447:. If a vine does not have a healthy and extensive root system in proportion to its canopy, then it is being overly vigorous with parts of the vine (most notably the grape clusters) suffering due to lack of resources. While it may seem that more foliage would promote increased photosynthesis (and such carbohydrate production), this is not always the case since the leaves near the top of the canopy create excess shading that hinders photosynthesis in the leaves below. One of the objectives of vine training is to create an "open canopy" that allows limited excess leaf growth and allows plenty of sunlight to penetrate the canopy.
416:(two arms) fashion with the latter resembling the letter "T". The cordons of grapevines are most commonly trained horizontally along wires as in the Lyre and Scott Henry systems. However, notable exceptions do exist, such as the "V" and "Y" trellis systems which elevate the cordon to various angles that resemble their namesake letter. Note that vertical trellising systems, such as the VSP system often used in New Zealand, refer to the vertical orientation of the fruit canes in an upward manner and not the cordon "arms" of the vines.
297:, less than 10% of the full sunlight received by a leaf is converted into energy which makes obstacles such as shading even more detrimental to the plant. Even if the leaves at the top of the canopy are receiving plenty of sunlight, the young buds, grape clusters and leaves below will still experience some negative impact. During the annual growth cycle of the grapevine, excessive shading can reduce the success rate of bud formation, budbreak, fruit set as well as the size and quantity of grape berries on a cluster.
405:. In cane training, the grapevines are "spur pruned" meaning that in the winter the fruiting canes are pruned essentially down to their spurs with over 90 percent of the previous year's growth (or "brush" as it is known) removed. Examples of cane training systems include the Guyot, Mosel arch and Pendelbogen. Conversely, spur trained vines are "cane pruned" meaning that the individual canes are relatively permanent with only excess buds at the end of the cane being removed.
151:
31:
456:
239:
362:
142:, pruning can involve removing young plant shoots or excess bunches of grapes with green harvesting. Vine training systems utilize the practice of trellising and pruning in order to dictate and control a grape vine's canopy which will influence the potential yield of that year's crop as well as the quality of the grapes due to the access of air and sunlight needed for the grapes to ripen fully and for preventing various grape diseases.
554:). For cordon and many other spur trained systems, they could be described as unilateral (utilizing only 1 arm or cordon) or bilateral with both arms extending from the trunk. Two other classifications, based on trellising, are whether or not the vine is "staked" with an external support structure and the number of wires used in the trellising. Vines may be individual staked either permanently, as many vineyards along the bank of the
2693:
280:. However, the "top part" of the grafted vine is still very susceptible to the phylloxera, and should a part of that vine take root both the daughter and the original mother vine will risk being infected by the louse. Additionally this daughter vine will leech resources of water and nutrients from the mother vine which can diminish the quality of both vines' grape production.
397:. Most vine training deals primarily with the "woody" structure of the vine-the cordons or "arms" of the vine that extend from the top of the trunk and the fruiting "canes" that extend from the cordon. When the canes are cut back nearly to the base of the cordon, the shortened stub is called a "spur". Grapevines can either be
535:, can be adapted to both spur and cane training. Vine systems that are classified as either cane or spur trained may be alternately described by the way they are pruned in the winter so systems that are described as "cane-trained" will be spur pruned while systems that are "spur-trained" will be cane-pruned.
506:
One of the most common manners of classifying vine training systems now is based on which parts of the vines are permanent fixtures which determines which parts of the vine are removed each year as part of the winter pruning. With a cane-trained system, there are no permanent cordons or branches that
438:
and its propensity for vigorous growth. These leaves emerge from shoots on the fruiting cane in a manner similar to the grape clusters themselves. A vine is described as "vigorous" if it has a propensity to produce many shoots that are outwardly observable as a large, leafy canopy. The ability of the
283:
Other reasons for vine training involve setting up the vineyard and each individual vine canopy for more efficient labor usage or mechanization. Vines that are trained to have their "fruiting zone" of grape clusters at waist to chest height are easier for vineyard workers to harvest without straining
430:
vines which are naturally more inclined to grow upwards rather than down. In systems such as the Scott Henry, this downward growth is achieved by the use of movable wires that first allow the canes to grow upwards until about 2 to 3 weeks before harvest when they are then shifted downwards where the
123:
is attached to. Some vines are allowed to grow free standing without any attachment to a trellising structure. Part of the confusion between trellising and vine training systems stems from the fact that vine training systems will often take on the name of the particular type of trellising involved.
