142:
by
Williamson). The fraction of the genome of one of the contributor species would be restricted to lead the developmental program of a newly acquired larva whereas the genome of the other contributor would drive the development of most of the adult anatomical structures. During the following years
256:
to manage the peer review of a colleague's manuscript. The acceptance for publication led to accusations of "nepotism" and "nonsense" science. Margulis maintained that
Williamson's paper was scientifically sound and was only being censured because it didn't adhere to Darwinian orthodoxy. "We don't
247:
of the adult butterfly and its caterpillar larval stage would have evolved separately in different organisms; then, their phylogenies would eventually merge by hybridisation at a more recent point of their evolutionary history. The study was communicated by
137:
Williamson developed a controversial hypothesis proposing the acquisition of larval stages in some marine organisms by hybridisation between two distant animal species (a speciation process referred to as
288:. Even though the latter authors rectified some of the signs considered by Williamson as molecular evidence of an ancestral hybridogenesis, they recommended a laboratory hybridisation study between an
150:
According to
Williamson, these successful hybridisations would most likely occur in organisms with external fertilisation or male gamete dispersal. He acknowledges in his work
1058:
741:
1063:
977:
924:
863:
780:
654:
239:
162:
generated from phylogenetically distant species can often give rise to new species if the hybrids become reproductively isolated from the progenitor populations.
362:
558:
1053:
1068:
257:
ask anyone to accept
Williamson's ideas – only to evaluate them on the basis of science and scholarship, not knee-jerk prejudice", said Margulis.
712:
Abbott, Alison; Brumfiel, Geoff; Dolgin, Elie; Hand, Eric; Sanderson, Katharine; Van
Noorden, Richard and Wadman, Meredith (24 December 2009).
631:
587:
Hart, Michael W. (August 1996). "Testing Cold Fusion of Phyla: Maternity in a
Tunicate x Sea Urchin Hybrid Determined From DNA Comparisons".
411:
206:
modern animal phyla and classes were produced by such early hybridisations, rather than by the gradual accumulation of specific differences.
503:
473:
435:
1048:
756:
1073:
273:
49:
253:
366:
341:
210:
To prove the possibility of such hybridizations, Williamson claimed to have succeeded in 1990 in fertilizing
520:
79:
835:
760:
225:
Williamson's hypothesis has been reviewed in the companion website for the eighth edition of the textbook
37:
265:
735:
1043:
1038:
986:
933:
872:
789:
663:
261:
71:
285:
260:
Williamson's hypothesis was rebutted in response papers in the same journal issue by the biologists
713:
604:
525:
277:
215:
200:
189:
127:
1014:
900:
817:
691:
627:
499:
469:
417:
407:
281:
193:
87:
67:
62:
53:
1004:
994:
951:
941:
890:
880:
807:
797:
723:
718:
681:
671:
596:
567:
534:
321:
316:
311:
306:
185:
159:
155:
115:
99:
269:
211:
174:
990:
937:
876:
793:
667:
252:, via a submission route that at that time allowed academy members of the United States
1009:
972:
956:
919:
895:
858:
812:
775:
686:
649:
462:
443:
144:
139:
1032:
572:
553:
336:
249:
126:, not to be confounded with his 2007 article of same title published in the magazine
111:
973:"Can molecular biology and bioinformatics be used to probe an evolutionary pathway?"
638:, subsection 23.10. "Alternative Mechanisms for Evolutionary Developmental Biology"
222:). However, it was later shown that the alleged hybrids were simply sea urchins.
289:
920:"Reply to Giribet: Caterpillars evolved from onychophorans by hybridogenesis"
421:
999:
946:
885:
802:
676:
331:
326:
293:
244:
103:
83:
75:
29:
1018:
904:
821:
727:
695:
154:
to have borrowed the idea of hybridogenesis from the well-known process of
859:"On velvet worms and caterpillars: Science, fiction, or science fiction?"
538:
406:. White River Junction, Vt: Chelsea Green Publishing Company. p. 5.
33:
608:
219:
178:
25:
757:"'Bigwig' ushered 'nonsense' paper into top journal, say scientists"
600:
519:
Williamson, Donald I.; Vickers, Sonya E. (November–December 2007).
776:"Caterpillars did not evolve from onychophorans by hybridogenesis"
170:
143:
he would generalise his theory to other animal groups featuring a
554:"Hybridization in the evolution of animal form and life-cycle"
57:
774:
Hart, Michael W.; Grosberg, Richard K. (24 November 2009).
650:"Caterpillars evolved from onychophorans by hybridogenesis"
489:
487:
485:
455:
453:
461:
86:plankton, crustacean behaviour and taxonomy, and
237:In an article published in the esteemed journal
165:In one of his articles Williamson contends that
978:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
971:De, Arnab; Bose, Rituparna (29 December 2009).
925:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
864:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
781:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
655:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
391:. Durham: Durham University. 1948. p. 247.
240:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
8:
740:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
48:Williamson gained his first degree from the
498:. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
918:Williamson, Donald I. (24 November 2009).
648:Williamson, Donald I. (24 November 2009).
622:Gilbert, Scott F; Singer, Susan R (2006).
552:Williamson, Donald I. (11 December 2006).
464:Larvae and Evolution: Toward a New Zoology
130:), and some articles on the same subject.
1008:
998:
955:
945:
894:
884:
811:
801:
707:
705:
685:
675:
571:
559:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
122:(2003, a revised and extended edition of
1059:Academics of the University of Liverpool
836:"No species mixing to make caterpillars"
66:from the same university in 1948, and a
354:
233:Reception of the larval transfer theory
203:resulted from many such hybridisations,
98:He also published speculative works on
733:
626:. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
857:Giribet, Gonzalo (24 November 2009).
624:Developmental Biology, Eighth Edition
243:in 2009, Williamson claimed that the
7:
82:from 1948 to 1997, and published on
1064:Alumni of King's College, Newcastle
365:. Isle of Man Today. Archived from
468:. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall.
14:
272:(Curator of Invertebrates in the
173:until after the establishment of
755:Zoë Corbyn (13 September 2009).
573:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00236.x
28:, England – 29 January 2016, in
1054:20th-century British zoologists
1069:Scientists from Northumberland
494:Williamson, Donald I. (2003).
460:Williamson, Donald I. (1992).
1:
296:, as proposed by Williamson.
274:Museum of Comparative Zoology
32:, Isle of Man) was a British
436:"Edge :DONALD I. WILLIAMSON"
404:The Mystery of Metamorphosis
254:National Academy of Sciences
218:(a species from a different
110:(1992, a book foreworded by
389:Graduates of the University
158:that take place in plants.
156:interspecific hybridisation
1090:
74:in 1972. He worked at the
714:"Butterfly paper bust-up"
78:Marine Laboratory of the
342:Francis Maitland Balfour
22:Donald Irving Williamson
1000:10.1073/pnas.0912187107
947:10.1073/pnas.0912151106
886:10.1073/pnas.0910279106
803:10.1073/pnas.0910229106
677:10.1073/pnas.0908357106
214:eggs with sperm from a
192:of parts of dissimilar
80:University of Liverpool
56:in 1942. He earned his
1049:British carcinologists
761:Times Higher Education
728:10.1038/news.2009.1162
521:"The Origin of Larvae"
1074:Biology controversies
496:The Origins of Larvae
307:Interspecific hybrids
227:Developmental Biology
120:The Origins of Larvae
539:10.1511/2007.68.3699
402:Ryan, Frank (2011).
152:Larvae and Evolution
135:Larvae and Evolution
124:Larvae and Evolution
108:Larvae and Evolution
72:Newcastle University
24:(8 January 1922, in
991:2009PNAS..106E.141D
938:2009PNAS..106E.132W
877:2009PNAS..106E.131G
794:2009PNAS..10619906H
788:(47): 19906–19909.
668:2009PNAS..10619901W
662:(47): 19901–19905.
363:"Donald Williamson"
266:Richard K. Grosberg
169:there were no true
838:. blogs.nature.com
526:American Scientist
446:on 5 January 2005.
278:Harvard University
201:Cambrian explosion
177:in the respective
128:American Scientist
50:Newcastle division
633:978-0-87893-250-4
413:978-1-60358-341-1
312:Hybrids in nature
88:crustacean larvae
63:Talitrus saltator
54:Durham University
16:British zoologist
1081:
1023:
1022:
1012:
1002:
968:
962:
961:
959:
949:
915:
909:
908:
898:
888:
854:
848:
847:
845:
843:
832:
826:
825:
815:
805:
771:
765:
764:
752:
746:
745:
739:
731:
709:
700:
699:
689:
679:
645:
639:
637:
619:
613:
612:
595:(4): 1713–1718.
584:
578:
577:
575:
549:
543:
542:
516:
510:
509:
491:
480:
479:
467:
457:
448:
447:
442:. Archived from
432:
426:
425:
399:
393:
392:
385:
379:
378:
376:
374:
369:on 21 April 2016
359:
322:Codon usage bias
116:Alfred I. Tauber
1089:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1026:
970:
969:
965:
917:
916:
912:
856:
855:
851:
841:
839:
834:
833:
829:
773:
772:
768:
754:
753:
749:
732:
711:
710:
703:
647:
646:
642:
634:
621:
620:
616:
601:10.2307/2410907
586:
585:
581:
551:
550:
546:
518:
517:
513:
506:
493:
492:
483:
476:
459:
458:
451:
434:
433:
429:
414:
401:
400:
396:
387:
386:
382:
372:
370:
361:
360:
356:
351:
346:
302:
280:) and later by
270:Gonzalo Giribet
262:Michael W. Hart
235:
96:
46:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1087:
1085:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1031:
1030:
1025:
1024:
963:
910:
849:
827:
766:
747:
701:
640:
632:
614:
579:
566:(4): 585–602.
