to
257:Electrical dominance signals
109:of communication to express
16:Type of animal communication
1132:10.1056/NEJM197602122940703
951:Annual Review of Entomology
926:10.1007/978-3-642-41494-7_1
779:10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.03.028
383:Courtship dominance signals
1784:
1743:10.1037/0022-3514.66.2.398
1590:Zebrowitz-McArthur, Leslie
868:10.1037/0033-295x.83.2.157
544:Dominance signals used by
171:Acoustic dominance signals
1495:10.4135/9781412976152.n15
736:10.1007/s10339-012-0435-2
430:Gymnotoid electric fish (
217:Tactile dominance signals
47:. Animals have developed
1643:10.1177/0146167207303022
649:Subtle dominance signals
464:Gorilla beringei graueri
450:Social dominance signals
275:electric organ discharge
144:Visual dominance signals
31:to indicate an animal's
1570:Buss, David M. (2015).
1371:10.1163/156853994x00127
573:for the right to marry
557:Human dominance signals
353:negative feedback loops
349:positive feedback loops
193:), for example, have a
191:Mirounga angustirostris
187:Northern elephant seals
1449:10.1006/anbe.1999.1260
1184:10.1098/rspb.2013.2680
998:10.1006/anbe.1994.1361
577:
541:
479:
416:
340:
315:mental representations
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140:
71:
1698:10.1093/beheco/arv089
1588:Montepare, Joann M.;
1307:10.1093/beheco/arn080
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531:
473:
432:Eigenmannia virescens
407:
361:Australasian swamphen
333:Australasian swamphen
330:
281:Underlying mechanisms
208:
135:
61:
1768:Animal communication
1047:10.1093/icb/17.1.217
891:Bulletin of the AMNH
856:Psychological Review
724:Cognitive Processing
369:androgen circulation
307:associative learning
273:), the frequency of
165:territorial conflict
149:Visual communication
139:display orange spots
117:, many species have
105:Animals use several
37:internal environment
1252:10.1038/nature03325
1244:2005Natur.434...69K
494:Silverback gorillas
398:Meleagris gallppavo
161:Heloderma suspectum
64:Galapagos tortoises
49:conflict management
25:dominance hierarchy
1686:Behavioral Ecology
1397:Journal of Zoology
1295:Behavioral Ecology
1178:(1775): 20132680.
643:mixed-martial arts
578:
542:
480:
417:
414:Social Interaction
355:and can alter the
341:
271:Sternarchorhynchus
214:
141:
84:Nikolaas Tinbergen
72:
808:(3790): 769–774.
630:Facial expression
620:Amazon rainforest
520:Atlantic salmon (
359:of behaviour. In
94:Dominance signals
68:Santa Cruz Island
1775:
1747:
1746:
1726:
1720:
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1692:(6): 1470–1475.
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1637:(8): 1167–1183.
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1567:
1556:
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1534:
1509:
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1443:(6): 1269–1276.
1437:Animal Behaviour
1432:
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1326:
1301:(6): 1250–1257.
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1085:Animal Behaviour
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992:(6): 1249–1260.
986:Animal Behaviour
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688:(6): 2041–2047.
682:Animal Behaviour
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21:dominance signal
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1238:(7029): 69–72.
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730:(S2): 397–414.
719:
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632:
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546:Atlantic Salmon
534:Atlantic Salmon
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478:chest-drumming.
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311:brain structure
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263:aquatic animals
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5:
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1737:(2): 398–412.
1721:
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1604:(4): 331–349.
1577:
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1546:(5): 340–344.
1510:
1503:
1470:
1422:
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1338:
1281:
1215:
1153:
1126:(7): 361–365.
1110:
1091:(1): 254–265.
1081:Hagedorn, Mary
1061:
1040:(1): 217–223.
1011:
976:
957:(1): 297–317.
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862:(2): 157–171.
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396:Wild turkeys (
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377:frontal shield
303:spatial memory
299:cognitive maps
295:sensory organs
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80:Charles Darwin
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157:Gila Monster
151:is a common
147:
137:Gila Monster
123:conspecifics
104:
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594:voice pitch
522:Salmo salar
514:subordinate
456:hierarchies
1757:Categories
1707:1893/23055
773:: 95–105.
658:References
462:Gorillas (
444:copulation
373:physiology
357:phenotypes
322:morphology
287:mechanisms
251:crotalines
199:copulation
195:polygynous
107:modalities
101:Modalities
1716:1045-2249
1651:0146-1672
1417:1469-7998
1379:1568-539X
1359:Behaviour
1315:1045-2249
1260:1476-4687
1192:0962-8452
1140:0028-4793
1056:1540-7063
971:0066-4170
903:2246/1232
822:0036-8075
639:ancestors
612:wrestling
569:battling
510:territory
489:courtship
421:courtship
392:success.
337:dominance
247:viperines
239:colubrids
229:Serpentes
211:dominance
153:dominance
111:dominance
88:phylogeny
53:evolution
33:dominance
1763:Ethology
1659:17578932
1592:(1987).
1465:24421927
1457:10600149
1333:19529816
1268:15744300
1210:24285201
1105:53259225
1006:54388167
838:19462327
830:17842771
787:24704003
752:16992850
744:22328016
702:54382344
624:peristsi
616:Mehinaku
582:ethology
575:Deianira
571:Achelous
567:Hercules
474:A Young
408:Eastern
291:hormones
227:Snakes (
176:Acoustic
1667:2972841
1324:2583108
1276:1457512
1240:Bibcode
1201:3866412
802:Science
636:primate
476:Gorilla
390:genetic
345:hormone
243:elapids
222:Tactile
127:species
119:evolved
115:fitness
45:fitness
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551:sclera
532:Adult
319:neural
41:mating
1663:S2CID
1461:S2CID
1272:S2CID
1101:S2CID
1002:S2CID
834:S2CID
748:S2CID
720:(PDF)
698:S2CID
588:Voice
538:spawn
485:tribe
1712:ISSN
1655:PMID
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1499:ISBN
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967:ISSN
930:ISBN
872:PMID
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818:ISSN
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331:The
317:and
249:and
62:Two
1739:doi
1702:hdl
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1367:doi
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899:hdl
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