225:
conducted large scale research into how particular vine training systems, pruning and canopy management techniques impacted wine quality. As research in this area continued into the 21st century, new vine training systems were developed that could be adapted to the desired wine making style as well
292:
Many vine training systems are designed to avoid excessive shading of the fruit by the leafy growth (the "canopy"). While some shading is beneficial, especially in very hot and sunny climates, to prevent heat stress, excessive amounts of shading can have negative impact on grape development. As a
558:
which are at risk of wind damage, or temporarily as some young vines are to provide extra support. Within a trellis system fruiting canes and young shoots are attached to wires strung out across the rows. The number of wires used (one, two, three) and whether or not they are movable (such as the
423:
emerge from the bud that eventually develops mature bark and becomes the fruiting cane from which grape clusters will emerge. These canes can be positioned and trained to whatever angle is desired by the grower. Typically, they are positioned upwards but they can be bent into an arch such as a
515:. With spur-trained systems, the main branch or cordon is kept each year with only individual canes being pruned during the winter. While vines that are cane trained will often have a thin, smooth main branch, spur trained vines will often have thick, dark and gnarled cordon branches. Many
463:
Vine training systems can be broadly classified by a number of different measurements. One of the oldest means was based on the relative height of the trunk with the distance of the canopy from the ground being described as high-trained (also known as "high culture" or
256:
that do not have their own natural support like trees. While grapevines have woody trunks, the weight of a vine's leafy canopy and grape clusters will often bring the vine's cordons or "arms" down towards the ground unless it receives some form of support.
339:. Beyond a lack of sunlight, excessive shading limits the amount of air circulation that can take place within a vine's canopy. In wet, humid climates poor air circulation can promote the development of various grape diseases such as
507:
are kept year after year. The vine is pruned down to the spur in winter, leaving only one strong cane which is then trained into becoming the main branch for next year's crop. Examples of cane trained systems include the
85:
of the vineyard where the amount of sunlight, humidity and wind could have a large impact on the exact benefits the training system offers. For instance, while having a large spread out canopy (such as what the
246:
While the most pertinent purpose of establishing a vine training system is canopy management, especially dealing with shading, there are many other reasons that come into play. As members of the
284:
their bodies with excessive bending or reaching. Similarly, keeping the fruiting zone in a consistent spot on each vine makes it easier to set up machinery for pruning, spraying and harvesting.
197:
Historically, regional tradition largely dictated what type of vine training would be found in a given area. In the early 20th century, many of these traditions were codified into specific
124:
Pruning refers to the cutting and shaping of the cordon or "arms" of the grapevine in winter which will determine the number of buds that are allowed to become grape clusters. In some
424:
Pendelbogen or Mosel arch system, or trained to point downwards such as the Scott Henry and Sylvos system. The latter method requires more labor-intensive trellising and training for
491:
plantings of vines with trunks 4 ft (1.25 m) high. One of the benefits of a high-trained system is better frost protection versus low-trained systems such as the
373:
is popularly used to describe the leafy foliage of the vine, the term actually refers to the entire grapevine structure that is above ground. This includes the
242:
Most vine training systems are designed to ensure adequate sunlight and air circulation throughout the canopy such as these Lyre trained vines in Napa Valley.
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2557:
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In viticulture, growers want to avoid any part of the cordon from touching the ground because of the vine's natural inclination to send out suckers or
134:
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2069:
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and regulations such as the French AOC system. The widespread study and utilization of various training systems began in the 1960s when many
2145:
538:
Within these larger classifications, the vine training system may be further distinguished by the canopy such as whether it is free (like
2223:
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offers) can promote a favorable leaf to fruit ratio for photosynthesis, it offers very little wind protection. In places such as the
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2106:
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2001:
1976:
1953:
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Similar to the Scott Henry except that the cordon is trained with alternating upwards and downward trained spurs creating 2 canopies
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Each vine has its own stake with two canes bent into a heart shape. During the growing season the vines have the appearance of trees
139:
82:
856:
A variant of the Guyot system where a single cane is tied into an arch with a stake support next to its free standing mother vine
677:
A variant of the Smart-Dyson involving 1 vertical and 2 transverse curtains of shoots growing from 1 or 2 upwards facing cordons
1443:
1423:
Involves growing shoots along movable wires that allows the grower to shift half the canopy into a downwards growing position
125:
100:
can take the fruit right off the vine so a more condensed, protective vine training system is desirable for vineyards there.