544:
533:(6): 509–517.
511:
504:
481:
474:
449:
427:
412:
394:
380:
353:
352:
350:
347:
345:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
303:
301:
298:
286:Rituparna Bose
234:
231:
208:
207:
204:
197:
184:early animals
182:
145:holometabolous
140:hybridogenesis
95:
92:
45:
42:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1086:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1034:
1020:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1001:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
979:
974:
967:
964:
958:
953:
948:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
926:
921:
914:
911:
906:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
865:
860:
853:
850:
837:
831:
828:
823:
819:
814:
809:
804:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
782:
777:
770:
767:
762:
758:
751:
748:
743:
737:
729:
725:
721:
720:
715:
708:
706:
702:
697:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
656:
651:
644:
641:
635:
629:
625:
618:
615:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
583:
580:
574:
569:
565:
561:
560:
555:
548:
545:
540:
536:
532:
528:
527:
522:
515:
512:
507:
505:1-4020-1514-3
501:
497:
490:
488:
486:
482:
477:
475:0-412-03081-0
471:
466:
465:
456:
454:
450:
445:
441:
437:
431:
428:
423:
419:
415:
409:
405:
398:
395:
390:
384:
381:
368:
364:
358:
355:
348:
343:
340:
338:
337:Introgression
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
317:Hybrid plants
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
304:
299:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
258:
255:
251:
250:Lynn Margulis
246:
242:
241:
232:
230:
228:
223:
221:
217:
213:
205:
202:
198:
195:
191:
187:
183:
180:
176:
172:
168:
167:
166:
163:
161:
160:Hybrid plants
157:
153:
148:
147:development.
146:
141:
136:
131:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
112:Lynn Margulis
109:
105:
101:
100:hybridisation
93:
91:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
64:
59:
55:
51:
43:
41:
39:
38:carcinologist
35:
34:planktologist
31:
27:
23:
19:
985:(52): E141.
982:
976:
966:
932:(47): E132.
929:
923:
913:
871:(47): E131.
868:
862:
852:
840:. Retrieved
830:
785:
779:
769:
750:
736:cite journal
717:
659:
653:
643:
623:
617:
592:
588:
582:
563:
557:
547:
530:
524:
514:
495:
463:
444:the original
440:www.edge.org
439:
430:
403:
397:
388:
383:
371:. Retrieved
367:the original
357:
259:
238:
236:
226:
224:
209:
164:
151:
149:
134:
132:
123:
119:
107:
97:
61:
47:
21:
20:
18:
1044:2016 deaths
1039:1922 births
290:onychophore
188:to produce
1033:Categories
842:19 October
349:References
216:sea urchin
212:sea squirt
186:hybridised
589:Evolution
422:676727202
332:Gene flow
327:Heterosis
294:cockroach
245:body plan
104:evolution
84:Irish Sea
76:Port Erin
60:studying
44:Education
30:Port Erin
1019:20018771
905:19880751
822:19880752
696:19717430
300:See also
282:Arnab De
190:chimeras
1010:2799706
987:Bibcode
957:2785308
934:Bibcode
896:2785307
873:Bibcode
813:2785265
790:Bibcode
687:2785264
664:Bibcode
609:2410907
373:8 April
194:species
175:classes
1017:
1007:
954:
903:
893:
820:
810:
719:Nature
694:
684:
630:
607:
502:
472:
420:
410:
292:and a
220:phylum
171:larvae
26:Alnham
605:JSTOR
179:phyla
94:Works
70:from
1015:PMID
901:PMID
844:2012
818:PMID
742:link
692:PMID
628:ISBN
500:ISBN
470:ISBN
418:OCLC
408:ISBN
375:2016
284:and
268:and
264:and
199:the
114:and
36:and
1005:PMC
995:doi
983:106
952:PMC
942:doi
930:106
891:PMC
881:doi
869:106
808:PMC
798:doi
786:106
724:doi
682:PMC
672:doi
660:106
597:doi
568:doi
564:148
535:doi
276:at
133:In
118:),
102:in
68:DSc
58:PhD
52:of
1035::
1013:.
1003:.
993:.
981:.
975:.
950:.
940:.
928:.
922:.
899:.
889:.
879:.
867:.
861:.
816:.
806:.
796:.
784:.
778:.
759:.
738:}}
734:{{
722:.
716:.
704:^
690:.
680:.
670:.
658:.
652:.
603:.
593:50
591:.
562:.
556:.
531:95
529:.
523:.
484:^
452:^
438:.
416:.
229:.
106::
90:.
40:.
1021:.
997::
989::
960:.
944::
936::
907:.
883::
875::
846:.
824:.
800::
792::
763:.
744:)
730:.
726::
698:.
674::
666::
636:.
611:.
599::
576:.
570::
541:.
537::
508:.
478:.
424:.
377:.
196:,
181:,
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.