1011:
Central and
Eastern European variation of the Chablis/Eventail system that promotes a larger fanning out of the vine's spurs
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2282:
2660:
1561:
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As one of the world's oldest cultivated crops, grapevines have been trained for several millennia. Cultures such as the
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Essentially a spur trained version of the Guyot system that involves using single or bilateral cordons instead of canes
2302:
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photosynthetic plant, grapevines need access to sunlight in order to complete their physiological processes. Through
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A variant of the Sylvos except that the vines are trained horizontally along wires instead of vertically up or down
91:
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2522:
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71:
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A self-regulating system for vine spacing, the spurs are allowed to fan out until they encroach on the next vine
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2532:
301:
265:
1921:
Third
Edition pg 134-230, 300-341, 399-413, 551-553, 617-634, 661-692, 706-733 Oxford University Press 2006
34:
Vines are trained into a variety of styles that aid the growers in managing the canopy and controlling yields.
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Italian variant of the Guyot system involving spurs and canes being arranged along a single horizontal cordon
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Two incline canopies meeting at a 60 degree angle in the middle provides for ample air and light penetration
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The grape clusters receive some benefit from receiving direct sunlight through enhanced ripening of various
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Promotes better sap distribution and more fruit bearing shoots especially in the center buds on the cane
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discovered that different training techniques could promote more abundant and fruitful yields. When the
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vineyards will often utilize spur training system. Some examples of spur-training systems include the
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Utilizes 2 horizontal cordons that together with the vine trunk give the appearance of the letter "T"
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are often used interchangeably even though they refer to different things. Technically speaking, the
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1028:
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gave advice to vineyard owners about what type of vine trainings worked well for certain vineyards.
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30:
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312:, excessive shade will negatively impact a grape's quality by causing increases in the levels of
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regions were developing their wine industry. Without the centuries of tradition that influenced
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1997:
1972:
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62:. Additional benefits of utilizing particular training systems could be to control potential
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Similar to the Lyre "U trellis" except that the cordons are separate from the base trunk
1628:
Combines aspects of the Scott Henry system of alternating upwards and downwards growing
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training system which tend to hang low to the ground. Some training systems such as the
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which could be interpreted as "staked" or land of staked vines. In the 1st century AD,
158:, has been practiced in Italy since at least the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
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weight of gravity on the hanging grape clusters helps keep the canes pointing down.
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The practice of training vines to individual stakes, as shown here in a vineyard in
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Described as a spur trained version of Guyot Simple. Also has a double spur variant
771:
766:
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and take root in that area where the cordon is touching the ground. Ever since the
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81:
In deciding on what type of vine training system to use, growers also consider the
63:
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2347:
2182:
1783:
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472:). The ancient Romans were adherents of the high-trained vine systems with the
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One of the less complicated and easiest to maintain system that will restrain
881:
819:
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The leafy foliage of a grapevine's canopy will be dependent on the particular
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382:
333:
317:
273:
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2322:
2240:
1613:
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187:
17:
459:
A cane-trained vineyard using vertical trellising similar to the VSP system
439:
grapevine to support such a large canopy is dependent on the health of its
1718:
Only recently in the 21st century has this style been used for commercial
1577:
Similar to Sylvos except that the canes do not need to be tied down after
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2439:
2287:
2245:
2233:
1765:
516:
269:
198:
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Can cause excessive shading in the fruit zone with reduced grape quality
365:
Different components of a grapevine including cordons and fruiting canes
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2307:
1667:
1578:
1532:
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477:
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119:
refers to the actual stakes, posts, wires or other structures that the
67:
720:
Essentially a minimally pruned version of the bush vine/Gobelet system
643:
Ancient technique of allowing vines to grow through trees for support
1544:
Vines are growing downward from a taller (usually over 1,4 m) trunk
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2251:
2213:
1042:
1003:
454:
394:
360:
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149:
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and to facilitate mechanization of certain vineyard tasks such as
29:
1541:
Produces a good quality yield even in case of high soil fertility
2675:
2517:
2472:
386:
253:
2155:
1535:, and ability to bend and tie the canes. Easily maintained and
487:
advocated the high-culture style of training, recommending low
2151:
1768:
have little risk of falling to the ground or eaten by animals
1366:
is spread out over 4 curtains, two on top and two on bottom
815:
If not supported by wires, some arms can fall to the ground
542:) or constrained by shoot positioning along wires (such as
321:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1350:
Well suited for high-vigor vineyards by spreading out the
50:
with finding the balance in enough foliage to facilitate
714:
Much shading which in wet climates can promote rot and
563:) will influence the size of the canopy and the yield.
1183:
Easy to maintain with reduced labor and machinery cost
1110:
Vines can be supported by stakes or left free standing
74:, applying pesticide or fertilizing sprays as well as
1362:
Similar to the Geneva Double
Curtain except that the
1227:
Allows good air circulation and sunlight penetration
503:
can be adapted to both high and low trained styles.
2643:
2600:
2506:
2463:
2381:
2338:
2268:
2189:
1612:that allows more air circulation and less prone to
1988:
1986:
1984:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
2011:
2009:
1971:Fourth Edition, pg 40-49 Storey Publishing 1999
1406:that allows more sun penetration, producing less
2056:
2054:
2052:
1771:Expensive to construct and maintain, very dense
1600:adaptation of the Sylvos developed in the 1980s
476:system of vines trained high over head along a
1963:
1961:
1420:. Very labor-intensive and expensive to set up
2167:
572:Partial list of common vine training systems
324:in the grapes while decreasing the amount of
308:and quality. In addition to having decreased
8:
2620:Effects of climate change on wine production
1874:Most common system of vine training used in
1835:Several variants developed independently in
546:) and whether it includes a single curtain (
209:and viticulture, vine growers in areas like
178:in the 8th century BC, they called the land
54:without excessive shading that could impede
2087:Third Edition Oxford University Press 2006
2174:
2160:
2152:
2142:with illustration of cane and spur pruning
1732:Parral, Parron, Pergola, Verandah, Latada
1193:' development of the Geneva Double Curtain
711:Easy to maintain, requires minimal pruning
570:
132:, the exact number of buds is outlined by
2148:- information from Cooperative Extension
973:A variation of the Geneva Double Curtain
1891:
1233:Can be adapted to cane training systems
1230:Not ideally suited for low vigor vines
1402:Increased fruiting areas and a split
1159:"High culture" training or Hochkultur
1133:Found all over the world, especially
1002:Allows for easy burial during winter
138:(AOC) regulations. During the summer
7:
268:of the 19th century, many vines are
1274:European Loop, Arch-Cane, Capovolto
630:Easy to maintain, requires minimal
451:Classification of different systems
2224:International Grape Genome Program
2064:pg 94-109 Ullmann Publishing 2008
620:Italy-particularly rural areas of
226:as the labor needs and particular
25:
2204:Annual growth cycle of grapevines
2099:"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"
2039:pg 39-69 Simon and Schuster 1989
1996:pg 26-29 Workman Publishing 2001
1948:pg 19-24 Dorling Kindersley 2005
1946:"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"
1829:Vertical Shoot Positioned Trellis
1180:from the mid to late 20th century
480:being one example. In the 1950s,
103:While closely related, the terms
94:, strong prevailing winds called
2692:
2691:
408:Cordons are trained in either a
304:that can contribute to a wine's
46:is aimed primarily to assist in
1148:Has a double and simple variant
288:The impact of excessive shading
135:Appellation d'origine contrôlée
2085:"The Oxford Companion to Wine"
1919:"The Oxford Companion to Wine"
967:and foliage which may promote
1:
2651:Glossary of viticulture terms
2283:Diurnal temperature variation
2019:pg 18-27 Harcourt Books 2001
1676:may promote excessive shading
1323:A variant of the Guyot Double
2661:Glossary of winemaking terms
2146:Trellis and Training Systems
1105:Suitable for low-vigor vines
614:Likely ancient, used by the
567:Common vine training systems
1786:rather than wine production
174:began to colonize southern
2742:
2430:Integrated pest management
2037:Vintage: The Story of Wine
1850:, spur-trained variant in
1057:A downward growing, split
523:or bush vine systems, and
354:
2689:
2625:Environmental stewardship
1760:Grapes grown overhead on
1176:Used throughout parts of
1072:Bush vines, head training
1041:Increase protection from
795:Eventail, Taille de Semur
527:. Some systems, like the
351:Components of a grapevine
2716:Horticultural techniques
2553:Great French Wine Blight
2139:Vine Training Techniques
2101:Dorling Kindersley 2005
1078:Likely ancient, used by
1038:Found all over the world
776:Well suited for fertile
2635:Sustainable agriculture
2416:Frost damage prevention
2298:Regional climate levels
2115:pg Harcourt Books 2001
1531:Requires much time for
1490:threat or the need for
589:Regions commonly found
252:family, grapevines are
27:Horticultural technique
2656:Glossary of wine terms
2113:Encyclopedia of Grapes
2017:Encyclopedia of Grapes
1867:Can produce excessive
1708:Can produce excessive
1632:with the Sylvos system
1618:Can produce excessive
1416:Can produce excessive
1313:Can produce excessive
1051:Can produce excessive
963:Can produce excessive
636:Can produce excessive
460:
366:
310:physiological ripeness
243:
159:
35:
1969:"From Vines to Wines"
1832:Cane and Spur variant
1572:Similar to the Sylvos
1562:Friuli-Venezia Giulia
1482:due to the very open
1379:Cane and Spur variant
1331:Ruakura Twin Two-Tier
1019:Geneva Double Curtain
583:Spur or Cane trained
458:
364:
241:
153:
88:Geneva Double Curtain
76:harvesting the grapes
40:vine training systems
33:
1862:mechanized vineyards
1782:More often used for
1608:Creates a more open
1509:Hanging cane, Sylvoz
1410:wines with smoother
1047:mechanized vineyards
1045:and ideal for fully
207:Old World winemaking
2610:Adaptive management
1864:and low vigor vines
1480:organic viticulture
1384:Henry Estate Winery
640:of low quality vine
573:
266:phylloxera epidemic
92:Châteauneuf-du-Pape
2528:Botrytis bunch rot
2348:Grapevine planting
2278:Climate categories
2080:Table references:
1775:and potential for
1091:regions. Examples
571:
482:Austrian winemaker
468:) or low-trained (
461:
367:
302:phenolic compounds
244:
160:
83:climate conditions
36:
2703:
2702:
2548:Grapevine yellows
2083:J. Robinson (ed)
2070:978-3-8331-4611-4
1917:J. Robinson (ed)
1884:
1883:
1712:and difficult to
1589:Sylvos-Hawkes Bay
1165:Developed by Dr.
910:Late 20th century
694:Santorini, Greece
419:From the cordon,
230:of the vineyard.
164:ancient Egyptians
48:canopy management
16:(Redirected from
2733:
2695:
2694:
2579:Uncinula necator
2568:Pierce's disease
2176:
2169:
2162:
2153:
2125:
2078:
2072:
2058:
2047:
2033:
2027:
2013:
2004:
1990:
1979:
1965:
1956:
1942:
1929:
1915:
1860:Well suited for
1735:
1478:Often used with
1302:British Columbia
1212:Alain Carbonneau
957:Allows for easy
728:Cassone Padovano
577:Training system
574:
186:writers such as
21:
2741:
2740:
2736:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2699:
2685:
2671:Outline of wine
2639:
2630:Organic farming
2615:Biodynamic wine
2602:
2596:
2587:Red spider mite
2508:
2502:
2459:
2421:Green harvest (
2406:Erosion control
2383:
2377:
2358:Row orientation
2340:
2334:
2270:
2264:
2209:Grape varieties
2191:
2185:
2180:
2133:
2128:
2079:
2075:
2060:A. Domine (ed)
2059:
2050:
2034:
2030:
2014:
2007:
1991:
1982:
1966:
1959:
1943:
1932:
1916:
1893:
1889:
1734:(in Portuguese)
1733:
1624:ripeness levels
1319:ripeness levels
1220:More common in
1189:Influenced Dr.
864:Cordon de Royat
834:Chateau Thierry
826:use this method
699:South Australia
685:Basket Training
569:
525:Cordon de Royat
453:
443:and storage of
369:While the term
359:
353:
334:color producing
290:
254:climbing plants
236:
192:Pliny the Elder
148:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2739:
2737:
2729:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2708:
2707:
2701:
2700:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2606:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2573:Powdery mildew
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2514:
2512:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2423:Vendange verte
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2387:
2385:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2363:Trellis design
2360:
2355:
2350:
2344:
2342:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2331:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2274:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2259:Vitis vinifera
2255:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2195:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2164:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2143:
2132:
2131:External links
2129:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2109:
2095:
2073:
2048:
2028:
2005:
1994:The Wine Bible
1980:
1957:
1930:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1872:
1865:
1858:
1844:
1841:New World wine
1833:
1830:
1827:
1823:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1809:New World wine
1805:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1780:
1777:grape diseases
1769:
1758:
1744:
1739:
1736:
1730:
1726:
1725:
1722:
1716:
1706:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1687:Tatura Trellis
1684:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1670:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1626:
1616:
1606:
1601:
1595:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1582:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1564:
1559:
1556:
1555:Casarsa Friuli
1553:
1552:Sylvos-Casarsa
1549:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1529:
1519:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1476:
1451:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1414:
1400:
1397:New World wine
1390:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1370:
1367:
1360:
1354:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1311:
1308:
1283:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1238:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1222:New World wine
1218:
1208:
1205:
1204:The "U" system
1202:
1198:
1197:
1194:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1174:
1167:Lenz Moser III
1163:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1137:
1131:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1086:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1055:
1049:
1039:
1036:
1033:New York State
1029:Nelson Shaulis
1025:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1000:
994:Central Europe
991:
990:Central Europe
988:
985:
982:
978:
977:
974:
971:
969:grape diseases
961:
955:
946:
940:
937:
935:
931:
930:
927:
924:
922:
920:
911:
908:
905:
903:
902:Cordon Trained
899:
898:
895:
892:
890:
888:
875:
870:
867:
865:
861:
860:
857:
854:
852:
850:
845:
840:
837:
835:
831:
830:
827:
816:
813:
810:
805:
799:
796:
793:
789:
788:
785:
782:
780:
778:vineyard soils
774:
769:
764:
761:
759:
755:
754:
751:
748:
746:
744:
739:
734:
731:
729:
725:
724:
721:
718:
716:grape diseases
712:
709:
696:
691:
688:
686:
682:
681:
678:
675:
673:
671:
666:
657:
654:
652:
648:
647:
644:
641:
634:
628:
618:
612:
609:
607:
603:
602:
599:
596:
595:Disadvantages
593:
590:
587:
584:
581:
578:
568:
565:
544:VSP trellising
452:
449:
427:Vitis vinifera
357:Canopy (grape)
355:Main article:
352:
349:
341:powdery mildew
295:photosynthesis
289:
286:
235:
232:
203:New World wine
156:Valtellina DOC
147:
144:
140:growing season
60:grape diseases
56:grape ripening
52:photosynthesis
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2738:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2698:
2688:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2599:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2481:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2380:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2368:Vine training
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2269:Environmental
2267:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2188:
2184:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2165:
2163:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2122:
2121:0-15-100714-4
2118:
2114:
2110:
2108:
2107:0-7566-1324-8
2104:
2100:
2097:T. Stevenson
2096:
2094:
2093:0-19-860990-6
2090:
2086:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2045:0-671-68702-6
2042:
2038:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2025:0-15-100714-4
2022:
2018:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2003:
2002:1-56305-434-5
1999:
1995:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1981:
1978:
1977:1-58017-105-2
1974:
1970:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1954:0-7566-1324-8
1951:
1947:
1944:T. Stevenson
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1927:0-19-860990-6
1924:
1920:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
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1873:
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1866:
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1859:
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1813:
1810:
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1804:
1801:
1798:
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1792:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1752:South America
1750:and parts of
1749:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1737:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1723:
1721:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:An undivided
1671:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1598:Montana Wines
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1580:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1518:
1517:Carlos Sylvos
1515:Developed by
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1454:United States
1452:
1449:
1445:
1444:Richard Smart
1442:
1439:Developed by
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1382:Developed at
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1359:
1356:Difficult to
1355:
1353:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1223:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1210:Developed by
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1126:Developed by
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1089:Mediterranean
1087:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1027:Developed by
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1001:
999:
995:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
979:
975:
972:
970:
966:
962:
960:
959:mechanization
956:
954:
951:and parts of
950:
947:
944:
941:
938:
936:
933:
932:
928:
925:
923:
921:
919:
916:and parts of
915:
912:
909:
906:
904:
901:
900:
896:
893:
891:
889:
887:
886:Pinot Meunier
883:
879:
876:
874:
871:
868:
866:
863:
862:
858:
855:
853:
851:
849:
846:
844:
841:
838:
836:
833:
832:
828:
825:
822:plantings in
821:
817:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:Developed in
800:
797:
794:
791:
790:
786:
783:
781:
779:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
762:
760:
757:
756:
752:
749:
747:
745:
743:
740:
738:
735:
732:
730:
727:
726:
722:
719:
717:
713:
710:
708:
704:
701:regions like
700:
697:
695:
692:
689:
687:
684:
683:
679:
676:
674:
672:
670:
667:
665:
661:
658:
655:
653:
650:
649:
645:
642:
639:
635:
633:
629:
627:
623:
619:
617:
613:
610:
608:
605:
604:
600:
597:
594:
591:
588:
585:
582:
579:
576:
575:
566:
564:
562:
557:
553:
550:) or double (
549:
545:
541:
536:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
483:
479:
475:
471:
470:vignes basses
467:
466:vignes hautes
457:
450:
448:
446:
445:carbohydrates
442:
437:
436:grape variety
432:
429:
428:
422:
417:
415:
412:(one arm) or
411:
406:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
363:
358:
350:
348:
346:
342:
338:
335:
331:
330:tartaric acid
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
298:
296:
287:
285:
281:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
258:
255:
251:
250:
240:
233:
231:
229:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
195:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
157:
152:
145:
143:
141:
137:
136:
131:
127:
122:
118:
114:
113:vine training
110:
106:
101:
99:
98:
93:
89:
84:
79:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
32:
19:
2577:
2543:Downy mildew
2455:Weed control
2445:Millerandage
2422:
2367:
2293:Microclimate
2257:
2250:
2232:
2219:Hybrid grape
2199:Ampelography
2192:horticulture
2137:
2136:Wine Doctor
2112:
2098:
2084:
2076:
2061:
2036:
2031:
2016:
1993:
1968:
1945:
1918:
1486:that limits
1035:in the 1960s
945:in the 1960s
598:Other notes
580:Other names
560:
556:Rhone Valley
551:
547:
543:
539:
537:
532:
528:
524:
520:
512:
508:
505:
500:
496:
492:
473:
469:
465:
462:
433:
425:
421:plant shoots
418:
407:
403:spur trained
402:
399:cane trained
398:
370:
368:
337:anthocyanins
299:
291:
282:
262:basal shoots
259:
247:
245:
196:
179:
161:
133:
126:wine regions
112:
108:
104:
102:
95:
87:
80:
39:
37:
18:Double Guyot
2726:Viticulture
2353:Propagation
2190:Biology and
2183:Viticulture
2035:H. Johnson
1992:K. MacNeil
1876:New Zealand
1871:and shading
1848:New Zealand
1826:VSP Trellis
1784:table grape
1720:viticulture
1622:and reduce
1604:New Zealand
1566:Friuli and
1527:New Zealand
1431:Smart-Dyson
1374:Scott Henry
1346:New Zealand
1341:New Zealand
1317:and reduce
1286:Switzerland
1271:Pendelbogen
1128:Jules Guyot
818:90% of all
561:Scott Henry
533:VSP Trellis
529:Scott Henry
513:Pendelbogen
441:root system
276:-resistant
228:mesoclimate
223:New Zealand
168:Phoenicians
58:or promote
44:viticulture
38:The use of
2710:Categories
2681:Winemaking
2603:and issues
2601:Approaches
2563:Phylloxera
2533:Bot canker
2435:Irrigation
2411:Fertilizer
2384:management
2313:Topography
2303:Soil types
2111:Oz Clarke
2015:Oz Clarke
1887:References
1779:to develop
1660:mechanized
1537:mechanized
1492:pesticides
1450:John Dyson
1441:Australian
1408:herbaceous
1241:Mosel arch
1156:Lenz Moser
1093:Beaujolais
1006:protection
949:California
943:California
914:California
882:Pinot noir
820:Chardonnay
703:Coonawarra
485:Lenz Moser
410:unilateral
318:malic acid
274:phylloxera
215:Washington
211:California
128:, such as
105:trellising
97:le mistral
72:irrigation
2592:Vine moth
2558:Nematodes
2523:Black rot
2507:Pests and
2483:Noble rot
2478:Festivals
2323:elevation
2271:variation
2241:Rootstock
1803:Australia
1794:V Trellis
1746:Southern
1714:mechanize
1701:Australia
1696:Australia
1654:Australia
1649:Australia
1640:T Trellis
1614:bunch rot
1523:Australia
1466:Argentina
1458:Australia
1358:mechanize
1290:Rhineland
1097:Languedoc
1080:Egyptians
981:Fan shape
878:Champagne
824:Champagne
808:Champagne
707:Padthaway
669:Australia
664:Australia
651:Ballerina
592:Benefits
414:bilateral
314:potassium
278:rootstock
219:Australia
199:wine laws
188:Columella
121:grapevine
2697:Category
2666:Oenology
2644:See also
2538:Dead arm
2510:diseases
2488:Ripeness
2440:Klopotec
2382:Vineyard
2341:planting
2339:Vineyard
2288:Drainage
2246:Vineyard
2234:Veraison
2229:Ripening
1880:Sotheby
1846:Cane in
1766:pergolas
1756:Portugal
1635:Sotheby
1547:Sotheby
1521:Veneto,
1474:Portugal
1448:American
1426:Sotheby
1326:Sotheby
1236:Sotheby
1216:Bordeaux
1173:in 1920s
1151:Sotheby
1135:Burgundy
1130:in 1860s
1113:Sotheby
1064:Sotheby
984:Ventagli
897:Sotheby
873:Bordeaux
829:Sotheby
758:Cazenave
660:Victoria
606:Alberate
601:Sources
586:Origins
517:old vine
345:grey rot
180:Oenotria
2498:Weather
2493:Vintage
2465:Harvest
2450:Pruning
2401:Coulure
2308:Terroir
1967:J. Cox
1856:Germany
1843:regions
1821:Oxford
1811:regions
1789:Oxford
1729:Tendone
1724:Oxford
1682:Oxford
1668:pruning
1664:harvest
1658:Can be
1584:Oxford
1579:pruning
1533:pruning
1501:Oxford
1488:disease
1412:tannins
1399:regions
1395:, many
1369:Oxford
1281:Germany
1266:Clarke
1255:Germany
1224:regions
1196:Oxford
1191:Shaulis
1171:Austria
1069:Gobelet
1014:Oxford
976:Oxford
929:Oxford
859:Oxford
803:Chablis
792:Chablis
787:Oxford
753:Oxford
723:Oxford
680:Oxford
646:Oxford
632:pruning
626:Romagna
622:Tuscany
501:cordons
493:gobelet
489:density
478:pergola
474:tendone
391:flowers
270:grafted
234:Purpose
146:History
117:trellis
109:pruning
68:pruning
2391:Canopy
2318:aspect
2214:Grapes
2119:
2105:
2091:
2068:
2043:
2023:
2000:
1975:
1952:
1925:
1869:yields
1852:France
1837:Europe
1773:canopy
1762:arbors
1710:yields
1674:canopy
1630:shoots
1620:yields
1610:canopy
1568:Veneto
1506:Sylvos
1484:canopy
1418:yields
1404:canopy
1393:Oregon
1388:Oregon
1364:canopy
1352:canopy
1315:yields
1306:Oregon
1294:Alsace
1178:Europe
1141:yields
1101:Sicily
1084:Romans
1061:system
1059:canopy
1053:yields
998:Russia
965:yields
953:Europe
934:Duplex
918:Europe
884:&
848:France
843:France
742:Veneto
737:Veneto
638:yields
624:, and
616:Romans
540:goblet
521:goblet
393:, and
387:leaves
379:cordon
371:canopy
172:Greeks
130:France
64:yields
2721:Vines
2518:Birds
2373:Yield
2328:slope
2252:Vitis
1807:Many
1748:Italy
1742:Italy
1470:Spain
1462:Chile
1298:Macon
1250:Mosel
1118:Guyot
1043:frost
1004:frost
772:Italy
767:Italy
548:Guyot
509:Guyot
497:Guyot
395:fruit
383:stems
375:trunk
326:sugar
306:aroma
249:Vitis
184:Roman
176:Italy
2676:Wine
2473:Brix
2396:Clos
2117:ISBN
2103:ISBN
2089:ISBN
2066:ISBN
2062:Wine
2041:ISBN
2021:ISBN
1998:ISBN
1973:ISBN
1950:ISBN
1923:ISBN
1854:and
1839:and
1799:Spur
1738:Spur
1692:Spur
1666:and
1662:for
1645:Spur
1594:Spur
1558:Cane
1525:and
1512:Cane
1472:and
1446:and
1436:Spur
1337:Spur
1334:RT2T
1304:and
1277:Cane
1246:Cane
1207:Spur
1201:Lyre
1162:Spur
1123:Cane
1099:and
1082:and
1075:Spur
1024:Spur
996:and
987:Spur
939:Cane
907:Spur
880:for
869:Spur
839:Cane
798:Spur
763:Cane
733:Cane
705:and
690:Spur
656:Spur
611:Spur
552:Lyre
531:and
511:and
499:and
343:and
332:and
320:and
221:and
190:and
166:and
111:and
1764:or
1386:in
1214:in
1169:in
1031:in
401:or
272:on
42:in
2712::
2051:^
2008:^
1983:^
1960:^
1933:^
1894:^
1754:,
1468:,
1464:,
1460:,
1456:,
1300:,
1296:,
1292:,
1288:,
1095:,
662:,
389:,
385:,
381:,
377:,
347:.
328:,
322:pH
316:,
217:,
213:,
107:,
78:.
70:,
2425:)
2237:)
2231:(
2175:e
2168:t
2161:v
1581:.
1143:.
20:)
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